Textiles, for Commercial, Industrial, and Domestic Arts Schools

Chapter XXV: Appendix (3)

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Examine various fabrics for fastness to weather, light, and air by placing samples outside of a window so that they will be exposed to the weather, light, and air. Have duplicate samples of the above away from the weather and light. Compare the samples exposed to the weather with those in the house and note the number of days it takes to change. Classify the fabrics. Which of the fabrics are most easily affected by the weather, light, and air?

=Experiment 42--Test of Fastness of Color against Street Mud and Dust=

Apparatus: Porcelain dish, lime, and water.
Materials: Cotton, silk, and woolen fabrics.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 243.

Ladies' dress goods are expected to withstand the action of mud and dust. In order to test a fabric for the resistance, the sample should be moistened with lime and water (10 per cent solution), dried, and brushed. Or sprinkle with a 10 per cent solution of soda, drying, brushing, and noting any change in the color.

_a._ Is there any change in color after the lime water
has been removed from the cloth?

_b._ With what may the action of the lime water or soda
be compared?

=Experiment 43--Testing Rubberized Fabrics=

Materials: Rubberized fabrics.

A great many rubberized fabrics are used for hospitals, domestic purposes and for clothing. On account of the high price of excellent rubberized fabrics a great many substitutes are placed on the market that are satisfactory to the eye, but have not the wearing qualities for the service they are intended to render.

Strength and Resistance to Scratching.--In order to test a rubberized fabric to see if it has the necessary strength to stand everyday use, see if it is possible to scratch it with the finger nail. Then crease it and crumple it between the hands. Then spread it out very carefully and notice whether there are any broken places. If there are it should be rejected.

Waterproof Qualities.--A rubberized fabric should be waterproof. A sample may be tested by forming a bag with it and filling it with water. Crumple the bag while it is filled with water. Notice whether it cracks or leaks.

Examine various rubberized fabrics and notice whether they are substantial.

=Experiment 44--Test for Vegetable and Animal Fiber=

Apparatus: Acid, fire.
Materials: Warp and filling threads of cotton and woolen fabrics.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 239.

_Directions_

One of the most useful tests is to see whether an article is made of wool, cotton, or silk, and if a composition of two or more materials, to estimate the percentage of each. Practical experience can teach one much in this respect, and in many cases inspection is quite insufficient. A more reliable test is to burn a piece of material and notice how it burns.

Take a sample of a woolen and cotton fabric; separate the warp and filling and untwist one piece of warp and one piece of filling yarn. Burn a piece of untwisted yarn and notice whether it burns slowly and curls up into a black crisp cinder leaving a disagreeable smell, or burns with a flash leaving a light ash behind.

_Questions_

1. Describe the burning process.

2. What is the burning test for vegetable fiber?

3. What is the burning test for animal fiber?

Repeat the same experiment, placing the untwisted yarn in sulphuric acid. Apply heat and note the effect.

What is the acid test for vegetable fiber?

What is the acid test for animal fiber?

Examine different fabrics to see whether they contain vegetable or animal fibers.

=Experiment 45--Difference between Cotton and Linen Fabrics=

Examine a real linen towel and a cotton towel. Wet your hands and use both towels to dry them. Notice which of the fabrics absorbs the moisture quicker, or which towel dries the hands better.

Compare a cotton table-cloth and a linen table-cloth. Notice that the linen fabric has a natural gloss, a cool, smooth feel, and launders much better than cotton. The cotton fabric on the other hand gives off a fuzz, and irons dull and shapeless.[29]

Linen is tough and strong, cool feeling, and has a long fiber. Linen cannot be given a cotton fabric finish.[30]

Cotton on the other hand has a weak, short fiber, dull, warm, and non-absorbent. After washing, cotton resembles a limp rag while linen retains firmness and stiffness.

Which fabric absorbs the moisture more readily?

What is the difference in appearance between the two fabrics? Between the fibers of the fabrics?

=Experiment 46--Test to Distinguish Artificial Silk from Silk=

Apparatus: Porcelain dish, potassium hydrate.
Material: Piece of silk fabric.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 240.

Since silk fabrics, particularly hosiery, are becoming popular, various attempts have been made to produce substitutes for real silk. To test a silk fabric, boil the sample in 4 per cent potassium hydrate solution and note the effect. If it produces a yellow solution it is artificial silk, if colorless it is pure silk.

Another simple way used by some workmen, although unhygienic, is to unravel a few threads of the suspected fabric, place them in the mouth, and masticate them vigorously. Artificial silk will soften under the operation and break up into a mass of pulp. Natural silk will retain its fibrous strength.

Test various samples of cheap "silk" hosiery.

=Experiment 47--Test to Distinguish Silk from Wool=

Apparatus: Porcelain dish, hydrochloric acid.
Material: Silk or woolen fabric.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 240.

Silk may be distinguished from wool by putting the suspected thread or fabric into cold concentrated hydrochloric acid. If silk is present it will dissolve, while wool merely swells.

Test various samples of silk and wool.

=Experiment 48--Test to Distinguish Cotton from Linen=

Apparatus: Fuchsine, ammonia.
Materials: Cotton and linen fabrics.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 240.

_Directions_

1. On account of the high price of linen various attempts are made to pass cotton off for linen. While it is possible sometimes to detect cotton by rolling the suspected fabric between the thumb and finger, the better way is to stain the fabric with fuchsine. If the fibers of the fabric turn red, and this coloration disappears upon the addition of ammonia, they are cotton; if the red color remains, the fibers are linen. The most reliable test is to examine the fiber under the microscope and note the difference in structure.

2. Test a cheap _linen_ fabric for cotton.

3. When cotton yarn is used to adulterate linen it becomes fuzzy through wear, and when used to adulterate other fabrics, it wears shabby and loses its brightness. Linen is a heavier fabric, and wrinkles much more readily than cotton. It wears better, and has an exquisite freshness that is not found in cotton fabrics.

