Chapter XXIV: Appendix (2)

2. Examine the sample of voile under the pick glass. This is a type of what is known as gauze weave.

_a._ What is the chief characteristic of the gauze
weave?

_b._ Name several gauze fabrics.

_Lappet Weave_

3. Examine a piece of lace curtaining under the pick glass.

_a._ If the fancy figures were not present, of what
weave would this sample be?

Simple figures are stitched into plainly woven or gauze
fabrics by machinery to imitate embroidery. This style
of weave is known as lappet weave.

_b._ On fabrics of what two weaves is lappet weaving
used?

_c._ What is lappet weaving?

_Jacquard Weave_

4. Examine a piece of carpet. Notice the elaborate designs or patterns and the number of colors used. When the figures are elaborate they cannot be stitched in by simple lappet weaving. A special attachment called the _Jacquard_ apparatus is placed on top of the loom. This apparatus controls the warp threads so that a great many sheds may be formed and elaborate figures woven into fabrics. This is called Jacquard weaving.

_a._ What must be added to a loom for Jacquard weaving?

_b._ What is the use of the Jacquard apparatus?

_c._ When is the Jacquard weave used instead of lappet
weave?

5. Read _Textiles_, page 61.

_Double Cloth Weave_

6. Examine the sample of double cloth. Notice that there are two single cloths. They are combined into one by here and there lacing the warp and filling of one cloth into the warp and filling of the other. In this way they are fastened together securely.

_a._ What color is the sample on one side? the other?

_b._ Of what is double cloth composed?

_c._ How are the single cloths combined into one?

_d._ Read _Textiles_, page 62. What are some of the uses
of double cloth?

_Classes of Weave_

7. How many classes of weave have been studied?

8. Name the classes of weave.

9. Name a fabric to illustrate each weave.

=Experiment 7--Fibers=

Apparatus: Pick glass, dissecting needle.

Materials: Samples of broadcloth, mohair, silk, cotton cloth,
linen.

References: _Textiles_, pages 1; 97, Mohair; 203, Silk; 105,
Cotton; 193, Linen; 199, Hemp; 201, Jute; 232, Ramie; 233,
Pineapple.

_Directions_

1. Read _Textiles_, page 1, paragraph 1. What are textiles?

2. Cloth is composed of yarn. Yarn in its turn is composed of many small ends called fibers.

3. Look at the sample of broadcloth. If you did not know this to be broadcloth you would speak of it as woolen goods. Detach from the sample a filling thread and separate it into fibers. These are woolen fibers.

4. Examine the sample of mohair and separate a filling thread into fibers. This takes the name mohair from the fibers which compose it. Mohair is obtained from the Angora goat.

5. Examine a sample of silk, also a detached filling thread. The silk fiber consists of a thread spun by the silk worm.

6. Wool, mohair, and silk fibers are obtained from the animals, the sheep, goat, and silk worm, hence they are called animal fibers.

7. Detach from the sample of cotton cloth a filling thread and separate it into fibers. These are cotton fibers and are obtained from the cotton plant.

8. Examine the sample of linen, a filling thread and its fibers. Linen is composed of fibers obtained from the flax plant.

9. Cotton and linen fibers are obtained from plants, and are called vegetable fibers. There are other vegetable fibers such as jute, hemp, ramie, pineapple, etc., but cotton and linen are the most important.

10. Name the most valuable fibers for textile use.

_Questions_

1. Of what is cloth composed?

2. Of what does yarn consist?

3. How are the fibers made to join in one long thread? (See Experiment 1.)

4. Of what fibers are woolen and worsted goods composed?

5. Of what animal is wool the covering?

6. Of what fibers is mohair composed?

7. From what animal is mohair obtained?

8. Of what does the silk fiber consist?

9. What are the animal fibers?

10. Why are they called animal fibers?

11. Of what fibers is cotton cloth composed?

12. From what plant are cotton fibers obtained?

13. From what plant is the linen fiber obtained?

14. What are the most important vegetable fibers?

15. Name four other vegetable fibers.

16. Why are these fibers called vegetable fibers?

=Experiment 8--Wool Fiber=

Apparatus: Pick glass, microscope, 2 pine cones, foot-rule.
Materials: Raw wool, woolen yarn.
Reference: _Textiles_, chapter i.

_Directions_

1. Separate a strand of woolen yarn into fibers. Examine both these fibers and fibers pulled from the raw wool. Would you describe these fibers as coarse or fine?

2. How do the fibers feel to touch?

3. Test the strength of the wool fibers by trying to break them.

4. Measure the length of several fibers.

5. Why was it difficult to straighten the fibers to measure them?

6. Extend the fiber to its full length, then release. How does this prove the fiber to be elastic?

7. Examine the fibers under the microscope. Describe. Notice that the wool fiber is cylindrical in shape. Notice that it is covered with scales which overlap much as do the tiles of a roof or the spines of a pine cone.

8. Hold one pine cone with the spines pointing upward. With the spines of the other pointing downward press the second cone down on the first. What happens? Just so the scales or points of the wool fibers hook into one another and interlock. These scales or serrations give to the wool fiber its chief characteristic which is the power of interlocking known as _felting_ or _shrinking_.

9. See _Textiles_, page 2, the drawing of a magnified wool fiber. Make a drawing of a wool fiber.

10. Examine under the microscope a hair from your head. Wool is only a variety of hair. Notice that the scales on the hair lie close to the stem and do not project as in the woolen fiber, hence hair fibers cannot interlock as wool fibers do. The scales lying close to the hair give a smooth surface to the fiber and make luster a characteristic.

