Chapter IX: Part 9

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It has been found that the oil may be added more rapidly if the egg is acidified before mixing it with the oil. [Footnote 66: This is due to the fact that the acid reacts with the albumin of the egg to form a kind of salt which hydrates and takes up water from the mixture. The more water that can be taken out of an emulsion in the form of hydrates, the more easily will an emulsion be formed.] The addition of boiling water to the mixture after the egg and oil have been blended, prevents the oil from separating from the other ingredients.

If desired, the _whole egg_ may be used in place of the egg yolks. In case this substitution is made, all the ingredients other than the egg should be doubled in quantity, since 1 whole egg will emulsify 2 cupfuls of oil.

The flavor of refined corn, cottonseed, or peanut oil is mild and pleasing. These oils have less flavor than olive oil but are as nutritious. Their use lessens the cost of Mayonnaise Dressing. After opening a bottle of vegetable oil, it should be kept in a cold place. If it is rancid, it should not be used in salad dressing.

If Mayonnaise Dressing is made successfully, it is thick and smooth. If the dressing is thin and curdled, the oil has been added too quickly, i.e. it has not been emulsified.

_To remedy Mayonnaise that has curdled_, beat the yolk of an egg slightly, then add the dressing to it gradually, beating constantly.

_Mayonnaise Dressing may be varied_ by the addition of chili or celery sauce, chopped hard-cooked eggs, chopped parsley, pimentos, and green peppers.

QUICK MAYONNAISE DRESSING [Footnote 67: Adding the entire quantity of oil at one time and mixing it with hot paste may seem an unusual procedure for making an oil dressing. The fact that the method is successful may be explained as follows: Mixing the acid with the egg forms a salt which hydrates the mixture, and thus aids in making favorable conditions for emulsifying the oil as explained in the footnote of a previous page. The starch paste also takes up water from the mixture. This makes it possible to emulsify the oil easily, and also to make a stable emulsion.]

2 egg yolks _or_ 1 whole egg 2 tablespoonfuls vinegar 2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt 1 teaspoonful sugar 1/2 teaspoonful mustard Cayenne 1 cupful vegetable oil

Into a mixing bowl put the eggs and vinegar. Mix well. Add the other ingredients. (It is not necessary to stir them.)

Prepare a thick paste as follows:

In the top part of a double boiler put

1/3 cupful flour 1 cupful cold water 1 tablespoonful butter

Mix thoroughly. Then stir and cook over boiling water at least 10 minutes. At once (while it is hot) turn this paste into the egg and oil mixture. Beat all the ingredients with a Dover egg beater until a thick, uniform dressing results.

(Adapted from a recipe by Mrs. Hill.)

SEASONABLE VEGETABLE SALADS

Use seasonable vegetables in salads. Cucumbers, tomatoes, celery, and cooked cauliflower may be used in the fall. Cooked beets, cabbage, carrots, and olives may be used in the winter, and head lettuce, radishes, and cooked asparagus in the spring. Vegetables should be chilled, cut into desirable shapes, and served on lettuce with salad dressing. Beets are greatly improved by cutting into pieces, after cooking, and soaking for one hour in vinegar to which salt has been added. They may also be soaked in French Dressing.

A combination of vegetables and fruits makes a pleasing salad. Cucumbers and pineapple, celery and apples, olives and cooked cranberries are successful salad mixtures. The use of cheese, nuts, and peanuts with vegetables and fruits adds to the flavor and food value of salads. Uncooked carrots, cabbage, and peanuts dressed with French Dressing make a tasty salad.

Canned vegetables, "left over" cold vegetables, meat, and fish have a better flavor in salads if they are mixed with French Dressing and allowed to stand in a cold place for one hour before serving. This process is called _marinating_. If several meats or vegetables are used in the same salad, they should be marinated separately. Just before serving, Cream Salad Dressing or Mayonnaise Dressing may be added to marinated salad materials.

A salad consisting of lettuce or other uncooked leafy vegetables should not be dressed until it is ready to be served. The acid in salad dressing wilts the leaves.

QUESTIONS

Explain why it is necessary to add the oil to the egg mixture in small quantities.

Explain why it is that a curdled dressing can be remedied by adding it gradually to an egg.

What is the price per quart of olive oil? Of peanut oil? Of cottonseed oil? Of corn oil?

Find the difference in cost between a Mayonnaise Dressing made with corn, cottonseed, or peanut oil and one made with olive oil.

From the standpoint of composition, explain why fresh vegetables and Mayonnaise Dressing make a suitable combination (see Figures 62 and 63).

How much Mayonnaise Dressing is generally used for one serving? How many will the above recipe serve?

Make a list of combinations of materials which make tasty salads.

LESSON XCIV

VEGETABLES WITH SALAD DRESSING (B)

SALAD GARNISHING.--Successful garnishing of a salad requires a sense of good color combination, judgment in blending flavors, and ingenuity in arranging materials. Usually it is well to use only edible materials for garnishing. Certain flowers and greens may be used to advantage, however, in garnishing the salad for an occasional dinner or luncheon. Celery with "fringed ends," stuffed olives cut in slices, lettuce shredded or whole, pimentos, parsley, hard-cooked eggs sliced or pressed through strainer, and vegetables of pronounced color (as beets or carrots) cut into slices, cubes, or fancy shapes,--all these make pleasing garnishes.