4. Describe a chemical test for linen.

5. What is the difference in appearance and wearing qualities of cotton and linen?

=Experiment 49--Test of Fabric to Withstand Ironing and Pressing=

Apparatus: Hot iron.
Materials: Silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics.

_Directions_

Place the sample over an ironing board and iron it with hot iron (about 200° F.). Compare the sample immediately with one not ironed. Remember that many colors, particularly colored silks, change while they are hot. If the original shade returns when the fabric has cooled, then the fabric is fast to ironing and pressing.

_Questions_

1. What is the object of ironing and pressing clothes?

2. Is it a good plan to press clothes often?

3. Is there any difference in the effect of the hot iron on the three kinds of fabrics?

=Experiment 50--Test of Fabric to Withstand Perspiration=

Apparatus: Porcelain dish.
Materials: Silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 243.

_Directions_

1. In addition to withstanding the action of coming in contact with the human skin, fabrics like hosiery, etc., should withstand the excretions of the body.

2. To test a fabric for resistance, place the sample in a bath of dilute acid made by adding one teaspoonful of acetic acid to a quart of water warmed to the temperature of the body, 98.6° F. The fabric should be dipped a number of times, and then dried, without rinsing, between parchment paper.

_Questions_

1. What is the effect of the acid solution upon the fabrics?

2. Would they necessarily withstand the effect of perspiration, even if they did withstand the acetic acid solution? Why?

=Experiment 51--Test for Determining Dressing=

Apparatus: Magnifying glass, porcelain dish.
Materials: Various fabrics.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 242.

_Directions_

1. A great many cotton fabrics such as muslin often contain considerable sizing or dressing. In order to examine a fabric and determine whether too much dressing has been used, take a small sample of the fabric and crush it in the hand and rub it together, so that the dressing is removed and the quantity employed may be determined. If much dressing has been used, dust will be produced in rubbing. Prick the surface with your finger nail. Notice whether the starch comes off. Then wet your finger and rub it on the cloth and allow it to dry. Does the gloss disappear?

2. Another method is to hold the sample before the light and notice whether you can recognize the dressing. Examine the sample with a magnifying glass (or pick glass) and notice whether the dressing is superficial or penetrates the substance of the fabric.

3. Would you buy low priced cotton goods with a thick gloss and pasty look?

4. Notice the effect (lusterless) of fabrics containing much dressing after washing.

5. A very simple way for telling the amount of loading or weighting in a cotton fabric is to weigh a given sample, then "boil the fabric out in hot water,"--boiling for several hours and then drying it. The difference in weight after drying and before boiling gives the weight of sizing material per sample piece.

6. If mineral loading has been used to a great extent, a large residue is left after burning.

=Experiment 52--Testing the Strength of Cloth=

Apparatus: Dynamometer.
Materials: Various fabrics.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 237.

_Directions_

1. An excellent way to test the strength of a fabric is to place the two thumbs together and press them down on the sample, holding it tight underneath. Then try to break the threads, first in one direction and then in the other. Do they break easily? Notice whether one set is very much stronger than the other.

2. Manufacturers usually test yarn and fabrics by means of an instrument called a dynamometer. In this way one can find out whether a yarn or fabric comes up to the necessary strength, and whether it has the required yield or stretch. Both these points are of importance in practical work, for it is essential that the yarn as shown should at least be strong enough to bear the strain of manufacture. The test is made by stretching a hank of yarn between the two hooks of a cloth testing machine. The handle at the side is now turned, so that the lower hook descends and puts a strain on the hank. This strain is increased, and at the same time the pointer moves around the dial, which indicates in pounds the amount of strain. When the threads of the hank begin to break, the strain is released, and the catch at the side keeps the pointer in position until the amount of strain is read on the dial. The distance stretched by the yarn before breakage occurs is shown in inches and fractions of an inch, in the small indicator arranged near the upper hook.

Test different fabrics and yarns.

=Experiment 53--Characteristics of a Knitted Fabric=

Apparatus: Pick glass.
Materials: Knitted fabric, woven fabric.
Reference: _Textiles_, page 153.

_Directions_

1. Examine a piece of knitted fabric under the pick glass and notice the construction. How does it differ from weaving? The single thread is formed into rows of loops which hang upon each other, thus giving the knitted fabric its characteristic springiness. Why is hosiery suitable for underwear? Try to obtain the thread of the knitted fabric and reduce the whole to a heap of yarn by cutting it. Is the yarn intact?

2. A knitted fabric may be told from a woven fabric by studying the following sketch. (See page 310.)

Note that the element of stretch or elasticity is wholly lacking in the woven cloth except what lengthwise elasticity may be in the threads themselves. On the other hand, referring to the printed diagram of the knitted fabric it will just as readily be seen that its very structure implies such a corrugation of its individual loops that if distended by force in any direction its tendency is to return to the normal.

The essential characteristics of good hose are:

1. That they should be without seams.

2. That they should be so knit as to conform to the foot of the wearer.

3. That they should be thickened or reinforced where the greatest wear comes.

_a._ Weft. _b._ Warp.]

The essential characteristics of good underwear are:

1. It should be made from elastic cloth, which implies a knitted cloth.

2. It should be porous in a high degree--whether in winter weight or summer weight.

3. The seams should be made upon the most modern sewing machines, with as little bulk as possible.

=Experiment 54--Experiment to Illustrate Imperfections in Hosiery=

Apparatus: Magnifying glass.
Materials: Hosiery (seconds).
Reference: _Textiles_, page 159.

Examine a piece of hosiery called a _second_, obtained from a hosiery mill, and notice whether any of the following defects are present:

_a._ Yarn contains thick bits and buns.

