Chapter VI: Part 6

Casein is a complete protein and is very important for growth. It has a peculiar property; it precipitates when acid is added to milk. When milk sours, the sugar contained in the milk changes to an acid, and this acid causes the casein to precipitate. Casein is also clotted by an enzyme occurring in the digestive juice of the stomach.

(_b_) _Valuable ash_. Lime which is so essential to bodybuilding is one of the minerals in milk. The following diagram from United States Food Leaflet No. 11 shows that milk is especially rich in lime. (Lime is calcium oxide.)

(_c_) _Vitamines_. These are substances contained only in certain foods. They are essential for maintaining life and health. Milk is rich in these indispensable materials (see Division Seven).

Milk also contains fat and carbohydrate. The presence of the foodstuffs in milk is shown by the following:

EXPERIMENT 44: SEPARATION OF MILK INTO FOODSTUFFS.

(_a_) By means of a cream dipper, remove the cream from a bottle of milk. Place a drop of the cream on a piece of paper. Let the paper dry. What foodstuff is indicated by the stain on the paper?

(_b_) Take 1/4 cupful of the skimmed milk. Heat it to blood temperature (test by dropping the milk on the wrist, see _Junket Custard_). Crush 1/8 junket tablet and add it to the warm milk. Stir until the powder is dissolved. Let the milk stand in a warm place until it is clotted. Heat the clotted milk and boil 1 minute. Pour it into a filter paper. Catch the filtrate in a beaker. What is the foodstuff that remains in the filter paper (see Proteins of "excellent quality")?

(_c_) Put 15 cubic centimeters of Fehling's Solution [Footnote 49: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--Fehling's Solution is made as follows: Prepare a solution of Rochelle salts,--175 grams of Rochelle salts, 50 grams of sodium hydroxide, and 250 cubic centimeters of water. Prepare a solution of copper sulphate,--57.73 grams of copper sulphate, 250 cubic centimeters of water, and 0.4 cubic centimeter of sulphuric acid. Then combine 1 part of the alkaline Rochelle salt solution, 1 part of copper sulphate, and 4 parts of water. Boil the mixture.

This solution deteriorates readily. The best results are obtained by using a "fresh" mixture for testing sugar and by boiling just before using.] in a flask. Boil for 2 minutes. Add 2 cubic centimeters of the filtrate from (_b_) and boil one minute. To what color does the blue mixture change? A red precipitate indicates sugar. What foodstuff does this test indicate that milk contains?

(_d_) Put the remainder of the filtrate from (_b_) in a custard cup and evaporate over hot water to dryness. Note the residue. What foodstuff other than sugar is contained in the residue?

(_e_) What foodstuff has passed off in the form of vapor during evaporation?

(_f_) As mentioned above, milk also contains vitamines.

LESSON XLVII

MILK WITH COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

EXPERIMENT 46: SCALDING MILK.--Fill the lower part of a double boiler one third full of boiling water. Put 1/2 cupful of milk in the top of the double boiler, cover, and heat over the boiling water. In a few minutes examine. Carefully note the appearance of the surface of the milk. Explain why it is that dishes that have contained milk should be soaked in cold water, and then washed in warm water.

Insert a thermometer in the milk and record temperature. Is it possible to boil milk over hot water? Explain your answer. (Use this scalded milk to make cocoa and chocolate.)

The taste of milk is changed by heating it above 158 degrees F. Less change, however, is produced by scalding than by boiling. Milk is also apt to scorch if cooked at boiling temperature. It is sometimes necessary to boil milk to sterilize it.

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE as found at market are prepared from cacao beans. The latter grow in pods,--the fruit of the tropical cacao trees (see Figure 41). The beans are taken from the pods, allowed to ferment, dried, and roasted. The husks loosened by roasting are then removed from the beans.

Cacao beans are ground, molded, and sold as bitter or baker's chocolate. In the preparation of sweet chocolate sugar is added to the powdered chocolate before molding. Cocoa differs from chocolate in that some of the fat is removed.

Cocoa and chocolate contain protein, fat, and carbohydrates. These materials, in addition to the milk and sugar used in preparing the beverages, make the cocoa and chocolate beverages high in food value. But in addition to the materials mentioned above, there is present in cocoa and chocolate some tannin and stimulating materials. The large percentage of fat existing in chocolate may produce distressing effects when taken in addition to a full meal. If, however, the use of these beverages causes no ill effects, they may be classed among the nutritious foods and are much preferable to tea and coffee especially for girls and boys.

Neither cocoa nor chocolate is soluble in water. Some cocoas are very finely ground and are termed soluble cocoas.

When mixed with water these cocoas do not separate as rapidly as others, but they are not soluble. Because of its insolubility, chocolate should be blended as thoroughly as possible with other materials. A satisfactory and practical method of accomplishing this is to make a _smooth paste_ of chocolate and boiling water.

To develop flavor, it is well to cook both chocolate and cocoa at boiling temperature, especially when combining with liquids. The flavor of the cocoa beverage is improved by much cooking. Long cooking of the chocolate beverage causes the fat to separate and float.

COCOA

1/4 cupful cocoa 3 cupfuls milk 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls corn-starch 1/4 to 3/8 cupful sugar 1 cupful water 1/4 teaspoonful salt

Mix cocoa, corn-starch, and water and boil for 10 minutes. Add the milk and sugar to the mixture and cook over hot water for 1/2 hour. Add salt. Beat well and serve. Vanilla may be added to cocoa if desired.

Varying quantities of corn-starch and sugar are given so that the beverage may be thickened and sweetened to suit one's taste. If desired, the corn- starch may be omitted entirely.

CHOCOLATE

2 squares chocolate 3 cupfuls milk 1 cupful boiling water 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1/3 cupful sugar 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla

Cut the chocolate into bits and put it in a pan; add the boiling water. Stir and cook until it reaches the boiling point and is perfectly smooth. Heat the milk in a double boiler. Then gradually add the hot milk to the chocolate mixture, add the sugar, and heat all in a double boiler. Add salt and vanilla, if desired. If there is a scum over the beverage, beat well. Serve hot.