PERFECTION SALAD

2 tablespoonfuls granulated gelatine 1/2 cupful cold water 1/2 cupful vinegar 1 lemon,--juice 2 cupfuls boiling water 1/2 cupful sugar 1 teaspoonful salt 1 1/2 cupfuls sliced celery 1 1/2 cupfuls shredded cabbage 3 pimentos chopped

Prepare all ingredients, except the vegetables, as for a gelatine mixture (see _Lemon Jelly_). When the mixture begins to set, stir in the vegetables, and pour into a mold. Serve on lettuce leaves with Mayonnaise Dressing.

Other vegetable mixtures such as cucumbers and tomatoes or peas and celery molded in jelly make tasty salads.

QUESTIONS

Mention at least four different kinds of salads, with a suitable garnish for each.

What should be the condition of all green vegetables used in salads?

How should lettuce be kept and prepared for salads?

From _U. S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of tomatoes, cucumbers, spinach, cabbage, lettuce, celery, and onions.

Which contains the most water? Which contains the most ash?

Aside from the fact that sugar improves the flavor of Perfection Salad, why is it a valuable ingredient of the salad mixture (see Figure 94)?

Explain why Mayonnaise Dressing with wafers or rolls would make a valuable food addition to Perfection Salad.

FOOD COMBINATIONS

LESSON XCV

FISH SALAD AND SALAD ROLLS

SALMON OR TUNNY SALAD

1 can salmon or tunny (or tuna) fish 1 cupful shredded cabbage or sliced celery

Drain the oil from the fish; remove the bone and bits of skin. Add the cabbage or celery, and Mayonnaise or Cream Salad Dressing. Arrange on lettuce and garnish as desired.

If Cream Dressing is used with salmon, the oil drained from the salmon may be used for the fat of Cream Dressing.

The salmon may be marinated before adding the other ingredients. When this is done, the salad dressing may be omitted. Salmon contains so much fat that it is not well to add more oil after marinating.

SALAD ROLLS

2 cupfuls flour 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/2 teaspoonful salt 4 tablespoonfuls vegetable oil or melted butter or substitute 1/2 cupful milk 1 egg

Sift some flour, then measure 2 cupfuls of it. Add the baking powder and salt to the flour. Beat the egg, add the milk and oil or melted fat to it. Through a sifter add the dry ingredients to the milk mixture. Thoroughly mix the ingredients by cutting them with a knife. Roll out on a floured board, cut into oblong pieces, and with a floured knife make a deep crease through the center of each roll. Brush the top with diluted egg (use 2 tablespoonfuls of water to 1 egg) and sprinkle granulated sugar over it. Bake in a moderate oven.

QUESTIONS

Why is the top of the salad roll mixture brushed with egg? Why should the egg be diluted for such purposes?

What reason is there for combining fish, salad dressing, and rolls?

How much fat and protein does canned salmon and tunny contain (see _U. S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28)?

Compare this with the quantity of fat and protein in beef steak (see Figure 68).

LESSON XCVI

CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP AND CHEESE STRAWS

COMBINING MILK WITH ACID.--In the preparation of Cream of Tomato Soup, it is necessary to combine milk with tomatoes,--a food containing acid. If the following experiments are performed, and applications drawn from the results of the experiments, it should be possible to make this soup successfully.

EXPERIMENT 61: EFFECT OF ACID ON MILK.--Put a small quantity of milk in a test tube, heat it slightly, and add a few drops of some acid substance,-- tomato juice, lemon juice, or vinegar. What is the result?

EXPERIMENT 62: NEUTRALIZATION OF ACID BY MEANS OF SODA.--Put a small quantity of any of the acids mentioned above in a test tube and add 1/4 teaspoonful baking soda. What happens? Now add a little milk to the mixture. Does the milk curdle? How has the acid been changed so that it does not curdle the milk? What conclusions may be drawn from this as to the use of soda in cooking tomato and milk mixtures?

CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP

1 can tomatoes 1/4 teaspoonful baking soda 1 quart milk 1/3 cupful flour 1/4 cupful butter or substitute 1 tablespoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper

Turn the tomatoes into a saucepan, cover them; cook at simmering temperature for about fifteen minutes. Press through a strainer and add the baking soda. Make a White Sauce of the milk, flour, and fat, _remove from the fire_. Add the _hot_ tomatoes slowly to the White Sauce, stirring constantly. Add the seasonings. _Do not heat the mixture after combining the tomatoes and White Sauce. Serve at once._

Cream of Tomato Soup may also be prepared by making a sauce of the tomatoes, flour, and fat, adding the baking soda and pouring the sauce into the hot milk and finally adding the seasonings.

Note that in either method of preparation, the tomato is added to the milk and the salt is added just before serving. Only enough baking soda is used to affect a portion of the acid of the tomatoes so that the pleasing acid flavor of the tomatoes still predominates.

CHEESE STRAWS

2/3 cupful flour 1/4 teaspoonful salt Cayenne 1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1 cupful grated cheese 2 tablespoonfuls milk

Mix the ingredients in the order given in the recipe. (The milk should merely moisten the ingredients so they will stick together. It may be necessary to increase the quantity.) On a slightly floured board roll the mixture to 1/4 inch thickness. Cut in strips 1/4 inch wide and 4 to 6 inches long. Place on an oiled pan. Bake until brown in a moderate oven.

QUESTIONS

Why should tomatoes be covered when cooked for soup?

Why should they be cooked at simmering rather than boiling temperature?

From the results of your experiments (see Experiments 61 and 62) explain why soda is added to the tomatoes in Cream of Tomato Soup.

What is the purpose of adding the strained tomatoes or Tomato Sauce _slowly_ to the White Sauce or milk?

Why should the soup be served _at once_ after combining the tomato and milk mixture?

