Chapter II: Introduction

The record of men and of movements, History teaches us the growth and development of ideas. Our civilization is the final expression of the two great master-thoughts of the race. Seeking an explanation of the pressing phenomena of life, man has peopled the world with spiritual beings to whom he has assigned benign or malign influences, to be invoked or propitiated. To the great ‘uncharted region’ (Gilbert Murray) with its mysteries, his religions offer a guide; and through ‘a belief in spiritual beings’ (Tylor’s definition of religion) he has built an altar of righteousness in his heart. The birth of the other dominant idea, long delayed, is comparatively recent. ‘The discovery of things as they really are’ (Plato) by a study of nature was the great gift of the Greeks. Knowledge, _scientia_, knowledge of things we see, patiently acquired by searching out the secrets of nature, is the basis of our material civilization. The true and lawful goal of the sciences, seen dimly and so expressed by Bacon, is the acquisition of new powers by new discoveries--that goal has been reached. Niagara has been harnessed, and man’s dominion has extended from earth and sea to the air. The progress of physics and of chemistry has revolutionized man’s ways and works, while the new biology has changed his mental outlook.

The greater part of this progress has taken place within the memory of those living, and the mass of scientific work has accumulated at such a rate that specialism has become inevitable. While this has the obvious advantage resulting from a division of labour, there is the penalty of a narrowed horizon, and groups of men work side by side whose language is unintelligible to each other.

Here is where the historian comes in, with two definite objects, teaching the method by which the knowledge has been gained, the evolution of the subject, and correlating the innumerable subdivisions in a philosophy at once, in Plato’s words, a science in itself as well as of other sciences. For example, the student of physics may know Crookes’s tubes and their relation to Röntgen, but he cannot have a true conception of the atomic theory without a knowledge of Democritus; and the exponent of Madame Curie and of Sir J. J. Thomson will find his happiest illustrations from the writings of Lucretius. It is unfortunate that the progress of science makes useless the very works that made progress possible; and the student is too apt to think that because useless now they have never been of value.

The need of a comprehensive study of the methods of science is now widely recognized, and to recognize this need important Journals have been started, notably _Isis_, published by our Belgian colleague George Sarton, interrupted, temporarily we hope, by the war; and _Scientia_, an International Review of Scientific Synthesis published by our Italian Allies. The numerous good histories of science issued within the past few years bear witness to a real demand for a wider knowledge of the methods by which the present status has been reached. Among works from which the student may get a proper outlook on the whole question may be mentioned Dannemann’s _Die Naturwissenschaften in ihrer Entwicklung und in ihrem Zusammenhange_, Bd. IV; _De la Méthode dans les Sciences_, edited by Félix Thomas (Paris: Alcan); Marvin’s _Living Past_, 3rd ed. (Clarendon Press, 1917); and Libby’s _Introduction to the History of Science_ (Houghton Mifflin & Co., 1917).

This volume of Essays is the outcome of a quiet movement on the part of a few Oxford students to stimulate a study of the history of science. Shortly after his appointment to the Philip Walker Studentship, Dr. Charles Singer (of Magdalen College) obtained leave from Bodley’s Librarian and the Curators to have a bay in the Radcliffe Camera set apart for research work in the history of science and a safe installed to hold manuscripts; and (with Mrs. Singer) offered £100 a year for five years to provide the necessary fittings, and special books not already in the Library. The works relating to the subject have been collected in the room, the objects of which are:

First, to place at the disposal of the general student a collection that will enable him to acquire a knowledge of the development of science and scientific conceptions.

Secondly, to assist the special student in research: (_a_) by placing him in relationship with investigations already undertaken; (_b_) by collecting information on the sources and accessibility of his material; and (_c_) by providing him with facilities to work up his material.

