Chapter II: Part 2

One group of some 40 does and fawns, after swimming the river near its mouth, came hurrying along the ridge in close array directly toward my station, and did not take alarm until they had arrived within 100 feet. Then they turned tail and, each with its flag erect, beat a hasty retreat. The maneuver made a scene of considerable charm and interest. While I was filming a dozen Caribou in the Eastern Bog from the Middle Ridge, a stray fawn came up and halted for some seconds within a rod of me. The bewildered look in its big eyes was comical though pathetic. In presently dashing on, it passed within a dozen feet.

Late in the afternoon Fred Schweder, Jr., reported about a thousand Caribou, in various bands up to 100 strong, crossing Little River here and there a mile or so above its mouth. They were traveling southwest.

August 26 was marked by mist squalls, a maximum temperature of
45°, and a slackening in the numbers of passing Caribou. Late in
the morning a band of more than 30 bucks, does, and fawns
crossed the rapid on Little River. In the early afternoon
scattering individuals and a band of 15 or 20 did likewise.
Presently another band of about 22 animals came (fig. 8); it
consisted chiefly of does and fawns, but there were several
medium-sized bucks bringing up the rear. They crossed the rapid
in a somewhat V-shaped formation, open at the front. The
vanguard reached a rocky strip 25 yards in front of my camera
and began to feed contentedly on the low vegetation. However,
a couple of does still in the water eyed me intently and
presumably communicated their misgivings to the others, for all
turned and went back through the river without panic or haste,
although they trotted on reaching the farther shore. Later there
were about 25 Caribou crossing the bay, and nearly as many on
Little River Ridge.

The weather on August 27, while mostly sunny, included
occasional snow or sleet flurries; the northerly wind was brisk
to strong; and the temperature, ranging from 37° to 50°,
prevented the appearance of black flies. By 10:20 a.m. a band of
about 10 does and fawns crossed the rapid on Little River. Two
hours later 12-15 animals followed the same course, and
presently 75-100 passed upstream on the far side, with a good
deal of grunting. About 2:35 p.m. nearly a hundred Caribou,
perhaps alarmed by a passing plane, dashed north out of the
Eastern Bog. By 4:45 p.m. 20 or more bucks, does, and fawns swam
across Little River at its mouth; several of the biggest bucks,
with enormous antlers, led the advance into the water. An hour
later, on the eastern side of the river, half a dozen of the
animals were lying down, but with heads erect, and facing down
wind. At this period of the day several more bands of moderate
size swam over to the west side of the river. A goodly number of
the animals fed within 25 yards of me for a considerable time.

The following day was nearly cloudless; wind moderate, westerly;
temperature, 37.5° to 66°--high enough to bring out the black
flies (but extremely few mosquitoes) after several days of
virtual freedom from these scourges. Between 11:30 a.m. and 3
p.m. at least 500 Caribou, coming from the east, must have
passed the mouth of Little River, some swimming across at that
point (figs. 9, 12), and others proceeding various distances
upstream before undertaking the passage. A few of the larger
bands numbered approximately 30, 40, and 75 individuals. Some
consisted largely of does and fawns, some of big bucks. One of
the larger bands approached the river on the run, plunged in
recklessly, and landed on the western shore some 30 feet
directly in front of my battery of cameras. Most of the animals
on this and similar occasions were remarkably indifferent to me
as I operated the cameras in full view of them. Some among them
would approach within a rod or less and stare me in the face
without alarm (figs. 11, 14).

August 29 was a cloudy, nearly calm day, with temperatures
ranging from 49.5° to 73°--conditions more propitious for black
flies than for their victims. There was comparatively little
local movement among the Caribou--in the morning two or three
swimming across the bay and a band of 20 (6 old bucks, the rest
does and fawns) swimming south across the mouth of Windy River;
in mid-afternoon a band of 10 running along the ridge on the
eastern side of Little River; and about 100 reported during the
day in the vicinity of Windy Bay by Fred Schweder, Jr. The "big
movement" had passed its peak.

The next day was largely sunny, with a light easterly or
southeasterly wind and temperatures of 50° to 68°. There were
comparatively few black flies and fewer mosquitoes. During a
five-hour vigil near the mouth of Little River I noticed only
about 50 Caribou, most of them passing westward by ones, twos,
and intermediate numbers up to 17 (does and fawns) in a band.
Mike Schweder reported a total of about 200 animals seen within
a few miles of camp.