If enough Cream of Tomato Soup were prepared for two meals, how and when should the tomatoes and White Sauce be mixed?

What is the price per can of tomatoes?

How many cupfuls in one can of tomatoes?

With the aid of _United States Department of Agriculture,_ Bulletin No. 28 and illustrations in this text, tabulate the composition of tomatoes, whole milk (see Figure 64), cheese (see Figure 75), flour, and bread (see Figure 77). Explain why Cream of Tomato Soup and Cheese Straws make a desirable combination from the standpoint of composition and use in the body.

LESSON XCVII

VEAL AND POTATOES

MUSCLE OF YOUNG ANIMALS.--The muscle of an undeveloped animal contains more water than does the muscle of a mature animal. It is also lacking in flavor and usually contains little fat. The meat does not keep so well as that of a mature animal; therefore it should be used at once and not allowed to hang.

VEAL.--Veal is the muscle of the calf or young cow. It has the characteristic qualities of undeveloped muscle. Because it is lacking in flavor, it should be seasoned with herbs and spices, or served with a sauce of pronounced flavor. It is also improved by adding some fat, or some meat containing considerable fat such as pork. A calf is usually killed when it is six or eight weeks old. The season for veal is spring; it can usually be purchased, however, throughout the year. The muscle of the veal should be pink in color, and the fat, white. The meat of a calf less than six weeks old is lacking in color.

The connective tissue in veal is abundant, but it is easily changed to gelatine by cooking. Veal is generally considered difficult of digestion.

VEAL CUTLETS (STEAK)

Clean the meat; then remove the bone and tough membranes. Cut the meat into pieces for serving. Cover the bone and the tough pieces of meat with cold water and cook at a low temperature. (This stock is to be used in the sauce.) Small pieces of meat may be put together by using wooden toothpicks for skewers. Season the veal with salt and pepper. Roll in dried bread crumbs, dip in beaten egg, then in crumbs again. Put 2 tablespoonfuls of drippings or other fat in a frying pan. Brown the cutlets in the fat. Remove the veal; in the frying pan prepare the following:

SAUCE FOR CUTLETS

3 tablespoonfuls drippings 1/4 cupful flour 1/2 tablespoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 cupfuls stock or water 2 tablespoonfuls chopped parsley 1 teaspoonful Worcestershire sauce

Make a brown sauce, using all ingredients except the Worcestershire sauce (see _Brown Sauce_). Add the cutlets to the sauce, and cook them at simmering temperature for 1 hour or until tender. Just before serving, add the Worcestershire sauce.

_Beef_ may be prepared in the same way.

VEAL WITH EGG DRESSING

1 pound veal steak, sliced thin 2 eggs 3/4 cupful flour Salt and pepper

Cut the meat into pieces of suitable size for serving. Brown each piece in fat. (Use scraps of fat cut from the meat.)

Mix the egg, flour, and seasoning. Spread both sides of each piece of meat with the egg mixture. Again brown the pieces of meat in fat. Then add boiling water and let the meat cook at _simmering temperature_ for at least 2 hours. Serve hot.

_Beef_ may be substituted for veal.

POTATO PUFF

2 cupfuls mashed potatoes 2 tablespoonfuls milk 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute 1 teaspoonful salt Pepper 1 egg

Mix all the ingredients except the egg. Separate the egg, and beat the white and the yolk. Beat the yolk into the potato mixture; then add the white by cutting and folding-in. Turn into a buttered baking-dish or drop by spoonfuls on a buttered baking-sheet. Bake until the egg is cooked and the top brown. Serve at once.

The egg may also be added unbeaten to the potatoes, and the entire mixture beaten vigorously.

QUESTIONS

Why is cold water, rather than hot, used for making meat stock?

How does veal stock compare in color with beef stock? What is the stock called that is made from veal?

Why is this meat cooked at simmering rather than at boiling temperature?

Why is it desirable to use parsley and Worcestershire sauce with veal? Is it desirable to use Worcestershire sauce with beef or mutton? Explain your answer. Why is Worcestershire sauce not cooked with the brown sauce?

Locate veal cutlets or veal steak (see Figure 65). To what cut of beef does it correspond?

What cut of veal corresponds to the tenderloin cuts of beef?

How does the cutting and the using of the rib section of veal differ from that of beef?

What are the prices per pound of each cut of veal? Arrange in tabulated form and record the date.

From _U.S. Department of Agriculture,_ Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of veal cutlets or veal steak. Compare with the percentage composition of beef steak (see Figure 68).

Potato Puff may be prepared from either hot or cold mashed potatoes. Should the temperature of the oven be the same for each? Explain your answer.

What is the purpose of the egg in the potato mixture?

Which would give the better result when added to the potato mixture, beaten egg or unbeaten egg? Give the reason for your answer.

How many persons will the Potato Puff recipe serve?

From _U.S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of fresh potatoes (see Figure 62) and boiled potatoes. How much nutriment is lost by boiling one pound of potatoes? By what method can potatoes be cooked in order to retain the most nutriment?

Give reasons for combining veal and potatoes.

LESSON XCVIII

MUTTON AND LAMB DISHES

MUTTON.--Mutton is the meat obtained from the sheep. The animal is usually about three years of age when killed. Like beef, mutton needs to hang a few days before using. It is considered as nutritious and as easily digested as beef. Its strong flavor may be destroyed by removing the "pink skin" and much of the fat. The latter has such a strong flavor, that it cannot be used for cooking unless it is tried out with onion, apple, and dried herbs. Mutton fat so prepared is sometimes termed _savory fat_. It is thought that the fat dissolves certain flavoring materials present in the fruit, vegetable, and herbs. The caramelized carbohydrate formed by browning the apple and onion also adds to the flavor. [Footnote 68: See _Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin_, No. 526.]