Whipped cream or marshmallows are often served with chocolate. The use of whipped cream with chocolate, however, makes the beverage excessively rich in fat.

QUESTIONS

What is the difference in method between scalding milk and boiling it? How can one determine when milk is scalded?

If it is necessary to heat milk, give two reasons why it is usually better to scald it than to boil it. Under what conditions should it be boiled?

What is the present cost of milk per quart? When is the price highest and when lowest?

If sweetened chocolate is used, how should the recipe for chocolate beverage be changed? Give two reasons why cocoa and chocolate should not be boiled after adding the hot milk.

Why is vanilla not added until the beverages are ready to be served (see _Flavoring Extracts_)?

What is the weight of one square of chocolate? How many squares in an ordinary cake of chocolate? What is the price per cake?

How many cupfuls are there in a half pound box of cocoa? What is the price per box?

See Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding. How much cocoa may be used for 1 ounce of chocolate when one is substituted for the other? What is the difference in cost of these quantities of chocolate and cocoa?

LESSON XLVIII

MILK AND CREAM

WHIPPING CREAM.--A popular way of preparing cream for serving is to whip it. This is done most successfully when the cream is cold and kept cold, _i.e._ surrounded with ice water during the beating process.

To show one of the points involved in chilling materials try the following:

EXPERIMENT 46: COMPARISON OF THE CONDUCTING POWER OF METAL AND EARTHENWARE.--Select a tin and an earthenware utensil of about the same size and shape. Put an equal quantity of water of the same temperature in each utensil. Surround each with ice water and cover. After 5 minutes, take the temperature of the water in the tin and in the earthenware utensil. Which is colder? Through which material,--tin or earthenware,--is heat transmitted more readily? When cream is to be surrounded by ice water for whipping, in which kind of utensil should it be placed? Explain your answer.

Use a Dover egg beater or a cream whip for whipping cream. Since cream "spatters" when being beaten, a cream whip arranged with a cover is very satisfactory. To prevent spattering, the bowl of cream may be covered with paper while the cream is being whipped. Cut a slit in a piece of paper, insert the Dover egg beater in the slit, put the beater in the cream and push the paper down to cover.

Since cream contains considerable fat, under certain conditions, it is possible to mass the fat together, that is, separate it from the other constituents, and form _butter_. For making butter the cream should be "ripened," i.e. it should contain certain bacteria. It should then be churned.

On the other hand, if it is desired to beat or whip the cream, but not to form butter, it is necessary to prevent the fat from massing together. To accomplish this, use thick cream (containing 20 per cent or more of fat) from 12 to 24 hours old [Footnote 50: Such cream contains a small amount of lactic acid.] and have it very cold; it will then whip quickly. Cream may be chilled by placing it on ice for some time before whipping or by surrounding it with ice water while whipping. In warm weather, it is safer not only to chill the cream but also to surround it with ice water while whipping.

A harmless substance called _viscogen_ may be added to thinner cream (_i.e._ the so-called coffee or 16 per cent cream) to make the latter whip. Viscogen is prepared by mixing the following ingredients:

1/2 cupful sugar 1 cupful water 1 tablespoonful milk of lime [Footnote 51: Milk of lime may be prepared by mixing 1 part of slaked lime with 3 parts of water.]

Mix the sugar and water and heat the mixture until it boils. Cool and add the milk of lime. Let the mixture stand at least 24 hours before using. Add 1 teaspoonful to each pint of cream, then whip the mixture as directed above.

COMPARISON OF MILK AND CREAM.--Cream is richer in fat than milk, average cream containing 16 per cent of fat and whole milk about 4 per cent. But cream contains less protein and ash than whole milk.

Since cream is always more expensive than milk, it is interesting to compare the food value of quantities of each which may be purchased for the same price. Although the prices of cream and milk vary in different places, usually 1/2 pint of cream costs about as much as 1 quart of milk. The following shows the approximate quantity of nutrients shown in the two quantities:

_In 1 quart of milk_ [Footnote 52: By permission Journal of Home Economics, Vol. X (August, 1918, p. 379).]

As much protein as in 5 eggs 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls of fat 3 tablespoonfuls of sugar

_In 1/2 pint of cream_

As much protein as in 1 egg 3 tablespoonfuls of fat 1/2 tablespoonful of sugar

Although 1/2 pint of cream contains 1/2 tablespoonful more of fat than does 1 quart of milk, the latter contains 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls more of sugar and as much more protein as is contained in 4 eggs. This comparison makes us question the advisability of buying much cream.

If whole milk is purchased, its top milk may often be used in place of cream. The skim milk that remains is a valuable food. Although whole milk contains more fat and vitamines than does skim milk, the latter has as much protein, lime, and sugar as whole milk. The use of both whole and skim milk is advised.

CARE OF MILK.--Milk is one of the foods that require the greatest care, and should be well cared for not only in the home but also on the dairy farm. It is one of the foods that afford ideal conditions for the growth of microscopic vegetable organisms, called _bacteria_ (see _Why Foods Spoil_). Many varieties of these bacteria or tiny plants produce changes in the milk which cause it to sour. A few varieties of disease- producing bacteria also sometimes exist in milk.

Milk can be kept reasonably free from bacteria by:

(_a_) Perfect cleanliness on the dairy farm.

(_b_) Cooling it immediately after being drawn from the cow, and by keeping it cool.

(_c_) Placing it in sterilized utensils.

(_d_) Covering it, thus keeping it free from dust.

Utensils for holding milk should be of glass, earthenware, or smooth, bright tin. They should be washed, scalded, or even better, boiled, and placed in the sun for two or three hours. In the home, milk should not be used after long standing, even though it is sweet. It is well to buy milk in small quantities and in bottles. The upper rim of a milk bottle should be washed before pouring milk from it. Because milk readily absorbs odors and flavors, it should be kept away from any substance having a strong odor or flavor.