11. Compare the wool fiber with hair, noting two differences.

_Questions_

1. With what is the wool fiber covered?

2. Of what advantage are these scales or points?

3. What is the chief characteristic of wool?

4. What is meant by the shrinking or felting power?

5. Name five characteristics of the wool fiber.

=Experiment 9--Mohair Fiber=

Apparatus: Microscope, foot-rule.
Materials: Wool fibers, mohair fibers, sample of mohair brilliantine.
References: _Textiles_, pages 1, 37, 97.

_Directions_

1. Pull a mohair fiber from the fleece. Hold it up to the light. Describe the fiber as you see it.

2. Hold a mohair fiber and a wool fiber side by side to the light. Note the differences.

3. Measure several mohair fibers.

4. Examine the mohair fiber under the microscope. The fiber is covered with scales, but they lie close to the fiber and do not project in points as do the scales on the wool fiber, hence mohair will not felt to any degree.

5. The Angora goat of Asia Minor furnishes the mohair. This goat is being raised in the western states of the United States now.

6. Detach from the sample of mohair brilliantine a warp thread; a filling thread. Which is mohair? Which is cotton?

7. What word would describe the feel of mohair brilliantine? the appearance?

8. What are the characteristics of the mohair fiber?

9. What are the uses of mohair? Mohair is used in the manufacture of plushes, dress fabrics, and imitation furs.

_Questions_

1. Why will mohair not felt as wool does?

2. The scales lying close to the stem will have what effect on the surface of the fiber?

3. What effect will a smooth surface have on light?

4. What characteristic is given to mohair from the fact that the smooth surface reflects light?

5. From what animal is mohair obtained in greatest quantity?

6. Where is mohair being grown in the United States?

=Experiment 10--Cotton Fiber=

Apparatus: Microscope, foot-rule.
Materials: Tuft of cotton fibers, cotton ball, seeds.
Reference: _Textiles_, chapter ix, page 105.

_Directions_

1. Hold a tuft of cotton fibers tightly between the fingers and thumb of each hand and pull apart with a jerk. What is your judgment of the strength of the _staple_ (fiber)?

2. Loosen gently the fibers of one of the tufts you have pulled apart. What is the feel of cotton? the appearance as you hold it to the light?

3. Detach several fibers one by one. How does the length compare with that of the wool and mohair? Measure and record the length of three fibers.

4. How do cotton fibers compare in fineness with wool fibers?

5. Compare the elasticity of cotton with that of wool.

6. Examine the cotton fibers under the microscope. Observe that the enlarged fiber looks like a twisted ribbon. When the fiber was growing it was cylindrical in shape. When ripe the plant drew back its life-giving fluid from the fiber and it collapsed and twisted like a corkscrew. The twist is peculiar to the cotton, being present in no other fiber. The twist makes the cotton fiber suitable for spinning, helping to hold the short fibers together.

7. Read of the cotton plant from _Textiles_, chapter ix.

8. The four chief cotton producing countries are the United States, Egypt, India, Brazil.

9. There are several classifications of cotton. The most common are Sea Island (in the lead); Egyptian (a close second); Uplands (that of the United States, southern part); and Peruvian.

10. Uplands is the most common cotton of our South.

_Questions_

1. What characteristic causes the cotton fiber to be easily recognized under the microscope?

2. Why does the twist render the cotton fiber suitable for spinning?

3. What are the characteristics of the cotton fiber?

4. Why is cotton known as a vegetable fiber?

5. Name the chief cotton producing countries.

6. What are the most common classifications of cotton?

7. What is the finest growth of cotton? (Sea Island commands at the present time $1.00 a lb., while Middling Uplands brings 15 cents.)

8. Where is cotton known as Upland Cotton grown?

=Experiment 11--Silk Fiber=

Apparatus: Tripod, alcohol lamp, small pan of water, lead pencil.
Material: Silk cocoon.
Reference: _Textiles_, chapter xvii, page 203.

_Directions_

1. Place the cocoon in a small pan of water. Apply heat to the pan until the water boils. The cocoon is placed in hot water to soften the glue which holds the fibers together.

2. Remove the outside loose fibers which cannot be reeled. This tangled silk on the outside of the cocoon is called _floss_.

3. Brush the finger over the cocoon to find the loose ends. Unwind carefully until you find a continuous end. Wind or _reel_ the silk fiber over a lead pencil.

4. The silk fiber is the most beautiful and perfect of all fibers.

5. Hold the cocoon to the light as you reel. How does the silk fiber compare in fineness with the wool and cotton fibers?

6. The silk fiber is from 1000 to 4000 feet long. Unlike the other fibers the silk fiber is already a thread.

7. How does light effect the silk fiber? When the gum is thoroughly washed off the silk takes on its luster which is its chief characteristic.

8. Break the fiber after you have reeled a small quantity. Notice how the fiber springs back. Extend and release again. What characteristic does this illustrate?

9. Examine the silk fiber under the microscope. Notice that it is round and smooth and resembles a glass rod. It shows what appear to be two fibers united by the gum secreted at the same time that the fiber was formed. Describe the silk fiber as it appears under the microscope.

10. Silk is taken from the reel and twisted into a skein of raw silk and thus exported.

11. The manufacture in the United States begins with raw silk. It is handled here first by the _throwster_ who winds it from the skein and makes different varieties of thread.

_Questions_

1. Why is the silk cocoon first placed in hot water?

2. What is known as floss?

3. What is meant by silk reeling?

4. What can you say of the length of the silk fiber?

5. In what way does the silk fiber differ from the other fibers?

6. What is the chief characteristic of the silk fiber?

7. What are other characteristics of the silk fiber?

8. In what form is silk exported?

9. In what countries is most of the raw silk produced? (See _Textiles_, page 206.)

10. With what does the silk manufacture in the United States begin?

11. Who is the _throwster_ and what is his work?

=Experiment 12--Linen Fiber=

Apparatus: Microscope.
Material: Flax fibers.
Reference: _Textiles_, chapter xv, page 193.