Mutton fat is useful for soap-making.

LAMB.--Lamb is meat obtained from the young sheep, killed when from six weeks to one year old. As the animal matures, the blood recedes from its joints; hence the joints of lamb are pink in color, while those of mutton are white.

Lamb has the characteristics of the meat of immature animals. It contains more water and a little less fat than mutton, and should not be allowed to hang. It is more delicate in flavor than is mutton. Lamb should be well cooked; mutton is sometimes served rare.

FOOD COMBINATIONS

STUFFED SHOULDER OF LAMB

4 to 5 pounds shoulder of lamb, boned, cleaned, and stuffed with the mixture used in Stuffed Meat Roast. (Double the quantity of ingredients for the shoulder of lamb.) Add the stuffing to the meat; then "lace" (see _Baked Fish_) or skewer into shape. Season, and dredge with flour. Place drippings or other fat in a frying pan or iron roasting pan, and brown the surface of the meat. Place the lamb on the rack in a roasting pan, add boiling water; cover; and bake in a moderate oven, allowing _one half hour to the pound_. _Shoulder of veal_ may be prepared and stuffed in the same way.

MINT SAUCE

1 cupful fresh mint 1/2 cupful vinegar 1/4 cupful sugar

Chop the leaves and the tender tips of the mint. Dissolve the sugar in the vinegar, and add the mint. Let the sauce stand one hour before using. Heat over hot water before serving.

LAMB OR MUTTON IN THE CASSEROLE

2 pounds neck, breast, or shoulder of lamb or mutton Flour Fat for browning Water or stock 4 carrots 2 cupfuls peas 2 teaspoonfuls salt Pepper 1/2 bay leaf 3 allspice berries

Cut the meat into pieces suitable for serving. Roll in flour, and brown in a frying pan with hot fat. Remove to the casserole, and cover with boiling water or stock. Wash, scrape, and cut the carrots into halves. Add them and the spices to the meat in the casserole. Cover, and cook at simmering temperature for two hours. Then add the peas and the seasoning. Cook until tender. Serve hot from the casserole.

One half cupful of cooked rice may be used instead of the carrots and peas. Tomatoes also make a pleasing addition.

THE CASSEROLE.--The casserole is a popular utensil for cooking and serving. It is suitable for foods that need to be cooked at a low temperature for a long period of time; hence its adaptability to tough cuts of meat. Because the casserole is tightly covered, foods may be cooked in it with little loss by evaporation. The flavor is retained also, if the cooking is carefully done. The use of the casserole in serving is a distinct advantage, since the foods may be served hot. The casserole may be used in the oven or on top of the range.

If a covered crock is used in place of the regulation casserole, a dinner napkin should be folded neatly around it for serving.

QUESTIONS

Tell how lamb can be distinguished from mutton. Give two reasons for adding dried herbs to the stuffing for lamb.

Give two reasons for serving Mint Sauce with lamb. What is the purpose of first browning the lamb that is to be roasted?

What is the easiest method of adding extra flour to the sauce around lamb or mutton in the casserole (see _Thickening the Sauce of Meat Cooked in Water_)?

How many persons will this recipe serve?

Name the advantages of cooking meat in a casserole.

Give a dietetic reason for combining carrots, peas, or rice, with lamb or mutton.

Distinguish between rib and loin chops of lamb or mutton. What is a French chop?

Obtain the prices per pound of each cut of mutton or lamb. Arrange in tabulated form and record the date.

From _U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28_, tabulate the percentage composition of the hind quarter of mutton. Compare it with the composition of beef steak.

Tabulate the percentage composition of beets, carrots, parsnips, and turnips. Which contains the most carbohydrates? Which the most ash?

LESSON XCIX

PORK, VEGETABLES, AND APPLE SAUCE

PORK.--Pork is meat obtained from the pig. In all meats, much fat is entangled in the network of connective tissue that binds the muscle fibers. Pork, however, contains more fat than does any other meat. The fat is most intimately mingled with the lean. For this reason it is digested slowly. Fresh pork should be used sparingly. Its use should be confined to the winter months. Pork should be thoroughly cooked. It sometimes contains organisms which may produce serious results, if not destroyed in the cooking. Pork is made more wholesome by curing, salting, and smoking. The fat of bacon is readily digested.

PORK CHOPS WITH SWEET POTATOES

Pare sweet potatoes, and place them in the bottom of a roasting pan. Wipe the pork chops, and place them on top of the potatoes. Place the roasting pan on the top shelf of a hot oven, in order to brown the chops. Brown on one side; turn the chops with a fork, and brown on the other side. Then remove the roasting pan from the oven, sprinkle the chops with salt, pepper, and powdered sage. Add a little boiling water. Return to the oven.

Cover and bake 1 hour, or until the potatoes are tender. Baste the potatoes and meat occasionally.

Remove the chops to the center of a hot platter, and surround them with the potatoes. Serve at once with Apple Sauce (for preparation of Apple Sauce, see _Fruit Sauces_).

TURNIPS WITH FRESH PORK

1 1/2 pounds fresh pork (shoulder) 3 medium sized turnips 1 tablespoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls flour Pepper

Clean the meat, put it in a saucepan, and add enough boiling water to cover. Cook at simmering temperature for 1 1/2 hours.