RICE DAINTY

3/4 cupful cooked rice 3/4 cupful fruit, cut into pieces 3/4 cupful powdered sugar 1/2 to 3/4 cupful cream, whipped

Mix the rice, fruit, and sugar, then fold in the whipped cream. Pineapple, shredded or diced; bananas cut into pieces (not slices); dates, seeded and cut into pieces; or cooked apricots are desirable fruits for this dessert.

CREAM OF RICE PUDDING

1 quart milk _or_ 1 quart milk and water 1/3 cupful rice 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/3 cupful sugar Grated rind of 1/2 lemon

Wash rice; put it and all the other ingredients into a buttered pudding dish. Bake in a _slow_ oven (250 degrees F.) until firm. This usually takes three hours. While baking, stir the mixture occasionally.

If desired, one half cupful of raisins may be added to the mixture, and 1 teaspoonful vanilla or 1/4 teaspoonful nutmeg may be substituted for lemon rind.

QUESTIONS

From your knowledge of the effect of intense heat upon milk, explain why Cream of Rice Pudding should be baked in a slow oven.

What change in quantity takes place in the milk of this pudding during long cooking? What change in quantity takes place in the rice during long cooking? From this explain why so much milk when combined with a little rice forms a solid mixture.

What is the price per pint of thin or coffee cream?

What is the price per pint of heavy or whipping cream?

What is the least quantity of cream that can be purchased?

Explain why it is that scalded milk does not sour as soon as uncooked milk (see _Care of Milk_).

Why should utensils that have held milk be scalded or boiled?

LESSON XLIX

CREAM SOUPS (A)

THICK SOUPS.--Milk combined with various vegetables, grains, and fish is used in making Cream Soups and Purees. The vegetables are cooked and mashed or forced through a strainer and combined with a liquid,--usually milk or milk with vegetable stock. In order to have the vegetable pulp uniformly mixed through the liquid, it is necessary to thicken the liquid with a starchy material. Flour with butter or substitute, mixed and cooked as in White Sauce, is used for this purpose. It is said to "bind" the vegetables and the liquid. Thus, Cream Soups and Purees are simply White Sauces to which vegetable pulp is added.

GENERAL PROPORTIONS.--_The usual proportion of vegetable pulp or puree to liquid is:_ One part of vegetable pulp or puree to 2 parts of liquid, _i.e._ milk, vegetable stock, or meat stock.

_The proportion of flour to liquid is:_ 1/2 tablespoonful flour to 1 cupful liquid, if a starchy vegetable is used, or, 1 tablespoonful flour to 1 cupful liquid, if a vegetable having little thickening property, as celery, is used.

Sometimes an egg or two is added to soup for thickening or flavor, and to increase the food value.

Different kinds of vegetables are sometimes mixed for a soup, as: Peas and beans, or corn and beans.

POTATO SOUP

3 potatoes 1 tablespoonful flour 1 pint milk _or_ 1 pint milk and potato stock 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 slices of onion Celery salt 3/4 tablespoonful butter or substitute 2 teaspoonfuls chopped parsley

Cook and mash the potatoes, heat the milk and onion in a double boiler, then add them to the mashed potatoes. Press the potato mixture through a strainer and use it as the liquid for a White Sauce, using all other ingredients except the parsley in the sauce. If necessary, add more liquid, or evaporate to the desired consistency. Add the chopped parsley just before serving.

"Left over" mashed potatoes may be utilized in making this soup.

CROUTONS

Cut stale bread into half-inch cubes. Bake _slowly_ in the oven until a golden brown. Stir often. Serve with soups.

Save the crusts and prepare Dried Bread Crumbs with them.

QUESTIONS

What is the proportion of flour and liquid in one cup of White Sauce for Vegetables?

How does the proportion of flour and liquid for one cup of Cream Soup differ from the above proportion?

Why are the potatoes pressed through a strainer _after_ rather than _before_ adding the hot milk?

Why should the cubes of stale bread be baked slowly (see _Toast_)?

LESSON L

CREAM SOUPS (B)

FOOD VALUE OF CREAM SOUPS.--Since thin or clear soups contain much liquid, their food value is not as high as most solid foods. Cream Soups, however, are as concentrated as a potato; they are the most nourishing of all soups. The use of milk instead of water or stock and of flour and fat, to say nothing of vegetable pulp, increases their food value. Cream Soups are more suitable to serve at a meal of few courses such as luncheon or supper rather than at dinner where there is a greater variety of foods.

Thick soups may serve as a valuable part of a meal; a hot liquid taken into an empty stomach is easily assimilated, acts as an appetizer, and thus prepares for the digestion of the remainder of the meal.

CORN SOUP

1 can of corn 1 pint water l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 slice onion 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 teaspoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful white pepper 1 pint milk

Add the water to the canned corn and _simmer_ 20 minutes. Melt the fat, add the onion, and cook until light brown. To this add the dry ingredients and proceed as in making White Sauce. Add the cooked corn and strain.

Reheat before serving, if necessary.

NOTE.--The method of adding onion flavor to this soup (_i.e._ browning onion in fat) is often used in the preparation of other foods, especially meats and sauces.

SOUP STICKS

Cut stale bread into slices, remove the crusts, and spread with butter. Cut into strips and brown slowly in the oven. Save the crusts and prepare Dried Bread Crumbs with them.

DRIED BREAD CRUMBS

Dried Bread Crumbs may be prepared from crusts and small pieces of bread. Dry the bread in a slow oven or in a warming oven. Crumb it by rolling on a pastry board or putting it through a meat grinder. If fine crumbs are desired, sift the crushed bread. Place the fine and coarse crumbs in separate jars. Cover the jars by tying a piece of muslin over each. (The muslin covering can also be conveniently secured by means of a rubber band.) If each jar is tightly covered with a lid, air is excluded from the crumbs and molds often grow on them. Bread crumbs thoroughly dried and stored as directed will keep for several months (see Figure 42).