_Directions_

1. The linen fiber is obtained from the flax plant. Certain fibers, such as flax, jute, and ramie, are obtained from the stem of the plant, hence are known as _bast_ fibers, and flax is the most important bast fiber.

2. It is difficult to separate the flax or linen fiber from the woody part of the stem. The process is called _retting_, which is really rotting by soaking the stem in water.

3. Before the fibers are entirely free from the woody part of the plant they undergo the processes of beating, breaking, scutching, hackling, etc.

4. Read the account of each process. See _Textiles_, pages 194, 195.

5. Measure and record the length of two linen fibers.

6. Test the strength by trying to break the fiber.

7. Test for elasticity.

8. What is the appearance of the linen fiber when held to the light?

9. What is the color of the fiber? What is the process called by which linen is whitened? (Bleaching.)

10. Examine the flax fibers under the microscope. Observe that the fibers look like long cylindrical tubes. Describe the appearance of linen fibers under the microscope.

11. The best flax is grown in Belgium and Ireland.

_Questions_

1. From what part of the plant are bast fibers obtained?

2. Name some bast fibers.

3. What is the most important bast fiber?

4. What is retting?

5. For what purpose is linen subjected to retting?

6. Through what five processes does the flax fiber pass before it is free?

7. Where is the best flax grown?

=Experiment 13--Carding=

Apparatus: A pair of hand cards.
Material: Small quantity of scoured wool.
References: _Textiles_, pages 39 and 50.

_Directions_

1. Examine the hand cards. Notice that there is a foundation of several layers of leather. Notice that this foundation is covered with staples of steel wire. Notice that the staples are shaped like the letter U with the points turned one way. The covering of the hand cards is called _card clothing_.

2. Hold one hand card in the left hand, face up, wires pointing to the left. Spread the wool over the pointed wires of this card.

3. Hold the other card in the right hand, face down, with the wires pointing to the right. Bring the pointed wires of this card down on the wool and drag it lightly through the wires of the other card. Repeat several times.

4. You have been _carding_ wool. The sharp points have been tearing the wool apart or disentangling the fibers. Carding brushes the fibers out smooth and makes them somewhat parallel. It forms them into a thin sheet.

5. The wool must be carded many times before it is sufficiently disentangled for drawing and spinning. In order to card again the hand card must be _stripped_ of the wool so that it may be dragged again through the staples.

6. Hold the hand card, which is in your right hand, erect. Notice that the wires point downward. Move the other hand downward over the wires. Notice that the surface is smooth. The points do not prick as they will if you try to brush the hand upwards over the wires.

7. Hold the card in the left hand in a similar position. Raise and bring the sharp wires of this card down on the smooth surface of the other card and strip it of its wool.

8. Card again, then strip again. Repeat several times until the fibers are thoroughly disentangled.

9. This carding and stripping, once done by hand, is now done in the mill by a power machine called the _card_. (See picture, _Textiles_, page 38.) Notice that instead of cards this machine consists of rollers or cylinders. Some are carding cylinders and some are stripping cylinders. The principle is the same as that of the hand cards. The wool is carded and stripped again and again and is finally delivered in a soft, fluffy rope called a _sliver_ ready for drawing and spinning.

_Questions_

1. What is the covering of the hand card called?

2. Describe card clothing.

3. What does carding do to the wool?

4. When the sharp wires of one cylinder meet the sharp pointed wires of another cylinder what is the action on the wool?

5. If the sharp points of one cylinder meet the smooth surface of another cylinder what happens to the wool on that cylinder?

6. In what form does the wool finally leave the machine? What name is given to this fluffy rope?

7. How was carding done in the early days? How is it done now?

8. In what way is the principle of the hand cards the same as that of the card of the mill?

=Experiment 14--Drawing and Spinning=

Apparatus: Foot-rule, elastic band.
Material: Small quantity of scoured wool.
References: _Textiles_, pages 4, 44, 134; Sections: Spinning: Mule
Spinning.

_Directions_

1. Observe the mass of wool fibers. The wool was clipped from the sheep, _washed_, and _oiled_ to make it smooth and pliable.

2. With the fingers gently open up or loosen the mass of wool fibers. In the mill this is done by a machine called the _card_. (See picture, _Textiles_, page 38.) And the process itself is called _carding_.

3. Gently _draw_ out the mass of fibers until you have drawn it into one long strand.

4. Draw it again and again until to draw it would cause it to break.

5. This process in the mill is known as _drawing_. The wool passes through machine after machine, which gradually reduces the thickness of the strand.

6. You have now a strand called _roving_, but not a thread with which you could weave. What is called the strand? Why could you not weave with it as it is? If you pulled the roving apart it would separate into a number of small ends. What name is given to these ends?

7. It is necessary to hold these fibers together in a thread. Hold the roving in the left hand and with the right hand draw the fibers out several inches. As you draw, twist the roving between the fingers and thumb. The _twisting_ is called _spinning_.

8. When you have twisted sufficient yarn to attach to the end of a foot-rule, do so. Give a whirl to the ruler, which is taking the place of the old-time _spindle_, and let it drop. Continue to whirl the ruler and notice that as it revolves the yarn is twisting. When well twisted, wind the yarn on the ruler. There was a hook on the old-time spindle. Instead of the hook, hold the wound yarn in place by an elastic band. Draw out several inches again and repeat.

9. With the spindle a _distaff_ was used. It held the roving which you now hold in your left hand. (See picture of distaff and spindle.)