Pare the turnips, cut them into cubes. When the meat has cooked 1/2 hour, add the turnips and salt and continue cooking for 1 hour or until the meat and vegetables are tender. Mix the flour with enough cold water (about 2 tablespoonfuls) to make a thin batter. Add it to the meat and turnips. Stir and cook for at least 10 minutes. Add a dash of pepper. Serve hot.

BROILED HAM

Parboil in boiling water for 10 minutes a slice of ham about 1/2 inch thick. Place in a broiler and broil, or place in a "frying" pan and pan- broil, turning often. Garnish with parsley and serve at once.

BACON

Place thin slices of bacon (from which the rind has been removed) in a hot frying-pan. As the fat tries out, drain it from the bacon. Scorching of the fat is thus prevented. Cook the bacon until it is brown and crisp, turning once.

_Bacon fat_ should be saved. It can be used in cooking.

SCALLOPED POTATOES WITH BACON

4 medium potatoes 1/4 pound sliced bacon Flour Salt, used sparingly Pepper Milk

Pare the potatoes and cut them into thin slices. Cook the bacon until brown; cut each slice of bacon into several pieces. Oil a baking-dish and place a layer of potatoes in it, then a layer of bacon and some of the tried-out bacon fat. Sprinkle with flour, salt, and pepper. Repeat, until all the ingredients are used; the top layer should be of bacon. Add milk until it reaches the top layer. Bake in a moderate oven for one hour, or until much of the milk has evaporated and the potatoes are tender. Serve hot.

1/4 cupful of bacon drippings may be used instead of sliced bacon.

QUESTIONS

Why should fresh pork be used in winter rather than in summer?

Why is pork slow in digesting?

Explain why vegetables and Apple Sauce are desirable foods to serve with pork (see Figure 62, Figure 68, and Figure 70).

For what reason should pork be cooked thoroughly?

What is the purpose of parboiling ham before broiling it?

What ingredient, invariably used in Scalloped Potatoes, is omitted in Scalloped Potatoes with Bacon? What is substituted for this material?

Why should salt be added sparingly to potatoes cooked with bacon?

How many persons does the given quantity of Scalloped Potatoes with Bacon and of Turnips with Fresh Pork serve?

To what cut of beef does ham correspond?

From _U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28_, tabulate the percentage composition of fresh and salted ham. Compare it with the composition of beef steak (see Figure 68).

Obtain the price per pound of each cut of pork. Arrange in tabulated form and record date.

LESSON C

CHICKEN AND RICE

POULTRY.--Poultry includes chicken (or common fowl), turkey, duck, and goose--domestic birds suitable for food. Pigeon and squab are not considered poultry. Chickens that are three or four months old are called _spring chickens_ or broilers. Birds older than one year are sometimes called _fowls_.

SELECTION OF CHICKEN AND FOWL.--Chickens and fowls have certain characteristics which make them readily distinguishable. Chickens have soft feet, a soft and flexible breast bone, many pin feathers, and little fat. Fowls have hard and scaly feet, rigid breast bone, long hairs, and much fat surrounding the intestines.

DIGESTION OF POULTRY.--The muscle of chicken, fowl, and turkey contains little fat; the fat that exists is in layers directly under the skin and around the intestines. The fibers of the muscle are short. For this reason, and also because they have so little fat, these meats are readily digested. The white meat contains less fat than the dark.

DRESSING AND CLEANING POULTRY.--Singe, by holding the bird over a flame of gas, alcohol, or burning paper. Cut off the head, push back the skin, and cut off the neck close to the body. Cut through the skin around the leg one inch below the leg joint. If it is a fowl, take out the tendons; remove them separately, using a skewer (see Figure 71). Remove the pin feathers with the point of a knife or with a strawberry huller. Cut the oil bag from the tail.

The internal organs are not always removed before the chicken is sold. If they have not been removed, make an opening under one of the legs or at the vent, leaving a strip of skin above the vent. Remove the organs carefully,--the intestines, gizzard, heart, and liver should all be removed together. Care must be taken that the gall bladder, which lies under the liver, is not broken; it must be cut away carefully from the liver. The lungs and kidneys, lying in the hollow of the backbone, must be carefully removed. Press the heart to extract the blood. Cut off the outer coat of the gizzard. The gizzard, heart, and liver constitute the giblets to be used in making gravy. Wash the giblets. Place them all, with the exception of the liver, in cold water; heat quickly and cook (at simmering temperature) until tender. Add the liver a short time before removing the other giblets from the stove, as it does not require long cooking.

Clean the bird by wiping it thoroughly inside and out with a damp cloth, stuff and truss for roasting, or cut into pieces for fricassee or stew. If the bird is stuffed, the incision in the skin may be fastened together as directed for Baked Fish.

TRUSSING FOWL.--Insert a skewer through the fowl just underneath the legs, then thrust another skewer through the wings and breast. With a piece of string, tie the ends of the legs together and fasten them to the tail. Then wind the ends of the string fastened to the tail, around the ends of the skewer beneath the legs. Cross the strings over the back, and wind them around the ends of the skewer through the wings; tie the strings together at the back. If trussed in this manner, there is no string across the breast of the fowl. A fowl should be served breast side up (see Figures 72 and 73).

CUTTING A FOWL.--Cut off the leg, and separate it at the joint into "drumstick" and second joint. Cut off the wing and remove the tip; make an incision at the middle joint. Remove the leg and wing from the other side; separate the wishbone with the meat on it, from the breast, cut through the ribs on each side, and separate the breast from the back. Cut the breast in half lengthwise and the back through the middle crosswise. There should be twelve pieces. The neck and the tips of the wings may be cooked with the giblets for making gravy.