QUESTIONS

Explain why thick soup may serve as a valuable part of a meal.

Why is it served as the first course of a meal?

Is the mashed potato of Potato Soup strained before or after adding it to the other ingredients? When is the Corn Soup strained? How is the flavor extracted from the onion in preparing Potato Soup? How is the flavor extracted for Corn Soup? From this explain the difference in straining the soups.

If fresh corn were used for this soup, how would its cooking differ from that of canned corn?

How should fresh corn be cut from the cob for soup (see _Green Corn_)?

What is the price per can of corn?

In preparing Soup Sticks, why are the crusts removed from the bread before buttering it? Why is the bread spread with butter before cutting it into strips? Aside from flavor, what is the purpose of spreading the bread for Soup Sticks with butter?

How should dried bread crumbs be covered for storing? Why?

What is the difference between soft bread crumbs (see note under recipe for Stuffed Tomatoes) and dried bread crumbs? Which should be used for scalloped dishes? Which for covering fried foods? Think of the dishes which contain bread crumbs and then state for which foods either kind of crumbs could be used. Explain.

LESSON LI

MILK THICKENED WITH EGG (A)

CUSTARDS.--Since eggs have the property of stiffening when heated, they are often used for thickening liquids, especially milk. Milk thickened with eggs is called _custard_.

There are two kinds of plain custards: (_a_) steamed or baked custard and (_b_) soft custard. The method of mixing these custards is the same, but the methods of cooking and the tests for sufficient cooking differ.

That the milk may not scorch and that the egg may not cook too hard, all milk-and-egg mixtures should be cooked below the boiling temperature of water. They should never be cooked directly over the fire, but over hot water or in a double boiler. That the egg may cook evenly and not too quickly, the water in the double boiler _should not boil rapidly_.

If a custard is properly cooked, the egg is in a soft-cooked condition. It exists in a jelly-like mass throughout the milk. The custard has a creamy appearance. If, however, a custard is cooked too much, the egg becomes hard-cooked and the particles of egg appear in "lumps" in the milk mixture. The custard is then said to be _curdled_.

A curdled custard may be made smooth by placing the upper part of the double boiler in a pan of cold water and then beating the custard _at once_ with a Dover egg beater. This applies to all types of plain custards.

STEAMED OR BAKED CUSTARD

1 pint milk 2 or 3 eggs 1/4 cupful sugar 1/8 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls caramel sirup _or_ 1/16 teaspoonful nutmeg

Scald the milk in a double boiler. Beat the eggs _slightly_, add the sugar and salt, mix. Add the hot milk to this mixture. Strain the mixture, flavor, and pour it into a mold. If _steamed custard_ is desired, steam (without stirring) until the custard is firm. Let the water in the steamer boil gently rather than vigorously. Test for sufficient cooking by inserting a knife into the custard. If it comes out clean, the custard is done.

If _baked custard_ is desired, place the cups of custard in a pan of hot water, and bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) for 35 minutes or until firm. Test as steamed custard.

If a Baked or Steamed Custard is to be turned out of the mold after steaming, 3 or 4 eggs should be used with each pint of milk. By placing a little Caramel Sirup in the bottom of each mold, a custard may easily be turned out of the mold. The custard mixture should be poured very gently on top of the sirup to prevent the custard and sirup from mixing. The caramel also serves as a sauce for the custard when served. (Caramel Sirup may be prepared by caramelizing sugar (as directed in making _Peanut Candy_) and then dissolving the caramelized sugar in boiling water. Use equal quantities of sugar and water.)

SOFT CUSTARD

1 pint milk 1/4 cupful sugar 2 eggs 1/8 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla

Mix the materials in the same way as for steamed or baked custard. Instead of pouring the mixture into molds, return it to the double boiler and cook (stirring constantly) until it thickens or forms a coating over the spoon. Strain, cool, and flavor. Note that steamed custard is strained and flavored before cooking, and soft custard, after cooking.

In preparing soft custard, the eggs may be separated and the yolks cooked with the milk and other ingredients. The whites may be beaten stiff and beaten into the hot mixture with a Dover egg beater. Soft Custard may be used as a sauce over cooked rice, cake, bananas, peaches, and other foods.

_To Decrease the Eggs in Custard _

When eggs are expensive omit 1 or 2 from a custard recipe. Substitute 1/2 _tablespoonful of corn-starch for each omitted egg._ For methods of thickening milk with both eggs and starchy materials, see Lessons LIV.

QUESTIONS

What is the purpose of eggs in custard?

Why are eggs beaten _slightly_ for custards?

How do Steamed Custards and Soft Custards differ in method of cooking? What are the tests for sufficient cooking of each?

What is the purpose of straining custards? Why is Steamed Custard strained and flavored before cooking, and Soft Custard, after cooking?

In what condition is the egg when a custard is curdled? How can a curdled custard be made smooth?

LESSON LII

MILK THICKENED WITH EGG (B)

FLOATING ISLAND

_Custard_

1 pint milk 3 egg yolks 1/4 cupful sugar 1/8 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla

_Meringue_

3 egg whites 3 tablespoonfuls powdered sugar

The custard may be made thicker by using 4 (instead of 3) eggs.

Prepare the custard as Soft Custard.

Prepare the Meringue by beating the whites of eggs stiff and then adding I tablespoonful of sugar for each white of egg. Drop the Meringue by spoonfuls on the custard. If desired, garnish the Meringue by bits of jelly or colored gelatine.

From the results of Experiment 42, which egg beater do you consider most advisable for preparing Meringue?