10. Define spinning; see _Textiles_, page 4, footnote. The early use of the spindle was the same as its use of to-day. In what two ways is the spindle of use?

11. The improvement on the distaff and spindle was the spinning wheel. Now the spinning frame in the mill has replaced both.

_Questions_

1. After shearing, through what two processes does wool pass?

2. Why is it necessary to oil wool?

3. What is the work of the _card_?

4. Explain the process called _drawing_. Why is it necessary to repeat the operation several times?

5. What followed the distaff and spindle in the development of spinning?

6. On what is the spinning done now in the mill? See _Textiles_, picture, pages 135, 137.

=Experiment 15--Gilling and Combing=

Apparatus: Coarse comb, fine comb.
Material: Small quantity of scoured wool.
Reference: _Textiles_, pages 39-44.

_Directions_

1. Open up the wool a little with the fingers. Do this in place of carding, as you need but a small quantity.

2. You comb your hair to make the hairs lie parallel, side by side, in place. Combs are used on wool for just the same purpose, but the first process of combing is not known as such. It is called _gilling_, and the combs themselves are called _fallers_. The machines are known as _gill boxes_. See _Textiles_, page 43.

3. Hold the carded wool in the left hand in the middle of the strand. With the coarse comb in the right hand, comb and thus straighten the fibers first at one end then at the other. This is _gilling_. The principle of gilling is to comb the fibers more and more nearly parallel and to draw them out into more even strands.

4. The coarse comb causes the hairs to lie parallel. A fine comb will further straighten the hairs, but it will also remove the snarled, tangled, short hairs. Again wool is to be treated like hair. Hold the strand in the middle as before. Comb each end with the fine comb. Notice that the fine comb is removing the short fibers and leaving the long fibers between the fingers. This is the second process of combing, and is called _combing_.

5. The long fibers are called _tops_ and the short fibers are known as _noils_.[23] Combing is the process which separates the long fibers known as _tops_ from the short fibers known as _noils_.

6. The combing machine in the mill is a very complicated one. See picture, _Textiles_, page 41.

7. Gill and comb several strands of wool.

8. Top is too delicate, as it comes from the comb, to be handled. The next process is to combine several strands into one. Combine the several strands you have gilled and combed. Comb this one end with the coarse comb again to be sure that the fibers are perfectly parallel.

9. You gilled, combed, and gilled again. So it is in the mill. After combing, the wool is gilled again by machines known as _finisher gill boxes_, and wound into a ball called _a top_.

10. _A top_ differs from _top_. _Top_ is the strand of long fibers which comes from the comb. _A top_ is the ball of combed wool as it comes from the finisher gill boxes. It weighs from 7 to 12 lbs. and contains 200 to 250 yds.

11. The wool is now ready for the next processes--those of drawing and spinning.

_Questions_

1. Why is the hair combed? Why is wool combed?

2. What is the first process of combing called? What name is given to the combs used in gilling? What are the machines called?

3. What is the principle of gilling?

4. How does a fine comb act on the hair?

5. When you combed the wool with the fine comb what happened?

6. What are the long fibers called? the short? Of which are there more?

7. What is the second process of combing called?

8. Why is it necessary to combine several strands of top into one end?

9. Why is it necessary to gill again after combing?

10. In what form does the wool finally leave the finisher gill boxes?

11. What is a top?

12. What two processes follow carding?

13. For what two processes is wool now ready?

=Experiment 16--Raw Wool to Yarn=

Apparatus: Hand cards, coarse and fine combs, pencil.
Material: Scoured wool.
Reference: The preceding experiments.

_Directions_

1. This wool has already been subjected to the three operations of shearing, scouring, and oiling.

2. Card the wool. What does carding do to the wool?

3. Strip the cards. Rub the sheet of fibers between the palms of the hands into the form of a strand. It is in this form that it leaves the card of the mill, and it is known as a _sliver_ of wool.

4. Pull about three inches of wool from the sliver and perform upon it the operation of gilling by combing it with the coarse comb.

5. Follow the gilling by the operation of _combing_, which you will do by combing again, this time with a fine comb.

6. Pull about three inches again from the sliver. Continue to gill and comb by section until the entire sliver has been gilled and combed.

7. Combine several strands into one and subject the one strand to a second process of gilling to make sure that all fibers are side by side.

8. Gently draw out this strand of combed long fibers known as top. As you draw, spin. As you spin, wind on a lead pencil. The fineness of the yarn depends on the amount of drawing and twisting.

9. What is the source of wool? You began with wool, covering of the sheep's body, and after subjecting it to a series of operations you have converted it into yarn which is ready for weaving.

10. Name the operations in order, through which raw wool passes before it finally becomes yarn.

_Questions_

1. What are the first three processes through which wool passes? What is shearing? scouring?

2. Why is wool oiled?

3. What is meant by a sliver of wool?

4. What does gilling do to the wool?

5. What does combing do to the wool?

6. Why is there another operation of gilling after combing?

7. What is meant by _drawing_? _spinning_?

8. What name is given to the wool wound on the pencil?

9. On what does the fineness of the yarn depend?

=Experiment 17--Difference between Woolen and Worsted Yarn=

Apparatus: Pick glass.
Materials: Sample of woolen cloth and worsted cloth.
References: _Textiles_, pages 50 and 51.

_Directions_

Take a piece of worsted fabric and separate a piece of yarn from either the warp or filling. Do the same with a piece of woolen fabric. Notice the appearance of each piece of yarn. Which is smoother? What effect would friction have on the worsted yarn? the woolen yarn? Which sample of yarn would shine and reflect the light?