STEWED CHICKEN [Footnote 69: Stewed Chicken may be utilized for _Chicken Croquettes_) or _Creole Stew_.]

Cover the pieces of chicken with boiling water, and cook at boiling temperature for 15 minutes; then add one tablespoonful of salt and cook at simmering temperature until tender.

Arrange the pieces on a platter, placing the neck at one end of the platter and the "drumsticks" at the other, and the remaining pieces in order between. Cover with a sauce.

The chicken may be placed on pieces of _toast_ or served in a border of cooked _rice_.

SAUCE FOR CHICKEN

3 tablespoonfuls tried-out chicken fat or butter or substitute 1/4 cupful of flour 1 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls chopped parsley 1 pint stock 2 egg yolks or 1 egg 1/8 teaspoonful pepper

Prepare the sauce (see _Cream Toast_), and pour it over the well- beaten eggs, stirring until thoroughly mixed. Cook until the eggs are coagulated. Serve at once over chicken.

QUESTIONS

Why is chicken more readily digested than other meat?

What is the reason for cooking stewed chicken 15 minutes in _boiling_ water? Why is the salt not added at first? Why should the chicken finally be cooked at simmering temperature rather than at boiling?

What use can be made of the fat of a fowl?

What is the purpose of the eggs in Sauce for Chicken?

Explain fully why rice or toast makes a desirable addition to Stewed Chicken.

LESSON CI

CHICKEN AND PEAS

CHICKEN CROQUETTES

2 1/2 cupfuls chopped chicken or fowl Onion juice 2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice 1 tablespoonful parsley

SAUCE

1 pint cream or milk 1/3 cupful fat 1/2 cupful flour 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 teaspoonful celery salt

Chop the chicken very fine; add the seasonings. Make the sauce (see _Cream Toast_). Add the chicken to the sauce. Cool the mixture. Shape into cones. Cover with dried bread crumbs and egg, and cook in deep fat (see _Fried Oysters_). Drain on paper. Serve at once with green peas.

An egg may be beaten and added to the sauce, before mixing it with the meat.

QUESTIONS

What is the purpose of cooling the chicken mixture before shaping it into croquettes (see Experiment 17)?

How many croquettes does this recipe make?

How many cupfuls of chopped meat can be obtained from fowl of average weight?

What is the average weight of a chicken one year old? How long does it take to cook it?

What is the average weight of a spring chicken?

What is the present market price of spring chicken? Of fowl?

Compare the composition of fowl with that of round steak, using _U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28_. Also record the percentage of refuse in a fowl when it is purchased. Considering the refuse in fowl, what is the price per pound?

Tabulate the percentage composition of fresh and dried peas and beans, and of dried lentils. Which are richer in protein, the fresh or the dried vegetables (see Figure 76)?

LESSON CII

OYSTER DISHES

EXPERIMENT 63. PROTEIN IN OYSTER LIQUOR.--Pour a small quantity of oyster liquor into a test tube and boil it. What change takes place? From your previous experience with eggs, what foodstuff would you infer that oysters contain? What inference can you draw from this as to the temperature at which oysters should be cooked?

OYSTERS.--An oyster is an animal covered with shell. The shell, which consists of mineral matter, protects the animal.

The oyster has no head, arms, or legs, but it has a mouth, liver, gills, and one strong muscle. The mouth is near the hinge-end of the shell; by means of the hinge, the shell is opened and water and food taken in; by means of the muscle, the shell is closed. (Find the muscle in an oyster; then the dark spot,--this is the liver; also find the fluted portions that partly surround the liver,--these are the gills.)

Oysters are in season from September until May. They are sometimes eaten during the summer months, but are not so palatable and are more apt to be contaminated by the bacteria of warm water. The bluish green color of some oysters is due to the oyster's feeding upon vegetable materials. This does not harm the flavor of the oyster.

Oysters are sometimes placed in fresh water streams or in water which is less salt than that in which they have grown to "fatten them." The animals take in the fresh water, become plump, and increase in weight. If the water is sewage-polluted, the oysters become contaminated with dangerous bacteria. Methods of cooking usually applied to oysters, such as stewing and boiling, may not destroy all bacteria. Hence, the danger in eating oysters taken from polluted water.

When oysters are prepared for market, they are sorted according to size. Blue points, or small oysters originally grown in Blue Point, are prized for serving raw in the half shell. This name, however, no longer indicates the place from which the oysters come, but is applied to small oysters in the shell. Large oysters selected for frying may be purchased. Oysters are found at markets either in the shell or with the shell removed.

Since oysters spoil readily, they must be kept cold during transportation. They are now shipped in containers surrounded by ice. Formerly ice was placed in contact with the oysters.

Note the percentage composition of oysters (see Figure 74). With such a large quantity of water, the oyster has little food value. Oysters are prized for their flavor, but make an expensive food. Cooking makes oysters somewhat tough, but it sterilizes them and makes them safer to use. It is considered that oysters properly cooked are easily digested. They should be eaten when very fresh. They spoil quickly and develop poisonous products.

CLEANING OYSTERS.--Drain off the liquor. If the liquor is to be used, strain it through a fine strainer. Place the oysters in a strainer or colander, and wash them. Do not allow oysters to stand in water after washing. Run each oyster through the fingers to remove pieces of shell that may be clinging to it.

OYSTER STEW

1 cupful milk 1 pint oysters 1 tablespoonful butter Salt and pepper

Heat the milk in a double boiler; add the seasonings and butter. Clean the oysters; cook them in a saucepan until they become plump and the edges curl. Add the hot milk and serve at once.