If desired, the Meringue may be cooked. This may be accomplished in several ways: (_a_) place it on the _hot_ custard at once after preparing the custard, (_b_) Steam it by dropping it by spoonfuls on the hot milk before preparing the custard. Cover, and let the egg white cook for about 2 minutes, then remove from the milk and proceed to thicken the milk with the egg yolks, (_c_) Drop the uncooked Meringue on the cooked custard as directed above, then cook and brown it slightly by placing the custard in the broiling oven or in the top of a hot baking oven.

QUESTIONS

In making custards, why should the hot milk be added to the eggs, instead of the eggs to the hot milk?

How does Floating Island differ from Soft Custard?

What is Meringue?

Compare Floating Island made with three eggs to that made with four eggs. How does it differ in thickness, color, and cost?

LESSON LIII

MILK THICKENED WITH EGG (C)

APRICOT DAINTY

1 cupful dried apricots 1/3 cupful powdered sugar 3 egg whites

Wash and soak the apricots. Steam until soft. Mash the apricots, or press through a coarse strainer or colander; add the sugar. Beat the whites of eggs until very stiff; fold them into the apricots and sugar mixture. Chill and serve with Custard Sauce.

Dried _prunes_ may be substituted for apricots, using less sugar and adding a little lemon juice.

If it is desired to make Apricot Dainty some time before serving, it should be stiffened with gelatine. To do this, mix 1/2 tablespoonful of granulated or powdered gelatine with 2 tablespoonfuls of cold water. Add the gelatine mixture to the hot mashed or strained apricots, stir until the gelatine is dissolved, then proceed to add the sugar and egg white as directed above.

CUSTARD SAUCE

Use the recipe for Soft Custard for Custard Sauce, substituting 3 yolks for 2 whole eggs.

QUESTIONS

Why is it desirable to steam the fruit rather than cook it in water for this dessert?

Compare the custard made with the entire egg to that made with the egg yolk. What is the difference in thickness and color?

How many egg yolks are equivalent to two whole eggs in thickening?

LESSON LIV

MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (A)

EGG AND STARCH.--How long is it necessary to cook milk-and-starch mixtures so that the starch will be cooked thoroughly (see _Blanc Mange_)? How long does it take to cook eggs when used for thickening? Are eggs used for thickening harmed by long cooking? Explain your answer. If both starch and egg are used for thickening a mixture, devise a way whereby the starch can be cooked thoroughly, and the egg can be cooked without curdling.

BUTTERSCOTCH TAPIOCA

1 pint milk 1/8 to 1/4 cupful granulated tapioca 1/2 cupful dark brown sugar 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 egg 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla 1/2 to 1 tablespoonful butter

Scald the milk, add the tapioca, and cook the mixture over hot water until the tapioca is transparent (see _Apple Tapioca_, above). Mix the sugar, salt, and egg. Add a portion of the hot tapioca mixture to the egg mixture. Mix thoroughly, then return the mixture to the double boiler. Stir and cook until the egg thickens. Add the vanilla and butter and turn into dishes for serving. Cool. Serve with plain or whipped cream.

The quantity of tapioca determines the stiffness of the dessert. If a very soft consistency is desired, use the smaller quantity of tapioca.

Chopped nuts may be added to the dessert just before turning into the serving dishes.

For economy, the egg and butter may be omitted. If the egg is omitted, the greater quantity of tapioca should be used.

CREAM OF POTATO SOUP

3 potatoes 2 1/2 cupfuls milk 2 egg yolks or 1 egg 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt Pepper 1/8 teaspoonful celery salt

Cook the potatoes until soft, drain, and mash. Scald the milk and add it to the potatoes, then strain the mixture. Beat the eggs, add seasoning, combine with the potato mixture, and cook in the top part of the double boiler, stirring constantly, until the egg thickens. _Serve immediately_.

QUESTIONS

In Butterscotch Tapioca what ingredient could be substituted for tapioca? How much of this ingredient should be used (see _Blanc Mange_, above)?

What is the purpose of the eggs in Cream of Potato Soup?

Why should the soup be served immediately after cooking the eggs?

How does this soup differ in thickening materials from Potato Soup (see above)?

What would be the effect of adding 1 egg to plain Blanc Mange?

When and how should the egg be added? Give reasons for your method of adding the egg.

Write a recipe for Soft Custard in which corn-starch is substituted for one of the eggs. Write out the method of cooking such a custard.

LESSON LV

MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (B)

CORN CUSTARD

1 can corn _or_ 6 ears green corn 1 teaspoonful salt l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 cupful milk 2 eggs

Make a White Sauce of the flour, salt, butter, and milk. Add the corn (for method of cutting green corn from the cob, see Lesson IV). Beat the eggs, add them to the corn mixture. Turn the mixture into a buttered baking- dish, and place the dish in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is firm. Serve hot as a vegetable.

_One egg may be omitted_ and the flour and fat increased to 3 and 2 tablespoonfuls respectively.

CHEESE PUDDING

1 cupful cheese grated or cut into pieces 1 egg 1 cupful milk 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/4 cupful dried bread crumbs or granulated tapioca Cayenne

Beat the egg slightly, and add the other ingredients. Turn into a buttered baking-dish, custard cups, or ramekins. Place in a pan of hot water, and bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is firm. Serve hot (for method of preparing _Dried Bread Crumbs_).

QUESTIONS

What ingredients in Corn Custard thicken the mixture?

What ingredients in Cheese Pudding thicken the mixture?

What is the purpose of placing the baking-dish containing Corn Custard or Cheese Pudding in a pan of hot water? At what temperature should these two foods bake? Give a reason for your answer.

In Cheese Pudding, why are the starchy material and egg cooked for the same length of time?

Compare the cost of a can of corn and six ears of green corn.

How many persons will the recipe for Corn Custard serve?

How many will the Cheese Pudding serve?

LESSON LVI

MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (C)

Bread Puddings are made by adding bread to a custard mixture, and then baking in the oven like Baked Custard. For these puddings either stale or dry bread is used. The bread should be softened with the milk.