=Experiment 18--Burling and Mending=

Apparatus: Chalk, scissors, dissecting pin, needle, pick glass.
Material: 4 square inches of cloth from the loom.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 71.

_Directions_

1. Cloth from the loom is far from being a finished product. It must pass through several processes before it is finished. These processes are known as _finishing_.

2. What is the feel of this cloth?

3. Hold the cloth to the light and look through it. Note the imperfections and chalk them. What defects did you notice?

4. Place the cloth on the desk, face down. Rub the fingers over the back of the cloth. When the fingers locate a knot, raise it with the dissecting needle to be cut off later.

5. Reverse the cloth. Rub the fingers over the face. When a knot is found, force it through to the back with the dissecting needle. All the knots are on one side now. Clip them off with the scissors. This is called _burling_ and is the first process of finishing.

6. Hold the cloth to the light. Notice where an entire filling thread is missing. This is known as a _full miss pick_. When part of a filling thread is missing it is spoken of as a _half miss pick_. In general what does a miss pick mean?

7. Unravel a filling thread from the lower edge of the cloth. With it thread a needle and replace the missing pick. Follow the weave closely, using a pick glass as an aid. You are performing the second process of finishing, that of mending.

8. If a warp end is missing replace it.

_Questions_

1. What is meant by _finishing_?

2. What is the first process of finishing? What is burling?

3. What is a full miss pick? a half miss pick?

4. What is the second process of finishing? What is mending? Of what must the mender be careful?

=Experiment 19--Removal of Stains=

Material: Stained fabrics.

Textiles are easily stained, therefore it is necessary to know something about the character of stains and the methods of removal. Stains may be roughly divided into the following classes:

_a._ Stains from foods, such as grease and fruit acids.

_b._ Stains from machinery, as wheel grease and oils.

_c._ Blood stains.

_d._ Inks.

_e._ Chemicals, such as acids, alkalies.

Food stains are usually due either to grease contained in soup, meat, milk, etc., or to sugar contained in candies or preserves, or to fruit acids contained in fresh fruits or sauces.

Wheel grease and lubricant stains are obtained from various parts of machines, like elevators, street cars, etc. After the cloth leaves the loom it often contains spots of grease, oil, or dirt stains due to drippings from the loom or overhead machinery. These are removed by means of liquids called solvents that dissolve the stain. Ether is the principal solvent used in the mill to remove small stains.

Very few people realize that vapors of cooked food and fat, unless carried out of a house, will condense and settle on fabrics in the form of a film which collects a great deal of dust. (A bad grease spot usually has a neglected grease spot for a foundation.) In order to break up this film it is necessary to separate the entangled dust. This is performed by some mechanical means, such as shaking and brushing.

The most effective method of removing a stain is to place a circle of absorbent material[24] around the spot to take up the excess of liquid. A white cloth should be placed under the fabric to absorb the solvent and show when the goods are clean. Then apply the solvent with a cloth of the same color and texture (satin is excellent as it does not grow linty) and rub from outside the spot to the center to prevent spreading. It is necessary to rub very carefully as excessive rubbing will remove the nap and change the color. One of the great dangers in removing a stain is that you may spoil the fabric. Therefore great care must be exercised.

The principal solvents are ether, chloroform, alcohol, turpentine, benzene, and naphtha. Each solvent may be used to best advantage on certain fabrics.

The commercial grades of the solvents often contain impurities that leave a brown ring after evaporation. This brown ring is very objectionable. Turpentine is used only in removing stains from coarse fabrics. Chloroform, benzene, and naphtha are used on ordinary silks and linens. Ether and chloroform are used to best advantage in removing stains from delicate silk, as they seldom affect colors and evaporate very quickly. Of course it must be borne in mind that when a stain is removed from a fabric that portion that contained the stain loses some coloring matter and feels rougher than the other part.

_Grease Spots on Heavy Goods that cannot be Laundered_

It is usually desirable to use the following method in removing grease from a heavy fabric, such as carpets or colored fabrics. In case the grease is fresh, place over the stain a piece of clean blotting paper or a piece of butcher's brown wrapping paper and underneath absorbent paper or oil cloth, and then press the spot with a warm iron. As heat often affects the shades of certain colors such as blues, greens, and reds, it is best to hold a hot iron over the fabric and see if the grease is melted.

Remove a stain from a piece of carpet.

_Removal of Grease and Blood_

_Ordinary Fabrics (wash goods)._ Wash the fabric containing grease or blood stain with tepid water and soap.

_Delicate Fabrics._ As strong soap will spoil some colors and textures it is necessary to apply a solvent when a delicate fabric is stained.

Remove stains from a washable fabric and a delicate fabric.

_Removal of Wheel Grease and Lubricants on Fine Fabrics_

Wheel grease is a mixture of oils and graphite. Apply benzene to the wheel grease spot. This will dissolve the oil, leaving the coloring matter (graphite) on the cloth, and this may be collected on the white cloth on the other side.

Remove a wheel grease stain from a dress fabric.

_Removal of Acids_

Fruit acids and all others, except nitric acid may be removed by putting ammonia on the spot. This will neutralize the acid, forming a salt which may be either brushed or washed off. In the case of nitric acid the fibers of the cloth are actually destroyed and no amount of ammonia will restore the original condition of the fabric.

Remove a stain of orange juice from a dress or shirt waist.

_Removal of Blood_

Blood stains may be removed from a fabric by washing with cold or tepid water. Never use hot water, as hot water coagulates the albumen of the blood. After removing the blood soap and warm water may be used. In case the fabric is a thick cloth, the blood may be removed by applications of moist starch.

Take different samples of fabrics and soil them with fruit acids, soup, wheel grease, ink, and blood and remove them. Exercise great care so as not to leave a mark or remove the coloring.