The morning of August 31 was dismal and overcast, with a heavy
shower; in the afternoon the sky cleared; wind brisk, south to
west; temperature, 47° to 74.5°. Several Caribou passed along
the eastern side of Little River, and Fred Schweder, Jr.,
reported about 300 some miles north of camp, moving in a
southwesterly direction.

Clouds and rain ushered in the morning of September 1; the
afternoon was sunny; wind light to strong, west to northwest;
temperature, 48° to 60°. The next day was partly cloudy, with a
mist squall or two; wind light to brisk, northwesterly;
temperature, 38° to 51.5°. No Caribou were reported on either
day.

September 3 was largely cloudy, with some mist squalls; wind
light to moderate, northerly to easterly; temperature, 40° to
51°. There were enough black flies to be slightly troublesome.
Two bucks, two does, and a fawn were noted at Bear Slough.

September 4 was partly cloudy, with drizzling rain; wind light,
east to south and southwest; temperature, 43° to 58°. I saw
about 22 Caribou (largely does and fawns), in several different
groups, at Bear Slough and vicinity, and Fred Schweder, Jr.,
reported about 200 in the same area. Two were noted swimming to
the south side of Windy Bay.

September 5 was marked by a driving, day-long rainstorm; wind
brisk, easterly; temperature, 43° to 50°. A band of about 20
Caribou (mostly does and fawns, with several middle-aged bucks),
besides one or two single animals, were encountered at Bear
Slough.

September 6 was a cloudy, raw day, with several snow flurries;
wind brisk, northerly; temperature, 33° to 35°. Not a fly was
abroad. Two Caribou moved northwest along Little River Ridge;
a band of about 75 (mainly does and fawns, but with a fair
number of big bucks) passed in the same direction along the
Middle Ridge; and about 25 others grazed along the eastern side
of Little River. Later about 15-20 more were seen about the
mouth of Little River and on a near-by island, and eight swam
across Windy Bay to the south side. Fred reported seeing about
300 during the day north and west of camp; they were moving in a
northerly direction.

It was cloudy nearly all day on September 7; wind moderate,
northerly; temperature, 33° to 40°. No black flies were in
evidence. A dozen or more Caribou took to the water from an
island in Windy Bay and made for the north shore. A band of
about 25 passed along Little River Ridge toward the river's
mouth.

September 8 was mostly cloudy; wind moderate to strong,
southeasterly; temperature, 37° to 42°. Fred reported a band of
about 100 Caribou crossing the mouth of Little River toward the
west. A dozen or more swam southward over Windy Bay at the usual
crossing-place. Anoteelik brought in 13 tongues from that many
freshly killed Caribou; he had secured them with a .22 rifle.

A driving gale from the east, with rain and sleet, continued
through the day on September 9; temperature, 36° to 37°. A
solitary buck inspected our camp from the south side of Windy
River, then retreated.

An overcast sky, with some drizzle and sleet, prevailed on
September 10; wind light, east to northeast; temperature, 35.5°
to 42.5°. No flies present for some days past. Fred reported
about 20 Caribou moving westward in the vicinity of Little
River.

On September 11 clouds and mist squalls in the morning gave way
to sunshine in the afternoon; wind light, easterly; temperature,
37° to 45.5°. Caribou were noted as follows: five on the east
side of Little River; two does and a fawn on an island in Windy
Bay; a doe and a fawn swimming northward across this bay; half a
dozen on Josie's Hill. During a flight from Churchill to Nueltin
Lake on this day, Charles Schweder detected no Caribou at all,
and concluded that the bulk of the migrating herds had by this
time passed to the southward of his course. During the latter
part of August, while descending the Thlewiaza River from
Nueltin Lake to Hudson Bay, he had seen thousands of the
animals--as many as 5,000 in a single day, although no more than
500 in a single herd.

Sun, clouds, and rain marked September 12; wind moderate to
light, south to west; temperature, 48° to 60°. Only two Caribou
were reported.

September 13 was cloudy, with intermittent mist squalls and a
little sun; wind light to brisk, northerly; temperature, 34° to
about 44°. Two bands of Caribou (of four and five animals)
appeared near the mouth of Windy River.

It was generally cloudy, with a snow squall, on September 14;
wind brisk to light, northerly; temperature, 33° to 41°. A doe
and a fawn, proceeding northward, and four or five other Caribou
appeared on the near-by ridges.