How many eggs are used to thicken one pint of milk in Steamed or Baked Custard? How many eggs are used to thicken one pint of milk in Bread Puddings (see recipe below)? Account for this difference.

BREAD PUDDING

2 cupfuls milk 1 cupful bread crumbs 1 tablespoonful butter 3 tablespoonfuls sugar 1 egg 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful vanilla _or_ 1/2 teaspoonful spices 3 tablespoonfuls cooked currants

Scald the milk; add the bread crumbs. When the crumbs are soft, add the remaining ingredients. Pour the mixture into a buttered baking-dish, and place the baking-dish in a pan of hot water. Bake the pudding slowly until it becomes firm and golden brown. Cover during the first 15 minutes of baking. Serve with cream, Hard Sauce, Chocolate or Vanilla Sauce (see below).

If chocolate were added to the recipe for plain Bread Pudding, what change should be made in the other ingredients (see _Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding_)? Since chocolate contains much fat, what ingredient could be omitted, if chocolate were used? Compare the recipes for Bread Pudding and Chocolate Bread Pudding.

CHOCOLATE BREAD PUDDING

1 cupful bread crumbs 2 cupfuls scalded milk 1 ounce chocolate 1/4 cupful boiling water 1/3 cupful sugar 1 egg 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla

Add the bread crumbs to the scalded milk and allow them to soak until soft. Cut the chocolate in pieces, add the boiling water to it, and cook gently until a smooth paste is formed. Add this to the bread mixture. Proceed as in the preparation of plain Bread Pudding. Serve with plain or whipped cream or Lemon Sauce.

VANILLA SAUCE

1/2 cupful sugar 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/8 teaspoonful salt 2 cupfuls boiling water 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls butter 1 teaspoonful vanilla

Mix sugar and flour thoroughly, then add boiling water slowly. Cook 10 minutes. Dilute or evaporate if necessary. Add the butter and vanilla [Footnote 53: See footnote 25 regarding the adding of vanilla.] just before serving.

CHOCOLATE SAUCE

1/2 cupful sugar 3 tablespoonfuls flour 1 cupful water 1 cupful milk 3/8 cupful cocoa _or_ 2 squares (or ounces) chocolate 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla

Mix the sugar, flour, and cocoa (if the latter is used). Add the water; stir and cook until the mixture thickens. Then add the milk and cook over boiling water for at least 15 minutes.

If chocolate is used, cut it in pieces, add 5 tablespoonfuls of boiling water. Stir and cook until a smooth paste is formed. Add the chocolate to the other ingredients, then the salt and vanilla. [Footnote 54: See footnote 25 regarding the adding of vanilla.] Serve hot or cold over desserts.

QUESTIONS

What is the purpose of the egg and bread in the Bread Pudding?

What care must be taken in combining the egg mixture with the hot milk mixture?

Think of the effect of intense heat upon the ingredients of Bread Pudding, and then explain why the pudding should bake slowly. What is the result, if baked in a very hot oven?

What is the reason for covering the pudding during the first 15 minutes of baking?

Name combinations of spices that would be desirable for the pudding.

What care should be taken in cooking chocolate in boiling water?

In preparing Vanilla Sauce, why is the flour mixed with the sugar (see Experiment 24)?

How does the quantity of thickening for Vanilla Sauce compare with the quantity of thickening for the Sauce for Cream Toast?

Give the four different quantities of flour generally used to thicken one pint of sauce.

What care should be taken in cooking Vanilla Sauce?

Compare the recipe for Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding with that for Chocolate Sauce. What material and how much of it is used for thickening each? What difference in consistency is there in the two cooked mixtures? What liquids are used in each mixture? Why is the sauce cooked directly over the flame and then over, boiling water, while the pudding is cooked only over boiling water?

LESSON LVII

CHEESE (A)

THE RELATION OF CHEESE TO MILK.--To show the relation of cheese to milk, and to understand the manufacture of cheese, try the following:

EXPERIMENT 47: EFFECT OF RENNET ON MILK.--Put a small quantity of milk in a test tube and heat the milk a very little, taking care not to boil it. Add to it 1/4 teaspoonful liquid rennet, or 1/8 junket tablet, and set aside. After a few minutes examine the milk. How has the rennet changed the milk? What substance in the milk has been clotted by the rennet (see Lesson XLVI)?

EXPERIMENT 48: SEPARATION OF CURD AND WHEY--Again heat the contents of the test tube of Experiment 47, turn the mixture into a cheese-cloth, and press the cloth until the mixture is dry. Examine the material left in the cloth. How does it differ from ordinary cheese in color and texture? In cheese making what names are given to the solids and liquids of clotted milk?

Cheese is prepared for the market in a way somewhat similar to that shown in Experiments 47 and 48, except that it is colored, salted, pressed into shape, and allowed to ripen. While ripening, changes take place in the ingredients of cheese which develop characteristic flavors and make the cheese firm.

There are two general classes of cheese,--hard cheese and soft cheese. A hard cheese commonly known as "American Cream Cheese" is generally used in this country.

ACTION OF RENNIN IN DIGESTING MILK.--The rennet or junket used to clot the casein of the milk is obtained from the digestive juices of the stomach of a calf. An enzyme called rennin exists in the gastric juice of the human stomach also. When milk is digested, it is first clotted by the enzyme in the stomach.

EXPERIMENT 49: EFFECT OF ACID ON MILK.--Add a few drops of vinegar to warm milk in a test tube. What is the result? What substance in the milk has been curdled by the acid?

To what substance in milk is its sweet taste due? Into what has this substance changed when milk sours? What causes the change in this material (see _Care of Milk_)? Knowing the effect of acid on milk, explain the clotted condition of sour milk.