Remove blood from a fabric.

_Questions_

1. What is a solvent? an absorbent?

2. What is the best solvent to be used in removing stains from silks, coarse goods, and linens? from delicate silks?

3. Why is a brown ring often left after removing a stain?

4. How may grease and blood stain be removed from wash goods?

5. What is wheel grease? How may it be removed?

6. How will ammonia remove acid stains?

7. Does it remove all? Why not?

8. Explain the method of removing blood stain from cloth.

=Experiment 20--Dyeing Wool=

Apparatus: Large porcelain dish or casserole, filter.
Materials: Undyed piece of woolen and worsted fabric, undyed yarn,
and undyed raw cloth.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 65.

_Directions_

1. Prepare a solution of coloring matter by dissolving a half ounce of diamond dye (green or red) in a quart of water. Filter the solution. Place a piece of white woolen cloth in the liquid and boil ten minutes. Then wash the dyed fabric and notice whether the dyestuff washes off or not.

2. Repeat the experiment, using the same weight of undyed woolen yarn. Repeat with worsted yarn.

3. Repeat the experiment using the same weight of wool sliver.

4. Notice which has the deeper color. The degree of color depends on the amount of twist in yarn. Which sample has absorbed the greatest amount of dyestuff from the liquid?

_a._ Why is a yarn-dyed fabric faster than a piece-dyed?

_b._ Why is a raw stock dyed fabric better than piece or
yarn dyed?

=Experiment 21--Dyeing Cotton=

Apparatus: Porcelain dish, filter stand, etc.
Material: Piece of cotton cloth.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 67.

_Directions_

1. Prepare a solution of coloring matter by dissolving a half ounce of logwood in a quart of water. Filter the solution. Place a piece of cotton cloth in the liquid and boil ten minutes. Then wash the dyed fabric and notice whether the dyestuff washes off or not.

2. Repeat the same experiment and use a piece of cotton cloth that has been previously washed in common alum.[25] Note the effect. Which has the greater attraction for dyestuffs, cotton or wool? Why is alum used?

3. Repeat the same experiment, using first the same weight of cotton yarn and then the same weight of cotton sliver. Notice the results.

Which piece of cotton holds the dye best, that which was dipped in alum or the one that was simply boiled in the solution?

=Experiment 22--Weighting Silk.--Affinity of Metallic Salts for Silk=

Apparatus: Porcelain dishes.
Material: Silk yarn.
Reference: _Textiles_, pages 212-214.

_Directions_

1. Weigh separately two skeins of dry silk and distinguish skein No. 1 by looping some cotton thread into it. Prepare a tepid bath containing 10 gm. strong sumach extract in 400 cc. water. Enter the skeins of silk and work for 15 to 20 minutes, meanwhile slowly raising the temperature to about 150° F. Remove, squeeze, rinse with water, squeeze, and dry skein No. 1 for weighing.

2. Meanwhile prepare another bath containing 4 gm. of copperas (ferrous sulphate) in 400 cc. cold water. Work skein No. 2 in bath for 10 minutes cold. Remove, and rinse well; save the iron bath. Repeat the treatment in the sumach and iron baths several times more, finally wash the sumach iron skein in 1 per cent hot soap solution; rinse, squeeze, and dry. Weigh each dried and cooled skein and note the increase in weight of each. Save sample for Experiment 23 and note the effect of weighting on the yarn.

=Experiment 23--Dyeing Silk=

Apparatus: Porcelain dish, filter stand, etc.
Material: Piece of silk yarn.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 210.

_Directions_

1. Prepare a solution of coloring matter by dissolving a half ounce of logwood in a quart of water. Filter the solution. Place a piece of silk skein, from Experiment 22, in the liquid and boil ten minutes. Then wash the dyed silk and notice whether the dyestuff washes off or not.

2. Repeat the same experiment using the same weight of silk yarn without weighing it. Compare the results.

=Experiment 24--Test to Distinguish Piece-Dyed from Yarn-Dyed Fabric=

Apparatus: Pen knife.
Materials: Woolen and cotton fabrics.
Reference: _Textiles_, pages 66-68.

_Directions_

Unravel threads of the suspected sample, and with a blade of pen knife note whether the dyestuff has penetrated through the yarn as noted by the depth of color in the interior of the yarn. In case there is the same depth of color in the interior as on the surface, the fabric is yarn-dyed. If on the other hand, the interior of the yarn is not so highly colored as the exterior, it is piece-dyed.

_Questions_

1. What is meant by yarn-dyed fabric?

2. What is meant by piece-dyed fabric?

3. How may the two be distinguished?

=Experiment 25--Test to Distinguish Dyed from Printed Fabrics=

Apparatus: Knife-blade.
Materials: Cotton fabrics.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 65.

Printed fabrics may be distinguished from dyed by observing the back side of the cloth, and noting whether or not the pattern on the face of the cloth penetrates through to the back, or only the outline shows. In case the figure or pattern is on both sides of the fabric, it may be distinguished from the dyed by taking one thread of the suspected sample, and by the means of a knife-blade attempting to scrape off the coloring on the surface of the thread. If the dyestuff has penetrated into the interior of the thread, it is _not_ printed.

Generally speaking, printed fabrics are known from dyed fabrics by the fact that the former have the design printed on the face of the cloth. This is called _direct printing_. The best dyed fabrics are obtained by dyeing in what is called a _jig_, and the whole fabric is saturated with color. Most, if not all the cloths which you see in the retail dry goods stores which are in plain colors are dyed in the jig. Some of the cheaper qualities of dyed fabrics are padded in a mangle, but there has been a very small quantity of these goods on the market for many years.