In spite of the absence of Dr. Singer on military duty for the greater part of the time, the work has been carried on with conspicuous success, to use the words of Bodley’s Librarian. Ten special students have used the room. Professor Ramsay Wright has made a study of an interesting Persian medical manuscript. Professor William Libby, of Pittsburg, during the session of 1915-16, used the room in the preparation of his admirable _History of Science_ just issued. Dr. E. T. Withington, the well-known medical historian, is making a special study of the old Greek writers for the new edition of Liddell and Scott’s _Dictionary_. Miss Mildred Westland has helped Dr. Singer with the Italian medical manuscripts. Mr. Reuben Levy has worked at the Arabic medical manuscripts of Moses Maimonides. Mrs. Jenkinson is engaged on a study of early medicine and magic. Dr. J. L. E. Dreyer, the distinguished historian of Astronomy, has used the room in connexion with the preparation of the _Opera Omnia_ of Tycho Brahe. Miss Joan Evans is engaged upon a research on mediaeval lapidaries. Mrs. Singer has begun a study of the English medical manuscripts, with a view to a complete catalogue. How important this is may be judged from the first instalment of her work dealing with the plague manuscripts in the British Museum. With rare enthusiasm and energy Dr. Singer has himself done a great deal of valuable work, and has proved an intellectual ferment working far beyond the confines of Oxford. I have myself found the science history room of the greatest convenience, and it is most helpful to have easy access on the shelves to a large collection of works on the subject. Had the war not interfered, we had hoped to start a _Journal of the History and Method of Science_ and to organize a summer school for special students--hopes we may perhaps see realized in happier days.

Meanwhile, this volume of essays (most of which were in course of preparation when war was declared) is issued as a _ballon d’essai_.

WILLIAM OSLER.

CONTENTS

PAGE

CHARLES SINGER
The Scientific Views and Visions of Saint Hildegard (1098-1180) 1

J. W. JENKINSON
Vitalism 59

CHARLES SINGER
A Study in Early Renaissance Anatomy, with a new text: The
_ANOTHOMIA_ of Hieronymo Manfredi, transcribed and translated
by A. Mildred Westland 79

RAYMOND CRAWFURD
The Blessing of Cramp-Rings; a Chapter in the History of the
Treatment of Epilepsy 165

E. T. WITHINGTON
Dr. John Weyer and the Witch Mania 189

REUBEN LEVY
The ‘Tractatus de Causis et Indiciis Morborum’, attributed to
Maimonides 225

SCHILLER, F. C. S.
Scientific Discovery and Logical Proof 235

INDEX 291

LIST OF PLATES

PLATE FACING PAGE

I. Hildegard receiving the Light from Heaven (Wiesbaden
Codex B, fo. 1 _r_) _Frontispiece_

II. The Three Scripts of the Wiesbaden Codex B (fo. 17 _r_,
col. b; fo. 32 _v_, col. b; fo. 205 _r_, col. b) 4

III. Title-page of the Heidelberg Codex of the _Scivias_ 5

IV. The Universe (from the Heidelberg Codex of the _Scivias_) 12

V. (_a_) Opening lines of the Copenhagen MS. of the _Causae
et Curae_. (_b_) Opening lines of the Lucca MS. of
the _Liber divinorum operum simplicis hominis_ 13

VI. Nous pervaded by the Godhead and controlling Hyle
(Lucca MS., fo. 1 _v_) 20

VII. Nous pervaded by the Godhead embracing the Macrocosm with
the Microcosm (Lucca MS., fo. 9 _r_) 21

VIII. The Macrocosm, the Microcosm, and the Winds (Lucca MS.,
fo. 27 _v_) 28

IX. Celestial Influences on Men, Animals, and Plants (Lucca
MS., fo. 371) 28

X. A Crucifix in the Uffizi Gallery; about the middle of the
thirteenth century 30

XI. The Structure of the Mundane Sphere (Lucca MS.,
fo. 86 _v_) 32

XII. (_a_) Man’s Fall and the Disturbance of the Elemental
Harmony (Wiesbaden Codex B, fo. 4 _r_). (_b_) The New
Heaven and the New Earth (Wiesbaden Codex B,
fo. 224 _v_) 33

XIII. The Last Judgement and Fate of the Elements (Wiesbaden
Codex B, fo. 224 _r_) 36

XIV. Diagram of the Relation of Human and Cosmic Phenomena:
ninth century (Bibliothèque Nationale MS. lat. 5543,
fo. 136 _r_) 37

XV. An Eleventh-century French Melothesia (Bibliothèque
Nationale MS. lat. 7028, fo. 154 _r_) 40