_b._ Knots are badly tied.

_c._ Discolored yarn.

_d._ Lacks solidity and firmness, due to the gauge being
too coarse for the yarn.

_e._ Full work-yarn too thick for gauge.

=Experiment 55--Characteristics of a Crochet Fabric=

Apparatus: Crochet needle.
Material: Thread.

_Directions_

1. Crocheting is another method, like knitting, of making a fabric. Examine the operation of crocheting. Notice that only one thread is made use of, and is formed into loops by means of a large needle with a hook at the end. The chief point is that the loops are not formed in uniform rows, but one loop at a time, and with the greatest liberty to choose any part of the article already made to form a new loop. For this reason, crocheting adapts itself to the production of fancy patterns useful for ornamenting.

2. A knitted fabric can be told from a crocheted fabric by noting that a knitted fabric is composed of rows or ranks of loops of a single yarn which interlock successively with similar rows or ranks of loops, while a crocheted fabric consists of a structure the basis of which is a thread crocheted or knitted into a chain which is attached at intervals to itself.

=Experiment 56--Characteristics of a Good Piece of Cotton Cloth=

Materials: Different samples of cotton fabrics.
Reference: _Textiles_, pages 151-152.

_Directions_

1. Examine different kinds of cotton fabrics. Compare the lowest, medium, and highest priced varieties of the same fabric. Notice how quickly the finish of a low priced cotton fabric with a _thick_ gloss loses its luster after washing.

2. Examine the different grades of the following fabrics: white lawn, Indian Head cotton suiting, muslin, lawn, and cambric. Wash the samples several times.

Does it pay to buy cheap cotton fabrics for underwear, etc.?

What are the characteristics of a good piece of cotton cloth?

=Experiment 57--Characteristics of a Good Piece of Woolen Cloth=

Materials: Different samples of woolens.
Reference: _Textiles_, pages 71-82.

_Directions_

1. Woolens differ from worsteds in having a more or less covered face, with the result that the weave rarely is noticeable, and the general color effects are much smoother and softer than those of worsteds.

2. Examine different grades of woolen fabrics, such as serges.

Defects.--If a piece of woolen is not constructed right from the start or if the work is not properly finished, that is, enough fulled in width or length, it is liable to be raggy or slazy. As a great many fabrics are more or less teaseled, there is a possibility of such pieces becoming too woolly and too hairy.

=Experiment 58--Characteristics of a Good Piece of Worsted Cloth=

Materials: Different kinds of worsted fabrics.
Reference: _Textiles_, pages 71-82.

_Directions_

1. A good piece of worsted fabric should have a clear outline of the pattern, perfection of weave lines, and when the fabric is exposed to light should show a luster without polish.

2. Examine different types of worsted fabrics, and notice how many conform to the above requirements.

3. The most essential point of worsted is that it should have a clean and even looking face. By clean is meant well sheared. By even is meant that the individual ends and picks used should be _even_ and not full of knots, or of any foreign matter. Of course, there are some exceptions, for instance, in an unfinished worsted which has more or less nap on the face, it could not be sheared absolutely clear, but at the same time, the face should be very evenly cropped.

Defects.--A serious defect would be if the cloth was not well sheared or if it contained many uneven cords and picks, or ends and picks missing, or coarse ends and slubs.

Examine different worsteds and notice any defects.

WORSTEDS.--Speaking generally, worsteds may be divided into two classes, distinguishable according to the _luster_ of their surface, or to the softness of their feel. They are used both for ladies' and men's wear. Worsted coatings may also be classed as worsteds. The coatings are woven in both single and double cloths in fancy weave effects for piece dyes, marketed in variety of finish, according to fashion.

Under this heading may be classified staple cloths, such as serges, clays, and fancy weave effects without any illumination. They can be finished in three ways:--Clear, undressed, and cheviot, used for ladies' dress goods or men's wear, according to weight.

The finish of the cloth varies according to the fashion, but there is always a certain demand for clear and undressed worsteds, for men's wear.

Examine a number of worsted fabrics and classify them.

SUITINGS.--The term suitings covers various manipulations of manufactured goods.

1. Tennis suitings, composed of all wool, or all worsted, white or cream ground, decorated with solid color, silk and weave stripe effects.

2. Piece-dyed worsteds, such as a blue ground with white silk line, cable cord, and fancy weave stripe effects, or any other ground shade color with its complementary decoration applied.

3. Mixture wool or mixture worsted yarns made into fabrics, decorations applied in color; cable, silk, and weave effects in stripes or overline color checks, suitable for men's wear, or decorated suitable for woman's wear. The darker shades for fall and the lighter shades for spring.

General weight of fabric for men's wear, 12 to 14 oz. per yd., 56 in.; general weight of fabric for ladies' wear, 8 to 12 oz. per yd., 54 in.

4. As a rule, when one speaks of a suiting, you expect to see a fancy effect, in the form of a fancy stripe, check, or a colored mixture, in loud or quiet tones of decoration. Long naps in fancy effects are sometimes fashionable, and at other times the cloth finish is popular.

This class may be subdivided into

1. Light weight for spring or fall.

2. Heavy weight for winter.

The light weight class generally consists of covert cloths in lighter colors for spring, and cloths usually of the undressed finish from worsted or woolen stock for fall.

The heavy weight class generally consists of heavily fulled goods, such as meltons, beavers, naps, etc., which give a heavier and warmer coat for winter use only, and where an exceptionally heavy coat is required, double and treble cloths are occasionally employed.

Examine different kinds of suitings and classify them.

TROUSERINGS.--Trouserings are more firmly woven than suitings and are heavier. They invariably have a stripe. The ground shade of the better grade of men's wear fabrics is generally composed of twist warp yarns, ranging from dark slate gray to light lavender gray. An endless variety of broad and narrow fine line effects is produced by expert manipulation and combination of weave and silk decorations, producing the pleasing effect required for this class of goods. The filling is nearly always black; but sometimes a dark slate is used.