The milk may be thickened with 1 tablespoonful of flour (see recipe for _Thin White Sauce_).

Serve crackers or bread with Oyster Stew.

SCALLOPED OYSTERS

1 pint oysters 1/2 teaspoonful salt 3 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1/4 cupful oyster juice or milk Cayenne

Wash the oysters, strain the juice, and butter the crumbs. Add the seasoning to the oysters. Place one fourth of the buttered crumbs in the bottom of a buttered baking-dish. Add one half of the oysters, another fourth of the crumbs, then the remainder of the oysters, the liquid, and finally the remaining half of the buttered crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven from 30 to 40 minutes.

If baked in individual baking-dishes, only 15 minutes will be required for baking.

QUESTIONS

Count and record the number of oysters in one pint.

From Figures 64 and 74, tabulate the percentage composition of oysters and milk.

Find the weight of one cupful of oysters and of one cupful of milk. How do they compare as to the amount of water, protein, and fat contained in one pint of each?

What is the difference in cost of one pint of each?

What is the purpose of straining the oyster liquor?

Why should not oysters stand in water after washing (see Experiment 38)?

Explain why oysters should be cooked only a short time. What is the effect of long cooking upon oysters?

In Scalloped Oysters, why is the liquid added before the last layer of crumbs?

How many persons do each of these oyster recipes serve?

What dietetic reason can be given for combining oysters and bread?

From _U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28_, tabulate the percentage composition of the following fish: Fresh and salt cod, fresh and smoked herring, fresh and salt mackerel, fresh and canned salmon, fresh perch, and fresh white fish. Which contains the most fat? How can fish be classified with regard to fat content (see _Classes of Fish_)? Which fish contains the most protein?

How do fish, shellfish, and beef compare in protein content? Which is the cheapest source of protein (see Figures 68 and 74)?

LESSON CIII

MEAT-SUBSTITUTE DISHES

MEAT-SUBSTITUTE MATERIALS.--Cottage cheese, eggs, peanuts, and other legumes are valuable substitutes for meat. The legumes with the exception of soy-beans and peanuts, however, do not contain complete protein. Hence, their use with eggs or milk is desirable.

Nuts are a form of fruit. They are rich in nutritive materials. If they can be digested readily, they make a valuable food. They need to be ground fine or chewed thoroughly, however, to make them digestible. Nuts contain much fat, protein, and little carbohydrates. Chestnuts, however, contain much of the latter foodstuff. Because they contain protein, nuts may be used as substitutes for meat. But most nuts are expensive. For this reason in many households they are impractical as everyday foods.

COTTAGE CHEESE AND NUT LOAF

1 cupful cottage cheese 1 cupful chopped nuts 1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 teaspoonfuls lemon juice 2 tablespoonfuls scraped onion 1 tablespoonful fat

Mix the cheese, nuts, bread crumbs, lemon juice, salt, and pepper. Cook the onion and fat together until they are brown. Add a small quantity of water and then add the onion mixture to the other ingredients. If necessary, add more water to moisten the mixture. Pour into a baking-dish and bake until brown.

(From _United States Food Administration Leaflet_.)

SCALLOPED EGGS WITH CHEESE

6 hard-cooked eggs 2 cupfuls medium White Sauce 2 cupfuls buttered soft bread crumbs 3/4 cupful cheese

Grate the cheese, or cut it into pieces, and add it to the White Sauce. Cut the eggs in slices. Oil a baking-dish, and place the materials in the dish in layers, having the lower and top layers of bread crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is heated through and the crumbs are browned. Serve hot in place of meat.

PEANUT ROAST

1 1/2 cupfuls dried bread crumbs Milk 1 1/2 cupfuls shelled peanuts 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1 egg Salt and pepper

[FIGURE 76--THE COMPOSITION OF LEGUMES AND CORN (Revised edition.)]

Cover the bread crumbs with milk, and soak them until soft. Chop the peanuts very fine, and mix with the baking powder; beat the egg. Mix thoroughly all the ingredients, and turn into an oiled bread pan. Bake about 45 minutes in a moderate oven. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce.

Commercial salted peanuts may be used for Peanut Roast.

QUESTIONS

From _U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28_, find the percentage of protein in Cream and Cottage Cheese, eggs (see Figure 75), walnuts, peanuts, dried peas, and beans (see Figure 76), and beef. How many ounces of protein does a pound of each of these foods contain? What is the price per pound of each of these foods? Which food is the cheapest source of protein?

Why are bread crumbs a valuable addition to Scalloped Eggs with Cheese (see Figure 77)?

Name other meat-substitute foods and dishes.

LESSON CIV

MEAT EXTENDERS AND ONE-DISH MEALS

MEAT EXTENDERS.--The flavor of meat is generally liked. Doubtless the flavor accounts more than any other characteristic for the popularity of meat. By using a small quantity of meat and combining it with various cereals and vegetables, the flavor of meat permeates the mixture although its quantity is reduced and price consequently lowered. Foods containing such a combination of food materials are termed _meat extenders_. Those desiring to reduce the quantity of meat consumed either for the sake of health or economy will find meat-extending dishes desirable.

ONE-DISH MEALS.--When many demands other than those of housekeeping are made upon homekeepers it is often wise to lessen housekeeping duties. It is both possible and satisfactory to cook an entire meal in one dish. A meal consisting of one dish with a few accessories is termed a one-dish meal. It is obvious that the one-dish meal is both simple and economical; it saves time, fuel, and food; it is a wise conservation measure.