The weather was clear on the 15th, with a moderate to brisk
north wind and temperatures of 29° to 48°; ice at edge of the
river. Fred reported about 100 Caribou (none of them bucks)
north of camp, and Anoteelik secured 13 east of Little River.

On the morning of the 16th intermittent snow flurries left a
thin cover on the ground, but it was practically dissipated by
the afternoon sun; wind brisk, northerly; temperature, 30° to
39°. Fred reported three old does without fawns, and no bucks.

September 17 was mostly cloudy, with a little sun; wind light,
northwest and west; temperature, 30° to 43°. A single Caribou
was seen on the south side of Windy River.

Clear skies prevailed on September 18; wind brisk, westerly;
temperature, 35° to 53.5°; ice at edge of the river. A solitary
black fly appeared. No Caribou reported.

September 19 was another clear day; wind moderate to brisk,
west-southwest; temperature, 42° to 60°. Anoteelik, camping on
the Barrens about 2 miles to the north of camp for the past
couple of days, reports having killed 20 Caribou (only one of
them a buck).

Light rain, soon changing to sleet, and then frequent snow
squalls, provided the principal weather elements on September
20; wind light to strong, west to north; temperature, 27° to
43.5°. The ground became partly covered with snow. A big buck,
followed several hours later by a doe and a fawn, swam across to
the north side of Windy River at its mouth. Ten more Caribou
were taken by Anoteelik. Charles considered that the retrograde
movement to the north was definitely under way. There had been
indications of it on various days from September 6 on.

Except for a few snow flurries, it was largely sunny on the
21st; wind brisk to moderate, north to northwest; temperature,
26° to 34°. About a quarter of an inch of snow remained in
sheltered places. A doe and a fawn appeared near camp.

There was considerable snowfall on the 22nd; wind light to
moderate, westerly; temperature, 30° to 33°; ice in edge of the
river. A large buck left tracks in the snow along the Windy
River.

September 23 was partly cloudy; wind brisk, north-northwest;
temperature, 21° to 32°; about a quarter of an inch of snow on
the ground, and a tundra pond mostly frozen over. Several small
groups of Caribou (a doe and a fawn; three does and two fawns;
and three others) appeared on the near-by ridges.

September 24 was mostly cloudy; wind moderate to brisk,
northerly; temperature, 26° to 41°; nearly an inch of fresh snow
on the ground. About 15 does and fawns were resting or feeding
quietly on the east side of Little River, and tracks of about
half a dozen were noted on Camp Ridge. Charles Schweder reported
about 50 Caribou, in three slightly separated bands, appearing
during the evening on the south side of Windy River about 2
miles above its mouth, as if contemplating a crossing. He
thought they may have been alarmed by Wolves.

September 25 was a cloudy day; wind moderate to light, northerly
to westerly; temperature, 31° to 36°; open ground largely bare
by afternoon; ice forming on Windy Bay. Some Caribou tracks were
noted on the north side of Windy River.

There were clouds, a sprinkle or two of rain, and a little
sunshine on the 26th; wind brisk to moderate, southwest to west;
temperature, 36° to 47.5°; ground becoming practically bare.
Three Caribou were seen beyond Little River, and a doe and a
fawn on the south side of Windy River.

The 27th was mostly cloudy, with a thick snow flurry; wind
brisk, northwest; temperature, 33° to 40°. Two tundra ponds,
previously frozen, were mostly open. Three bucks, a doe, and a
fawn were noted on the south side of Windy River.

September 28 was mostly cloudy; wind brisk to light,
north-northwest; temperature, 28.5° to 40°; a little snow on the
ground disappearing. Seven large bucks (six in one band, moving
northward) passed over Camp Ridge, and a dozen other Caribou
(including does) were seen beyond Little River.

The 29th was chiefly sunny; wind very light to brisk, west to
southwest; temperature, 29° to 48°; ground bare. A band of about
15 Caribou appeared on the north side of Windy River at its
mouth. They included four large and two smaller bucks, the
remainder being does and fawns. They were apparently traveling
south.

The 30th was cloudy, with a sprinkle of rain; wind light,
westerly; temperature, 39° to 48°; ground bare. A few black
flies were brought out by the mild weather. During an
all-morning trip to Point Lake, Charles saw no Caribou, but in
the afternoon he reported about 200 on the eastern side of
Little River. There were also half a dozen bucks on the south
side of Windy River.