The cheaper grades are generally made of wool and cotton mixtures and twists, down to all cotton, in imitation of the better grades.

OVERCOATINGS.--Overcoatings are heavy woolen or worsted fabrics and heavily teaseled or gigged, giving a rough, hairy appearance. Whether thick or thin, coarse or fine, they should always be elastic fabrics, that is, as much so as well fulled woolen goods can be. When hard or stiff they never make a graceful garment. The special goods made for overcoats are nearly all soft goods.

Examine different fabrics and classify them into either suitings, overcoatings, trouserings, etc.

=Experiment 59--Characteristics of a Good Silk Fabric=

Materials: Samples of different cheap silk fabrics.
Reference: _Textiles_, pages 203-218.

There are cheap and expensive silk fabrics on the market. The consumer is often tempted to buy the cheaper fabric and wonders why there is such a difference in price. The difference in price is due to the cost of raw material and additional cost is due to the care in manufacturing. For example, raw silk costs from $1.35 to $5 a pound according to its nature, quality, and the country from which it comes. The cost of throwing silks preparatory to dyeing also varies, the average being 55 cents a pound for organzine or warp, and 33 cents a pound for tram and filling. The prices here also vary according to the nature of the twist imparted to the silk, which is regulated by the kind of cloth it is to enter into. The cost of dyeing varies from 55 cents a pound upwards to perhaps $1.50 a pound, according to the dye and the treatment which the silk is to receive in the process of dyeing. The cost of winding, quilling, and sundry labor items necessary with soft silk prior to its being woven, will perhaps average about a cent per yard of woven goods for the cheapest cloths and range upwards according to the grade of the fabric. The cost of weaving also varies with the cloth, and may be 9 cents for one fabric and 25 cents or more per yard for the more expensive.

Weavers are paid from 2 cents to 60 cents per yard for weaving the different fabrics, and other operations vary greatly in cost; for instance, the cost of printing is entirely dependent upon the work and the number of colors used, whether it is blotch printing, discharge work, or block printing. Different processes in finishing have widely varied costs. At the present time moire work is done which costs as high as 25 cents per yard. There are also other materials which can be finished for as little as 1/2 cent per yard. Some goods have to be finished over and over again in the dyeing and finishing while others are very simply done. Many printed goods are handled 150 times after they come from the loom.

When it comes to relative values of similar goods produced by different manufacturers there are a few general principles by which good construction can easily be determined. Most pure dye fabrics when burned will rather shrivel and boil than burn, while those which are weighted heavily with metallic salts will simply char and turn white without losing the structure of the fabric.

A fabric in which the quantity of warp and filling are of equal weight gives the maximum strength for the amount of material used. For the same weight and material, that having the most bindings of warp and filling will give the greater service. Fabrics with an insufficient number of warp or filling threads slide easily and do not give good service, though sometimes fashionable. A fabric having a twist in the warp and filling will last longer than one using the same amount of silk and the same binding with less twist.

All of these things may be taught to women many times over, but if the fashion demands an article which breaks all of the above laws and is everything that it should not be, they will buy it in preference to a serviceable fabric. As a general rule, the consumer will be safest in buying goods produced by houses of good reputation and whose products are well known.

A large part of the retail value of silk goods is their fashion demand and is quite independent of their cost of production. For instance, at the present time crêpe fabrics, brocades, and prints are commanding a premium while such goods as plain taffetas could not be sold for the cost of production.

The advantages of the better kinds of silks over the cheap ones are pure dye, long wear, and more expensive manufacturing.

=Experiment 60--How to Determine the Count of Yarn in Cloth=

Apparatus: Scales, ruler.
Material: Samples of fabrics.
Reference: _Textiles_, pages 144-146.

The United States Government imposes a tax on certain imported fabrics and yarn. In the case of cotton, the rates of duty are to be ascertained according to the average number of the yarns in the condition in which it is imported.

The length of the yarn is to be counted as equal to the distance covered by it in the cloth, all clipped threads to be measured as if continuous and all ply yarns to be separated into singles and the count taken of the total singles; any excessive sizing is to be removed by boiling or other suitable processes. The number of the yarn is the English number of 840 yd. to a lb. for a No. 1 yarn.

The average number of yarn may be found without unraveling the fabric, and is the quotient of the total thread length, by the weight in the proportion of 840 yd. of yarn equaling 8-1/3 grains, which is equivalent to a No. 1 yarn.

The following simple formula may be used:

Multiply the count of threads per square inch by the number of square inches in the sample used, this product to be multiplied by 100; then divide the product thus obtained by the weight of the sample in grains multiplied by 432. The quotient will give the number of the yarn.

For example, take a sample of cotton cloth 4 in. square, which equals 16 sq. in., having 28 warp and 28 woof threads, a total of 56 threads to the square inch, and weighing 8.6 grains. The formula applied would be as follows:

56 × 16 × 100 ÷ 8.6 × 432 = 24, the number of the yarn.

The formula may be further simplified by weighing a square yard of the cloth and dividing the number of threads per square inch by 1/300 of the weight per square yard in grains.

Find the number of yarn in several cotton fabrics.

=Experiment 61--Study of Fabrics=

A great deal of time should be devoted to the study of standard fabrics so that pupils may be able to recognize them by inspection and know how to test them for adulterants.

This may be done by having the pupils study the fabrics one by one, placing a sample of each in a note-book. Underneath the sample should be written the use of the fabric, the width, the different grades, with prices, wearing qualities, and how the fabric is made. In connection with this work special effort should be made to develop a textile vocabulary so as to be able to discriminate between the different fabrics, to know the types of weaves, and the different kinds of finish, etc. In this way develop the ability to know what materials and colors weave best, the prices which should be paid for strong materials, the amount of material necessary, and the trade names of fabrics which can be depended upon for substantial goods.