JUNKET "CUSTARD"

1 quart milk 1/4 cupful sugar 1 teaspoonful vanilla 1 tablespoonful liquid rennet _or_ 1 junket tablet Powdered cinnamon or nutmeg

Heat the milk in a double boiler until it is _lukewarm_ only; do not heat it to scalding temperature. Test milk for lukewarm, _i.e._ body temperature, by letting a drop fall on the wrist. If the milk "feels like the wrist"--neither warmer nor colder--it is lukewarm in temperature. If a junket tablet is used, crush it. Add the sugar, vanilla, and rennet or junket, and stir until dissolved. Pour into a glass dish and stand in a warm place until it thickens. Then set the Junket "Custard" in a cool place. When cold, sprinkle with a little cinnamon or nutmeg, and serve with cream.

COTTAGE CHEESE

1 quart thick sour milk 1/4 teaspoonful salt Cream, top milk, or butter

Pour at least 2 quarts of boiling water into the sour milk. Allow the mixture to stand until the curd separates from the whey. Strain the mixture in a cloth, pressing the cloth until the curd is dry, or allow it to drip for several hours or overnight. Put the curd in a bowl, add salt and a little cream, top milk, or melted butter, and mix thoroughly. Serve lightly heaped, or molded into balls.

QUESTIONS

Why should junket tablets be crushed before adding to the milk (see Experiment 12)?

In what way is the preparation of milk for Junket "Custard" like the digestion of milk in the stomach?

Tell why Junket "Custard" is quickly digested.

How much Cottage Cheese is obtained from 1 quart of milk?

Explain the use of boiling water in preparing Cottage Cheese from sour milk.

What is the price per pint of Cottage Cheese prepared at home?

What is the price per pint of Cottage Cheese obtained at market?

LESSON LVIII

CHEESE (B)

FOOD VALUE AND USE OF CHEESE.--Cheese is concentrated food, _i.e._ it contains much nourishment in small bulk. One pound of cheese contains as much protein as two pounds of eggs or one and one half pounds of meat, and as much fat as three pounds of eggs and one pound of beef. In addition to protein and fat, cheese contains ash and vitamines (see Division Seven).

Cottage Cheese is a particularly good food. Since it is less expensive than most foods rich in protein, it should be used to a greater extent than it is at the present time. Most tasty salads and meat substitute dishes may be prepared from cottage cheese.

Cheese was formerly considered somewhat difficult of digestion, but investigations (see Farmers' Bulletin 487, _The Digestion of Cheese_, p. 15.) show that cheese differs but little from meat in ease of digestion. Cheese, like protein foods in general, if cooked at all, should be heated at low or moderate temperature.

It is well to cook cheese in combination with other food materials. The use of cheese at the close of a dinner, when sufficient food has already been eaten, is not advisable.

CARE OF CHEESE.--Molds grow rapidly upon cheese, especially if it is placed in a warm place and the air is excluded from it (see _Why Foods Spoil_). For this reason, cheese should never be placed in a tightly covered dish or jar. It may be placed in a dish or jar and covered with a cloth. To keep cheese that has been cut from drying, wrap it in paraffin paper, then in a slightly dampened cloth, and then in paper. It should not, however, be kept in the damp cloth too long; molds will grow upon it.

MACARONI AND CHEESE

1 cupful macaroni 1 1/2 cupfuls medium White Sauce 2 cupfuls buttered crumbs 3/4 cupful grated cheese

Break macaroni into one-inch pieces. Cook in a large quantity of boiling, salted water, in the same manner as Boiled Rice. When tender, pour into a colander, and run cold water through it. Make the sauce, using half milk and half "macaroni water" for the liquid; then add the cheese and macaroni to it. Pour into a buttered baking-dish. Cover with the buttered crumbs and bake at 450 degrees F. for 20 minutes or until brown.

_Rice or noodles_, cooked in the same way, may be substituted for macaroni.

QUESTIONS

What must be the condition of cheese in order to grate it? If it is very soft, how should it be prepared to add to the sauce?

What is macaroni? What foodstuff does it contain in large quantity?

What is the effect of cold water on cooked macaroni (see Experiment 17)?

Why is it cooked in a large quantity of boiling water?

What does the water in which the macaroni was cooked contain?

What use can be made of the water that is drained from the macaroni (see _Cheese Sauce,_)?

What is the price per pound of macaroni? What is the price per pound of rice? What is the price per pound of cheese?

How much cheese, by weight, is required for one cupful of grated cheese?

How many will this recipe for Macaroni and Cheese serve?

How does cheese compare in price per pound with beefsteak? How does it compare in nutritive value? How much of the cheese is waste material? How much of beefsteak is waste material? Which is the cheaper food?

LESSON LIX

STRUCTURE OF BEEF--METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS

MEAT.--The flesh of animals is called _meat_. In market this term is applied to the muscle, bone, and fat of beef (cattle), veal (calf), mutton (sheep), lamb, and pork (pig).

To show the structure and properties of the substances in lean meat, try the following experiments with beef:

EXPERIMENT 50: DIVISION OF MUSCLE.--Scrape a piece of lean beef on both sides until nothing remains but the stringy mass or framework of the meat. What is the color and texture, _i.e._ toughness, of the two parts into which the muscle is divided?

Lean meat, or muscle, of animals may be divided into two parts: (_a_) connective tissue or framework, and (_b_) muscle fiber.

Divide both the connective tissue and muscle fiber into two equal portions. Use them for Experiments 51 and 52.

EXPERIMENT 51: EFFECT OF DRY HEAT ON: (_a_) CONNECTIVE TISSUE.-- Examine the connective tissue and note its toughness. Place it in a frying pan and heat it for a few minutes. Examine it again. Is it made more tender or tough by dry heat?

(_b_) MUSCLE FIBER.--Shape one portion of the muscle fiber into a ball. Place it in a frying pan and heat as directed in (_a_). Is the fiber made more tender or tough by dry heat? Sprinkle a bit of salt over it and taste. What can you say regarding the flavor of the fiber?