Printed fabrics may be made as fast as dyed fabrics; it all depends upon the process by which the goods are converted. Within the past few years great headway has been made in dyeing with what are termed _vat_ colors. Indanthrene is a vat color and a great many mills have used this class of dye successfully in dyeing plain shades. This is what would be termed a _fast_ color in every sense of the word. There are a number of dyestuff makers in Europe who put vat colors on the market, but they all call them by different names. Vat colors have been used with success in printing during the past year or two, especially on shirting fabrics, and these colors are fast to both light and washing. Most direct colors used for printing or dyeing are equally fast to light and washing, but of course they will not stand the test as well as the vat colors mentioned above.

The essential qualities of a good printed fabric are its ability to withstand exposure to light and washing. In printing, of course, a greater variety of desirable styles can be obtained than by dyeing, in fact there are certain popular lines of goods now on the market the effect of the designs of which cannot be obtained in any other way than by printing. At the same time, although the field in designing for dyed fabrics is limited, some very handsome effects can be obtained.

It will not be many years before a large proportion of the printed and dyed fabrics put on the market, both foreign and domestic, will be in the vat colors which, as stated above, are very fast. Even at the present time there are many mills that are using this class of colors entirely, especially the mills which manufacture woven fabrics.

_Questions_

1. In printed fabrics is the pattern clearly discernible on the back of the cloth?

2. If the fabric is printed on both sides, how may this fact be proved?

3. What is the difference between printed and dyed fabrics?

=Experiment 26--Bleaching by Sulphur Dioxide=

Apparatus: A quart bottle.
Material: Sulphur, worsted or silk fabric.

Bleaching powder cannot be used in bleaching animal fibers such as woolen and silk fabrics. It injures the fibers and at the same time leaves them yellow.

Animal fibers are best bleached by immersing in an aqueous solution of sulphurous acid or exposing them to fumes of burning sulphur.

Wet a piece of dyed worsted or silk fabric and hang it in a quart bottle containing fumes of burning sulphur.[26] The fumes of burning sulphur have an affinity for coloring matter--dyestuff. The fumes (called sulphur dioxide) do not in most cases destroy the coloring matter as chlorine does, but simply combine with it to form colorless compounds which can be destroyed. The color can be restored by exposing the bleached fabric to dilute sulphuric acid.

_Questions_

1. Why is it necessary that the fabric be moist in order to be bleached by sulphur dioxide fumes?

2. What becomes of the coloring matter?

=Experiment 27--Bleaching by Bleaching Powder=

Apparatus: Porcelain dish.
Material: Piece of calico.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 148.

_Directions_

Place a quarter of an ounce of bleaching powder in a quart bottle containing a pint of water.[27] Then place a piece of calico in the water containing the bleaching powder. What is the effect on the calico? Then remove cloth to another bottle filled with dilute hydrochloric or dilute sulphuric acid. What is the effect on the color? Then wash the whitened cloth thoroughly in water.

Why is it necessary in practice to pass cotton fabrics through two baths in bleaching? What is contained in the first bath? in the second bath?

=Experiment 30--Determining Style of Weave=

Apparatus: Pick glass.
Materials: Different fabrics.
References: _Textiles_, pages 56-58, etc.

Examine different samples of cloth and classify them according to the seven standards given on pages 56-58, etc.

=Experiment 31--Determining the Size of Yarn=

Apparatus: Yard stick.
Materials: Sample of cotton, woolen, and worsted yarns.
References: _Textiles_, pages 49, 51, 52.

As yarns used in the manufacture of fabrics are of all degrees of thickness, it became necessary to adopt some method of measuring this thickness. For this purpose yarns are numbered, so that when the number is known an idea of the size of the yarn may be gained. It would seem advisable to number yarns of all kinds according to one fixed standard, yet unfortunately this is not done. The methods of counting yarns are many and varied. The usual method is to estimate the yarn number by taking the number of hands of a definite length which make up some given weight. Thus in the worsted yarn, No. 1 is a yarn that has 560 yards to a pound. No. 2 worsted yarn has two times 560 yards to a pound. How many yards in No. 12 worsted yarn? How many yards in No. 20 cotton yarn?

=Experiment 32--Test for Twist in Yarn=

Apparatus: Test dial.
Material: Piece of yarn.
References: _Textiles_, pages 131-132.

As the amount of twist in yarn determines its strength, it is necessary to know the amount of twist per inch in given yarn. The strength increases up to a certain limit. When this limit is reached, increased twist does not make the thread any stronger. We may also have twist and strength at the expense of bulk. The test consists in finding out the number of turns per inch, and this is done by an arrangement where a certain length of yarn is stretched between two points on a twisting machine and the twist taken out. The number of turns required to take the twist completely out are registered on a dial at the side of the apparatus.

Poor cotton that goes into coarse goods cannot be spun as fine as the finer cotton. The shorter the cotton the more twist is required to spin it, and the more twist that is put into the yarn, the less will be the yardage. Whereas on the finer and longer cotton there will be less twist put into it, and the yarn will be much stronger. Find the twist in different kinds of yarn.

=Experiment 33--Determining the Direction of Warp and Filling=

Apparatus: Microscope.
Materials: Silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 238.

When one examines a fabric the first thing to do is to determine the direction of the warp and direction of the filling.

Fabrics with Selvedge.--Examine any fabric with a selvedge and notice that the warp threads run in the same direction as the length (longest side) of the selvedge. What direction will the filling threads bear to the selvedge?

Fabrics with a Nap.--Examine a piece of flannel and notice the direction of the nap. Why will the direction of the nap be the same as the direction of the warp? Remember the way in which the fabric enters the napping machine.