Occasional tests in recognizing fabrics should be given by the teacher by placing before the pupils unlabeled fabrics that they have previously studied and have them give the name, approximate price or grade, weave, qualities, etc.

Remnants or small pieces of standard fabrics may be obtained from the leading dry goods stores of the country. Teachers should have on exhibition in cabinets a large display of standard fabrics with a card attached giving the name and use of each.

=Experiment 62--How to Examine a Fabric=

The first thing a buyer of cloth notices in examining the fabrics is the finish. The finish is tested by feeling and seeing. To illustrate: broadcloth should have a smooth face and a nap evenly laid. If the finish is in keeping with the character of the cloth, he next examines the fiber of the yarn to see whether it is composed of pure wool or two or more fibers in combination.

Then test the strength of the cloth to see if it will meet the requirements.

A test should be made to tell whether it is poorly dyed or well dyed. There is no test that can be applied to all colors to ascertain this, neither is it possible to judge by the eye. The best way is to take a small sample of the goods and submit it to the washing and light test.

FOOTNOTES:

[21] Dissecting pin may be made by placing head of pin or needle in a pen holder.

[22] A hand loom consisting of simply a square frame, may be obtained from Hammett & Co., Devonshire Street, Boston, Mass.

[23] In the case of linen the short fibers separated by combing are called _tow_, and the long fibers _line_.

[24] Absorbents are substances that will absorb readily excess of liquids; they include varieties of chalk, paste of chalk, or fullers' earth, rough surface of a visiting card, buckwheat flour, crumbs of bread, powdered soapstone, pumice, whiting. These substances are used to great advantage in assisting to remove stains from delicate fabrics. They absorb the excess of solvent and thus prevent it from spreading.

[25] Alum in this case is called a mordant, which is a substance that will impregnate the cloth with something which will hold the coloring matter. Other mordants are oxides, hydroxides, and basic salts of aluminum, iron, tin, and chromium.

[26] Place a piece of sulphur on a deflagrating spoon and light it by placing it in the flame and allow it to burn. Cover the bottle by means of a glass plate.

[27] Bleaching powder is prepared by passing chlorine gas over layers of slaked lime (lime to which a slight amount of water has been added). Bleaching powder bleaches by having its hypochlorous acid set free, which in turn gives up oxygen, being converted into hydrochloric acid. The French use solutions containing chloride and hypochlorite of soda. They are called Labarraque's disinfecting fluid. A similar solution of a mixture of chloride and hypochlorite is called Eau de Javelle.

[28] A description of shoe and hand clothing may be obtained from _Shoemaking_, published by Little, Brown & Co., Boston.

[29] In Ireland the cost of producing a pound of bleached linen cloth 4 sq. yd. is 16_d._ or 32 cts.; cost of hackling a pound of flax is 1/2_d._ or 1 ct. per lb.; cost of preparing and spinning a pound of flax is 6_d._ or 12 cts. per lb.; cost of winding and weaving a pound of flax is 2-1/2_d._ or 5 cts. per lb.; cost of bleaching and finishing a pound of flax is 7_d._ or 14 cts. per lb.; $75 is spent in turning $100 worth of flax into yarn; $75 is spent in turning $100 worth of yarn into brown linen; $50 is spent in turning $100 worth of brown linen into linen for market.

[30] A linen fabric can be best told from cotton by holding it up to the light and examining the evenness of the threads. Cotton can be more easily spun level than flax, therefore threads that present considerable irregularities may be taken to be flax. In a union fabric the nap is usually cotton and the threads more regular than the filling (flax). The best linen is made from fine and fairly regular threads; common linen from coarse and irregular tow yarns. Linen is no more subject to weak places in weaving than cotton, although it is harder to bleach and may be weakened in this process. If each operation is not perfect the linen will become yellow in storage.

SOURCES OF SUPPLY

The author has found that very nearly all manufacturers are willing to supply schools with samples of their products. But the demand for samples has been so great that it is necessary in most cases to pay a small sum to cover the cost.

The following prominent firms dealing in textile supplies are named here to assist the teachers in writing for supplies.

The names of the leading textile papers are given so that teachers may obtain them. They contain a large number of names of dealers in textiles so that they may be used as reference books for supplies.

_Catalogues of Cotton Machinery_

Kitson Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass.--Cotton pickers.

Howard and Bullough, Pawtucket, R. I.--Cotton machinery.

Saco-Pettee Machine Shop, Saco, Me.--Cotton machinery.

Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass.--Cotton machinery.

Whitin Machine Works, Whitinsville, Mass.--Cotton machinery.

Mason Machine Works, Taunton, Mass.--Cotton machinery.

Draper Co., Hopedale, Mass.--Cotton machinery.

Woonsocket Machine Works, Woonsocket, R. I.--Cotton machinery.

Faler & Jencks, Pawtucket, R. I.--Cotton machinery.

Potter & Johnson, Pawtucket, R. I.--Cotton machinery.

C. E. Riley, 65 Franklin St., Boston, Mass.--Cotton machinery.

Cohoes Iron Foundry Co., Cohoes, N. Y.--Cotton machinery.

American Moistening Co., 120 Franklin St., Boston, Mass.--Humidifiers and textile machinery.

_Standard Textile Papers_

American Wool and Cotton Reporter, Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.

American Silk Journal, East 28th St., New York City, N. Y.

Textile World Record, Congress St., Boston, Mass.

Technical Education Bulletin on Illustrative and Laboratory Supplies, published by Teachers College, Columbia University, West 120th St., New York.

Fibre and Fabric, 127 Federal St., Boston, Mass.

Textile Manufacturers Journal, Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.