EXPERIMENT 52: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND HEAT ON: (_a_) CONNECTIVE TISSUE.--Place the second portion of connective tissue in a pan and cover it with water. Let it simmer for at least 15 minutes. How do moisture and heat affect its toughness?

(_b_) MUSCLE FIBER.--Use the second portion of muscle fiber and cook in water at simmering temperature as directed in (_a_). How do heat and moisture affect its toughness? Sprinkle a bit of salt over it and taste. Compare its flavor with muscle fiber cooked by dry heat. Which has a more pleasing flavor?

From these experiments what conclusion can you draw with regard to the length of time--_long or short_--that _connective tissue_ must be cooked in order to make it tender? What conclusion can you draw with regard to the kind of heat--_dry or moist_--that must be applied to connective tissue to make it tender?

What conclusion can you draw regarding the effect of dry and moist heat upon muscle fiber? Which makes it more tender? Which develops the more pleasing flavor?

THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF MEAT.--The connective tissue of meat is the material which holds the muscle fiber in place. One can get an idea of the structure of muscle fiber from some cuts of meat such as the rump. This meat when cooked can be torn into strands. On closer examination, however, one finds that these strands are made up of tiny tubes, microscopic in size, which are also held together by a network of connective tissue (see Figure 43). The microscopic tubes hold the muscle juice, which consists of water, protein, ash, coloring and flavoring materials. The latter give to meat its characteristic taste; they are called extractives. In the network of connective tissue, there is fat as shown also in Figure 43.

The muscle juice found in muscle fiber not only contains protein, but the walls of muscle fiber and connective tissue contain protein. These proteins differ greatly in quality, however. They will be discussed in the following lesson.

CARE OF MEAT.--As soon as meat comes from the market remove the paper in which it is wrapped, and put the meat away in a cool place. Before cooking, wipe the meat with a damp cloth. Do not allow it to stand in cold water. If meat is to be roasted, it should be weighed before cooking.

SEARING MEAT.--Since the juice of meat contains both nutriment and flavor, it is desirable to retain the juice when meat is cooked. This can be accomplished by subjecting meat to intense heat. By so doing, the protein coagulates and "seals" the outside of the meat so that its juices are prevented from escaping. _This process is called searing._

From the results of Experiment 51 (_b_), one can understand why seared meat tastes good. Dry heat tends to develop flavor. Hence it is desirable to sear meat not only to prevent waste of its juices, but to make it tasty. After meat is seared, it is usually necessary to reduce the temperature of cooking in order to cook the interior of meat.

TENDER CUTS OF BEEF--Certain muscles of an animal used for food contain more connective tissue than others. Such muscles are considered tough cuts of meat. Other muscles contain either less connective tissue or the connective tissue is less tough. These are considered tender cuts.

Muscles which are the least used by the animal are most tender. What parts of the beef would one expect to find most tender?

Certain methods of cooking meat are adapted to cooking the tender cuts. Unless meat is chopped, only tender cuts of meat can be cooked successfully by dry heat. The following methods are used for tender cuts of meat: (_a_) broiling, (_b_) pan-broiling, and (_c_) roasting (baking).

The best steaks of beef for broiling or pan-broiling are club (see Figure 44), porterhouse (see Figure 45), sirloin (see Figures 46, 47, 48), and first cuts of round. The best cuts for roasting are porterhouse, prime ribs (see Figures 49, 50), and sirloin.

Long shoulder or chuck (see Figures 51, 52), top round, and rump (see Figures 54 and 57) are inferior roasts.

BROILING

Select one of the tender steaks for broiling. Tender steaks should be cut from 1 to 2 inches in thickness. Clean it as directed previously, remove the excess fat, and place the meat on a broiler. Broil over glowing coals or in the broiling oven, holding the broiler very close to the coals, or placing it near the gas flame. The meat should be thoroughly _seared_ on both sides. Finish cooking the meat by holding it farther away from the coals or the gas flame and turning it about every 10 seconds. Steak 1 inch thick should be cooked at least 5 minutes; 2 inches thick, at least 10 minutes. Season, place on a hot platter, and serve _at once_.

PAN-BROILING

Clean the meat, remove excess fat, and place the meat in a very hot frying pan _without any fat_. Sear the meat on both sides, then cook more slowly until done. When thick chops are broiled, stand them on end to brown the edges. Keep the pan free from fat. The time for pan-broiling is the same as for broiling.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PAN-BROILING AND SAUTEING.--Pan-broiled steak differs from sauteed steak (commonly termed fried steak) in: (_a_) ease of digestion and (_b_) flavor. As explained previously (_Frying and Digestion_), fat cooked at high temperature is not easily digested. For this reason, as far as digestion is concerned, it is better to omit the fat, and to broil a steak.

Meat has a distinct and characteristic flavor. Browned fat also has a pronounced flavor. In broiled steak, the pure meat flavor exists; In "fried" steak there is meat flavor plus browned fat flavor. Since the flavor of meat is most pleasing, it is not advisable to modify it by the addition of any other flavor.

ROASTING (BAKING)

Roasting was accomplished formerly by placing thick pieces of meat before an open fire (see Figure 53). "Roasts" are now placed in the oven and baked. The term roasting, however, is still used. Meat is roasted as follows:

Weigh the meat and clean it. Then skewer it into shape and place it on a rack in a roasting pan. If the meat has but little fat, place extra fat in the bottom of the pan. Place the pan on the upper shelf of a hot oven (500 degrees F.) and sear for 20 minutes. Reduce the temperature to 400 degrees F. Season the exposed surface with salt and pepper, dredge with flour, and remove the pan to the floor or lower shelf of the oven. Baste often. When the meat is about half done, turn it over, season, dredge with flour, and continue baking as before.

Since less evaporation takes place in a large roast than in a small one, the larger roasts are more juicy, hence more desirable. A good roast of beef should weigh at least 4 pounds.