Fabrics Containing Double Threads.--Examine a fabric containing double and single threads and notice that the warp contains the double threads. Why?

Fabrics Containing Cotton and Woolen Yarn.--Examine a fabric containing cotton and woolen threads running in different directions and notice that the cotton threads form the warp. Why?

Another way to tell the warp threads in a fabric is to examine warp and filling threads very closely and notice which set contains the greater twist? Why? See if they are separated at more regular intervals. Why?

Stiffened or Starched Fabrics.--Examine stiffened or starched goods very closely and notice the threads. If only one set can be seen they are the warp threads. The stiffer and straighter threads are found in the warp. Why? The rough and crooked threads are seen in the filling.

=Experiment 34--Determining the Density of a Fabric=

Apparatus: Pick glass.
Materials: Samples of cloth.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 238.

_Directions_

1. Examine different samples of cloth and determine the number of filling threads and warp threads by means of a pick glass.

2. Then examine different priced fabrics of the same kind and see whether the low or high priced fabric has the greater density.

=Experiment 35--Determining Weight=

Apparatus: Balances, die.
Materials: 4 square inches of cloth.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 239.

_Directions_

1. Fabrics are bought and sold by the yard. In order to express the amount of wool or cotton in a fabric the weight in ounces per yard is usually given.

2. In order to find the number of ounces per yard a piece of cloth of definite size, usually about 4 sq. in., is stamped out by means of a die, or cut by means of a tin plate exactly 4 sq. in. (2 in. on the side). This is then weighed on very accurate balances and expressed in grains. Find the weight per yard. Remember 7000 grains equal 1 lb.; 16 oz. equal 1 lb.

=Experiment 36--Determining Shrinkage=

Apparatus: Hot water.
Material: Sample of woolen fabric.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 239.

_Directions_

1. Take a sample of a woolen fabric 12 in. by 20 in. and pour hot water over it and leave it immersed over night. Then dry it in the morning at a moderate temperature without stretching. Then measure its length and divide the difference in lengths by the original length. The quotient multiplied by 100 will give the per cent of shrinkage.

2. Repeat the same experiment with a worsted fabric, and with a cotton fabric.

3. Why does the woolen fabric shrink more than the worsted?

=Experiment 37--Test of Fastness[28] of Color under Washing=

Apparatus: Porcelain dish, soap solution. Materials: Cotton and woolen fabrics. Reference: _Textiles_, page 242.

_Directions_

1. Colored goods and printed fabrics should withstand the action of washing. They require more care than white goods and should be soaked in cold water containing very little soap and no soda. They should be dried in the shade as a very hot sun will fade them. If it is necessary to dry them in the sun be sure that they are dried wrong side out, as direct sunlight fades them about five times as much as reflected light.

2. All colored fabrics should stand mechanical friction as well as the action of soap liquor and the temperature of the washing operation. In order to test the fabric for fastness a piece should be placed in a soap solution similar to that used in the ordinary household, and heated to 131° F. The treatment should be repeated several times.

3. If the color fails to run it is fast to washing.

_Questions_

1. Why should more care be exercised in washing colored goods than white?

2. How may colored fabrics be tested to show that they stand the action of soap solution?

3. Does a moderately warm temperature (131° F.) affect the fastness of colored fabric?

=Experiment 38--Test of Fastness of Color under Friction=

Apparatus: Yarn, white unstarched cotton fabric.
Materials: Fabrics worn near the skin.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 242.

_Directions_

Stockings, hosiery yarns, corset stuffs, and all fabrics intended to be worn next to the skin must be closely knitted to withstand friction and must not rub off, stain, or run, that is, the dyed materials must not give off their color when worn next to the human epidermis (skin), or in close contact with other articles of clothing, as in the case of underwear.

In order to test two fabrics to see which is the better, it is necessary to rub the fabric or yarn on white unstarched cotton fabric.

In comparing the fastness of color of two fabrics it is necessary to have the rubbing equal in all cases.

_Questions_

1. What is meant by friction?

2. What is meant by the expression "fastness of color of two fabrics"?

3. How may the fastness of a colored material be tested to withstand friction?

=Experiment 39--Test of Fastness of Color against Rain=

Apparatus: Water, undyed yarn.
Materials: Silk and woolen fabrics.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 243.

_Directions_

Silk and woolen materials for umbrella making, raincoats, etc., are expected to be rainproof. These fabrics are tested by plaiting with undyed yarns and left to stand all night in water. Notice whether the color of the fabric has run into the undyed yarns.

Take a sample of the fabric and shake some drops of water on it. Notice whether it loses its luster when the drops have dried. Spotting may be prevented by placing a damp cloth on the wrong side of the material; roll the two together, and when evenly damp, unroll and press through the damp cloth with a fairly hot iron.

Place a piece of the fabric in the sun so that the sun and rain may come in contact with it. Notice whether it loses its color and becomes gray and dull.

=Experiment 40--Test of Fastness of Color in Sunlight=

Apparatus: Cardboard.
Materials: Silk, woolen, and cotton fabrics.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 244.

_Directions_

Cover one end of the sample of cloth with a piece of cardboard. Expose the fabric to the sunlight for a number of days and examine the cloth each day and notice whether the part exposed has changed in color when compared with the part covered. Count the number of days it has taken the sunlight to change the color. Does direct sunlight have any effect upon colored fabrics? Which is the most affected by the sun, silk, woolen, or cotton fabrics, dyed with same dyestuff, in the same length of time? Are fabrics changed any sooner by the sun than by the weather?

=Experiment 41--Test of Fastness of Color to Weather, Light, and Air=

Materials: Cotton, silk, and woolen fabrics.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 244.

_Directions_