_Wool, Cotton, and Silk Samples_

American Woolen Co., Boston, Mass.--Booklets on _From Wool to Cloth_; samples of fabrics.

Arlington Mills, Chauncey St., Boston, Mass.--Samples of cotton and wool in different stages of manufacture; fabrics.

S. Blaisdell, Jr., Chicopee, Mass.--Egyptian and Peruvian cotton, etc.

Frank A. Tierney, 260 Broadway, New York--Ramie.

Geo. Carter, 246 Broadway, New York--Linen yarns and thread.

Boston Yarn Co., 50 State St., Boston, Mass.--Cotton yarn.

Wonalancit Co., Nashua, N. H.--Samples of cotton.

Botany Worsted Mills, Passaic, N. J.--French spun worsted yarn.

C. E. Riley, 65 Franklin St., Boston, Mass.--Yarns and fabrics.

Adirondack Wool Co., Little Falls, N. Y.--Wools and shoddies.

Sutcliffe, Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.--Foreign wools.

Francis Willey & Co., 556 Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.--Top, foreign wools.

John L. Farrell, 210 Summer St., Boston, Mass.--Mohair, noils, and carpet wools.

The J. R. Montgomery Co., Windsor Locks, Conn.--Novelty yarns.

Catlin & Co., 67 Chauncey St., Boston, Mass.--Cotton yarns.

Norfolk Woolen Co., Franklin, Mass.--Shoddies.

Parker & Wilder Co., Boston, Mass.--Samples of fabrics.

Lawrence & Co., Franklin St., Boston, Mass.--Samples of fabrics.

Joy, Langdon, & Co., Boston, Mass.--Samples of fabrics.

Clark Thread Co., Newark, N. J.--Exhibit.

George A. Clark & Bro., 400 Broadway, New York--Cabinet and booklet.

Cheney Bro., So. Manchester, Conn.--Silk samples, silk fabrics.

Johnson & Johnson, New Brunswick, N. J.--Wall chart of cotton field.

Scordill, 902 Canal St., New Orleans, La.--Cotton postal cards.

Storey Cotton Co., The Bourse, Philadelphia, Pa.--Booklet, _All about Cotton_.

White Oak Cotton Mills, Greensboro, N. C.--Stereoscopic views.

Willimantic Thread Co., Willimantic, Conn.

Flax Spinning Co., York St., Belfast, Ireland.--Prints illustrating linen manufacture and samples.

Jas. McCutcheon & Co., 5th Ave. and 34th St., New York.--Flax cabinet.

The Linen Thread Co., 96 Franklin St., New York.--Flax cabinet.

Belding Bro. & Co., 526 Broadway, New York.--School exhibits of silk.

Brainerd & Armstrong, 100 Union St., New London, Conn.--Book and cabinet of silk.

Champlain Silk Mills, Whitehall, N. Y.--Spun silk and exhibits.

M. Heminway & Sons, Silk Co., Watertown, Conn.--Booklets on silk.

Nonatuck Silk Co., Florence, Mass.--Sealed cabinets and books on silk.

William Skinner & Sons, 47 East 17th St., New York City.--Silks and satins.

S. Miller, 304 Second Ave., New York.--Wool fiber.

Milton, Bradley Co., Springfield, Mass.--Sheep chart.

A. H. Post, Quaker Hill, New York.--Raw wool by the pound.

Schermerhorn & Co., 12 West 33d St., New York City, N. Y.--Wall chart illustration of sheep.

L. S. Watson Mfg. Co., Worcester, Mass.--Hand cards.

Howard Bros., Worcester, Mass.--Hand cards.

Prin. Columbus Industrial School, Columbus, Ga.--Samples of cotton plant or bolls.

_Woolen Yarns_

Horstman Co., 5th and Cherry St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Lion Yarn Co., 408 Broadway, New York.

_Catalogue of Woolen and Worsted Machinery_

C. G. Sargent's Sons, Graniteville, Mass.--Wool machinery.

Davis & Ferber Co., No. Andover, Mass.--Woolen and worsted machinery.

Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass.--Worsted machinery.

Crompton & Knowles, Worcester, Mass.--Worsted silk machinery.

Speed & Stephenson, 170 Summer St., Boston, Mass.--Textile machinery.

George Gerry & Co., Athol, Mass.--Shoddy machinery.

Tolhoust Machine Works, Troy, N. Y.--Hydro extractor.

Parks & Woolson Machine Co., Springfield, Vt.--Machinery.

Curtis, Marble Co., Worcester, Mass.--Finishing machinery.

General Electric Co., 84 State St., Boston, Mass.--Pictures, showing textile machinery in operation by motors.

Hopkins Machine Works, Budgeton, R. I.--Finishing machinery.

_Knitting Machinery_

Scott & Williams, 88 Pearl St., Boston, Mass.

Nye & Tudick Co., Philadelphia, Pa.

_Chemicals, Dyestuffs, and Sizing Materials_

The Arabol Mfg. Co., 100 Williams St., New York.--Sizing materials.

Cassella Color Co., 182 Front St., New York.--Coal tar products, dyestuffs, and literature.

Arnold Hoffman & Co., Providence, R. I.--Sizing materials.

H. A. Metz & Co., 122 Hudson St., New York.--Dyestuffs and literature.

Badische Co., 128 Duane St., New York.--Dyestuffs and literature.