In preparing the one-dish meal use a combination of two or more of the following groups of food:

(1) Vegetables,

(2) Milk, or cheese, or eggs, or fish, or meat, or beans, or nuts,

(3) Cereal, such as corn, barley, rice, oats, or buckwheat.

To two or more of these groups of food a small amount of fat or oil is generally added.

The use of such foods with a dessert or fruit or a plain salad makes a meal that satisfies the most exacting.

It is most interesting to select foods from the groups above that would "eat well" together. The one-dish meal gives one the opportunity for a fascinating study of food combinations. If the casserole or fireless cooker is used in their preparation, the possibilities are limitless.

An examination of the meat-substitute dishes and meat extenders will show that most of these foods make one-dish meals.

MUTTON WITH BARLEY

1 pound mutton 1 onion 1/2 cupful pearled barley 2 quarts water, boiling 4 potatoes Celery leaves (fresh or dried) 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt

Cut the fat from the meat, cut the meat into pieces. Put the fat and sliced onion in a frying pan. Brown the meat in the fat. Add the barley and water and let the mixture cook at simmering temperature for at least 1 1/2 hours. Pare the potatoes, cut them into quarters. Add the potatoes and celery leaves and cook the mixture at boiling temperature until the potatoes are tender. Serve hot.

(Adapted from _Department of Agriculture Leaflet_.)

TAMALE PIE

3/4 cupful corn-meal 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 3 cupfuls boiling water 1 onion 1 tablespoonful fat 1 pound chopped meat 2 cupfuls tomatoes Dash Cayenne pepper, _or_ 1 small chopped sweet pepper 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt

Make a mush by stirring the corn-meal and 1 1/2 teaspoons salt into boiling water. Cook in a double boiler or over water for 45 minutes. Brown the onion in the fat, add the chopped meat, and stir until the red color disappears. Add the tomato, pepper, and salt. Grease a baking-dish, put in a layer of corn-meal mush, add the seasoned meat, and cover with mush. Bake 30 minutes.

(Adapted from _United States Department of Agriculture Leaflet_.)

CREOLE STEW

1 pound lean beef or 1 medium fowl 1 tablespoonful fat 1/4 cupful chopped onion 1/2 cupful chopped sweet peppers 1 cupful boiling water 1/2 cupful rice 1 cupful carrots or okra (cut into small pieces) 2 cupfuls tomatoes 2 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt

Cut the meat into small pieces or cut the fowl into joints. In a frying pan melt the fat, add the onions, peppers, meat, or chicken. Brown for a few minutes.

Pour these materials into a casserole or kettle of the fireless cooker and add the other ingredients. If the casserole is used, cook at simmering temperature for 2 hours. If the stew is to be cooked in the fireless cooker, cook it directly over the flame for 1/2 hour and then place it in the fireless cooker from 2 to 3 hours. Serve hot.

With chicken and okra this is the famous Creole Chicken of the South.

(Adapted from _United States Department of Agriculture Leaflet_.)

QUESTIONS

Make a list of meat-extending dishes.

Make a list of foods suitable for the main food of one-dish meals.

How many persons will one pound of meat serve?

How many persons will the dishes of this lesson (each containing one pound of meat) serve?

Tell why the foods comprising these dishes are desirable food combinations.

RELATED WORK

LESSON CV

MENU-MAKING

REPRESENTATION OF ALL ESSENTIALS OF DIET.--All the foodstuffs or nutrients should be represented in the foods of a meal, or at least in the foods composing a day's diet. The meal, or the day's ration, should consist of:

Food rich in carbohydrates and fat, to supply energy to the body.

Food rich in protein [Footnote 70: Protein is not only a body-builder, but also a fuel. But since it should be used chiefly for body-building (see _Daily Carbohydrate and Fat Requirement_) its energy-giving power is not considered in meal planning.] and ash, to build the body.

Food in the form of ash and water, to regulate the processes of the body.

Food containing vitamines, to promote the health and growth of the body.

Food containing cellulose, to give bulk to diet.

Water is supplied to some extent with almost all the foods of a meal, but as mentioned previously, a generous quantity should be used as a beverage.

A consideration of the kinds of food to meet the different needs of the body follows:

A. _Food for Energy_.--Although both _starch_ and _sugar_ are carbohydrates which furnish energy to the body, this need of the body should be supplied for the most part by starch. The harmful effects of excessive sugar eating were mentioned previously.

A certain amount of _fat_ is needed for energy-giving. A meal containing fat "stays by" a person for a longer time than one devoid of foods rich in fat. This is because fat is more slowly digested than other foodstuffs. Hence a vigorous person leading an active outdoor life may feel much more comfortable when fat is included in his diet. On the other hand, those exercising little find that fat-rich foods distress them greatly, since they are too slowly digested. For many persons, the use of much fat is harmful. Since butter contains the fat-soluble vitamine, it is valuable not only for energy-giving, but for growth-promoting.

B. _Food for Body-building and Repairing_.--Both _protein_ and _ash_ are needed for body-building. The former foodstuff contains the element nitrogen,--one of the necessary elements for the growth and maintenance of the body.

Since there are several kinds of food containing protein, the question arises whether protein is best supplied by meat, eggs, milk, cheese, or vegetable protein foods. There are some who contend that meat is the least desirable source of protein food. The use of much meat may lead to the formation of an excess of uric acid which is eliminated by some persons with difficulty. It may also cause intestinal putrefaction.

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School and Home CookingChapter IX: Part 9

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