INDEX

Acid test, 239

Adelaide wool, 10

Adulterations of wool, 80, 82

Albatross, 83, 173

Alma, 219

Alpaca, 1, 15, 34, 83

American cotton, 110

American wool, 3

Angora, 32, 83

Animal fibers, 1

Artificial fibers, 1

Artificial silk, 1, 230

Asbestos, 1, 234

Astrakhans, 15, 84

Australian wool, 3, 8, 9

Awning, 173

Baling cotton, 117

Bandanna, 84

Barège, 219

Bast fibers, 193

Batiste, 173

Beam, 53

Beaver cloth, 52, 84

Bedford cord, 84, 174

Beige, 85

Bengaline, 219

Berber, 219

Bindings, 84

Bleaching cotton, 148
flax, 196
thread, 141

Blending, 11, 31

Bombazine, 84, 220

Bottany, 84

Boucle, 85

Bourrette, 174

Bradford system of spinning, 44

Branding sheep, 7

Broadcloth, 52, 85

Brocade, 219

Brocatel, 220

Buckram, 174

Bunting, 85

Bur picker, 30

Burling, 72

Burring, 29, 30

Calendering, 149, 150

Calico, 175

Caniche, 86

Canvas, 177

Cape wools, 10

Carbonizing, 29, 30

Carding cotton, 126
wool, 3, 4

Carpet wools, 3, 4

Cashmere, 85, 86
goat, 13
wool, 13, 87

Castor, 87

Challis, 87

Chambray, 177

Characteristics of cotton cloth, 152
of linen cloth, 196
of woolen cloth, 50
of worsted cloth, 46

Cheese cloth, 178

Chenille, 220

Cheviot, 33, 35, 52, 87
wool, 14

Chiffon, 220

China grass, 232

China silks, 220

Chinchilla, 52, 98

Chintz, 178

Chudah, 89

Cloth-rolls, 54

Clothing wool, 3

Cocoons, 203

Combing cotton, 127

Combing wool, 4, 39

Combustion test, 239

Construction of cloth, 70, 71

Corduroy, 89

Côte cheval, 89

Cotton, 1, 105
carding, 126
combing, 127
drawing, 128
finishing, 147
flannel, 178
growing countries, 106
picker, 125
substitutes, 232
varieties of, 105, 106, 111, 112
yarns, 125, 134

Cotton-gin, 114-116

Counts of yarn, 9, 49, 51

Coupure, 90

Covert cloth, 90

Crabbing, 74

Crash, 178

Creel, 52

Crêpe, 179, 221

Crêpe de Chine, 221

Crepon, 179

Cretonne, 90

Crinoline, 179

Crocheting, 56, 253

Cross-dyed, 65, 67, 68

Cyprian gold, 234

Damask, 179

Dark colored fibers, 33

Dead wool, 20

Delaine wool, 22, 90

Denim, 179

Diaper cloth, 179

Difference between lamb's wool and sheep's wool, 20

Difference between wool and hair, 2

Difference between woolen and worsted yarns, 39

Dimity, 179

Doeskin, 52, 90

Domet, 180

Double-cloth, 58, 62

Drap d'Été, 90

Dress faced fabrics, 8

Drill, 180

Duck, 180

Dusting operation, 35

Dyeing, 66
black silks, 210
colored silks, 210
cotton, 67
wools, 65
yarns, 68, 209

East Indian cotton, 107

Egyptian cotton, 108

Elasticity of knitted textures, 253

Embroidery silk, 207

Empress cloth, 90

Ends, 53, 54

English system of spinning, 4, 40

English wools, 3

Eolienne, 181, 221

Épingline, 90

Etamine, 91, 181

Extract-wool, 1, 32, 37

Fancy goods, 79

Felt, 91

Felting, 2, 4

Fibers, 1

Figure weaving, 58, 61, 62

Figured poplins, 225

Finishing, 71, 151

Finishing hosiery, 163

Flannel, 52, 91-93

Flannelette, 181

Flax, 1, 123
preparation, 193-195
sources, 194, 198

Fleece, 7

Flocks, 1, 32, 37

Florentine, 93

Fly frames, 130

Foulard, 221

Foule, 93

Frame, 54

French system of spinning, 4, 44

Frieze, 52, 93

Full blood, 19

Full grade cotton, 121

Fulling, 73

Fustian, 180

Galatea cloth, 182

Gauge weaving, 63

Gauze, 182

Gill boxes, 42

Gingham, 182

Ginning cotton, 114

Glacé, 222

Gloria, 94

Goat, 1

Grades of wool, 18

Granada, 94

Great Britain wools, 12

Grenadine, 94

Grinding rags, 36

Ground lace, 164

Hackling, 195

Hair, 2

Half blood, 19

Half-grades of cotton, 121, 122

Hand-loom, 56

Harness, 55

Heddles, 54

Hemp, 1, 199

Henrietta cloth, 94

Hoggett wool, 20

Homespun, 58, 94

Hop sacking, 94

Hosiery, 159

Hosiery manufacture, 159-163

Humidifying cotton, 124

Hydro extractor, 28

India silk, 204, 222

Indigo blue flannel, 92

Inspection of cloth, 123, 124

Intermediate frame, 130

Irish wools, 14

Italian cloth, 183

Jaconet, 183

Jacquard machine, 55

Japanese silk, 222

Jeans, 95

Jersey cloth, 222

Jute, 1
uses of, 201

Kapok, 230

Kersey, 95

Kerseymere, 96

Khaki, 183

Knitting, 253
cotton, 159
finishing, 163
frames, 154
rib, 158
silk, 159
stripe, 159
wool, 3

Lace, 164, 165
terms, 166-172

Lamb's wool, 15, 20

Lappet-weaving, 63, 64

Lawn, 183

Leicester wool, 12

Leno weaving, 63

Lincoln wool, 12

Linen, 196

Lingerie, 184

Linon, 184

Linsey woolsey, 96

Long cloth, 184
manufacture of, 194, 195

Long or clothing wool, 3

Loom, 54

Luster of wool, 26

Mackinaw, 92

Madras, 185

Manila hemp, 200

Melrose, 97

Melton, 97

Meltonette, 97

Mending, 72

Mercerizing, 151

Merino, 2, 3, 18, 19, 97

Metallic threads, 1, 234

Meteor, 222

Mexican Sheep, 4

Milling, 8

Mineral fibers, 1

Mohair, 1, 18, 34, 97

Moire, 223

Moisture contained in cotton, 123

Montagnac, 98

Montevideo, 11

Mordant, 69

Moreen, 186

Mozambique, 223

Mule spinning, 134

Mull, 186

Mummery, 186

Mungo, 1, 10, 32, 34
method of making, 32

Muslin, 186

Nainsook, 186

Naphtha, 26

Napping, 75

Navy twill flannel, 92

Netting, 253

New Zealand wool, 10

Noils, 1, 32, 40

Norfolkdown wool, 14

Oiling rags, 35

Olive oil, 29

Organdie, 186

Organzine, 223

Orleans, 98

Osnaburg, 186

Panama cloth, 98

Panne velvet, 223

Peau de soie, 223

Pelts, 20

Percale, 188

Percaline, 188

Perching, 72

Peruvian sheep, 15, 32

Pick, 54

Piece-dyeing, 65

Pile-weave, 62, 63

Pillow-lace, 165

Pineapple fiber, 233

Piqué, 188

Plain weave, 58

Planting cotton, 110

Plumetis, 190

Plushes, 15, 224

Pongee, 224

Popeline, 224

Poplin, 190

Port Philip wool, 9

Pressing machine, 76

Printing textiles, 65

Prunella, 98

Pulled wool, 20

Quarter blood, 19

Ramie, 232

Raw silk, 206

Reeling silk, 205

Remanufactured material, 1, 32

Rep, 190

Rib work in knitting, 158

Ribbons, 215

Ring spinning, 134

Russian hemp, 199

Russian wool, 12

Sacking, 99

Sanglier, 99

Sarsenet, 225

Satin, 225
weaving, 58

Satine, 190

Saxony wool, 8

Scour, 27

Scrim, 190

Scutching, 195

Sea Island cotton, 109

Seaming rags, 35

Seamless hosiery, 161

Sebastopol, 99

Serges, 99

Sewing silk, 207

Shaker flannel, 93

Shawls, 33

Sheep shearing, 5, 6, 7

Shetland wool, 14

Shoddy, 1, 10, 32, 34, 101

Short wools, 3

Shrinking of wool, 2, 3

Shropshiredown wool, 13

Shuttle, 55

Sicilian, 101

Silesia, 190

Silesian wool, 8

Silk, 1
cotton, 230
dyeing, 210
finishing, 218
varieties of, 207
warp flannel, 92
waste, 207

Sisal hemp, 200

Size of yarn, 9, 49, 51

Sizing, 53

Slag wool, 1, 234

Slasher, 53

Sliver, 39

Slubber, 130, 131

Soleil, 227

Souffle, 191

South American wool, 11

Southdown wools, 13

Spinning, 4, 40, 44, 50, 134

Spooler, 53

Spun glass, 233
fibers, 233

Spun numbers, 209

Spun silk, 208

Staple goods, 79

Starching cotton, 149

Stripe knitting, 159

Structure of wool, 1, 2

Styles, 70

Suffolkdown wool, 14

Sultane, 101

Superfines, 8

Swiss muslin, 191

Sydney wools, 9

Tabby velvet, 228

Taffeta, 227

Tamise, 101

Tape, 191

Tarletan, 191

Tartans, 101

Teaser, 31

Tentering, 74

Terry cloth, 191

Terry poplin, 225

Test for animal fiber, 239
artificial silk from silk, 231
cotton from linen, 240
density of a fabric, 239
dressing, 241
fastness against rain, 243
fastness under friction, 242
fastness to weather, light, and air, 244
linen, 240
permanence of dyes, 242
resistance to perspiration, 243
resistance to street mud and dust, 243
shoddy, 241
silk from wool, 240
wasting fastness, 242

Testing constituents of filling, 239
constituents of warp, 239
count of warp, 238
count of warp and filling threads, 238
elasticity of fabric, 237
for shrinkage, 239
piece-dyed fabric, 69
strength of fabric, 237
style of weave, 236
yarn-dyed fabric, 69

Textile printing, 69, 70, 216

Theories of coloring in textile designs, 76-79

Thibet, 101

Thread, 138
bleaching, 143
combing, 141
dyeing, 143
numbers, 144
sizing, 145

Throwing, 206

Thrown silk, 207

Tinsel, 1

Top, 11, 33, 40

Tricot, 101

Tulle, 228

Tussah silk, 204

Tweed, 15, 31, 35, 102

Twill weaving, 58, 59

Union cloth, 37

Van wool from Tasmania, 10

Vegetable fibers, 1

Veiling, 102

Velour, 228

Velvet, 15, 216, 228

Velveteen, 228

Venetian cloth, 102

Vigogne (Vienna), 103

Vigoureux, 103

Voiles, 103, 229

Warp, 53, 54

Warp-beam, 54

Waterproofing, 218

Weaving, 53, 54, 56
processes, 54-56

Weft, 54

Welsh wool, 14

Wether-wool, 15, 20

Whipcord, 104

Wood-pulp, 232

Wool, 1, 2
carding, 50
classing, 3, 16, 18
drying, 28
dyeing, 76
fibers, 2
grease in, 24
marketing, 7, 8, 15
oiling, 29
sorting, 16-18, 22-24
varieties of, 3, 4
washing, 24-28

Woolen yarn, 33, 50

Worsted carding, 39
combing, 39
diagonal, 104

Worsted spinning, 44
tops, 40
unfinished, 104
yarn, 33, 46

Yarn, 33, 39, 46
dyed, 65, 68

Yolk, 10, 25

Zephyr gingham, 192
wool, 49

Zibeline, 104

Comments

Textiles, for Commercial, Industrial, and Domestic Arts SchoolsChapter XXV: Appendix (3)

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