October 1 was a rare, fine, sunshiny day in the Barrens; wind
moderate to brisk, south to southwest; temperature, 37° to 61°;
ground bare; tundra ponds mostly ice-covered. A blowfly crawled
over a caribou carcass, and possibly a few black flies were
abroad. Two bucks passed from the shoal water of Duck Bay over
Little River Ridge. Charles reported about 40 Caribou moving
north a mile or two north of camp, and I saw a single buck
likewise engaged. During the preceding week or so Fred had seen
a good many of the animals between the upper Kazan River and
Nueltin Lake; they were moving south and west.

The 2nd was another clear day; wind moderate, southwest;
temperature, 41° to 65°; ground bare. About five does and fawns
were seen at dusk in the spruce tract near Four-hill Creek.

The next day was drizzly and foggy throughout; wind light,
southwest to southeast; temperature, 41° to 43.5°. No Caribou
sighted. Eskimos arriving in camp reported them scarce along the
way from the upper Kazan River.

October 4 was a dismal, dark day, with steady light rain
throughout; wind very light, easterly; temperature, 36° to
42.5°. Fred reported 20 Caribou north of camp.

Snow fell throughout the 5th; wind light, north-northwest;
temperature, 31° to 35°. No Caribou sighted.

With 6 inches of snow on the ground in the morning, there was
some additional precipitation during the overcast day of
October 6; wind moderate to brisk, northeast; temperature, 31°
to 33°; waters clear of ice. No Caribou sighted.

October 7 was a generally cloudy day; wind moderate to very
light, northerly; temperature, 24° to 29°; watercourses largely
open. In the morning Charles reported a couple of hundred
Caribou swimming southward across Windy Bay; he considered this
a part of the final southward movement into the timbered
country--apparently initiated by the recent snowstorm. Later he
saw an approximately equal number 2 miles north of camp, moving
toward the bay; and Fred encountered about 50 on the north side
of the bay.

Late on the 8th clouds gave way to sunshine; nearly calm to a
gentle breeze from west and southwest; temperature, 26.5° to
33.5°; 6 inches of snow on ground. I obtained a distant view of
about 100 Caribou resting near Glacier Pond. Perhaps less than a
quarter of them were old bucks; the remainder, younger bucks,
does, and fawns.

October 9 was largely sunny, with light rain in the evening;
wind light to moderate, southwest to south; temperature, 29° to
38°; ground with a 6-inch snow covering. No Caribou sighted.

Some snow fell on the 10th, though the day was partly sunny;
wind very light, south to west; temperature, 33° to 36°. No
Caribou sighted.

Clouds prevailed on the 11th; wind no more than very light,
westerly; temperature, 33° to 38°; about 4 inches of snow on
ground. Charles reported about a thousand Caribou scattered over
a long hill several miles to the northwest; they were not
traveling.

October 12 was marked by clouds, mist, and rain; wind light to
moderate, southwesterly; temperature, 32° to 40°. No Caribou
sighted.

There was a little sun on the 13th; wind light to moderate, west
to east; temperature, 37° to 45.5°; ground largely bare and
tundra ponds open. In the afternoon we set out for Simons' Lake,
and camped about 4 miles up the Windy River. No Caribou sighted.

On the 14th we reached the upper end of Simons' Lake, for a
several days' stay at a deserted trading-post. There were snow
flurries and a little rain; wind brisk, westerly; temperature,
35° to 36°; ground mostly bare. A band of about 15 Caribou,
a solitary buck, and many tracks and droppings were seen along
the way.

October 15 was partly cloudy; wind very light to light, west to
northwest and east; temperature, 21° to 36°. Four Caribou
sighted.

October 16 was a stormy, cloudy day; wind brisk, easterly;
temperature, 30.5° to 34°. About a dozen Caribou were noted in
the vicinity of Simons' Lake.

A strong easterly gale during the night, with heavy rain, was
followed during the day of the 17th by steady rain, with
moderate to light easterly or southeasterly wind; temperature,
35° to 38°. A single Caribou seen.

October 18 was partly cloudy; wind brisk to light, westerly;
temperature, 31° to 41°; waters open; some small patches of snow
in sight. Four Caribou (at least two of them bucks) passed by.

The 19th was partly cloudy; nearly calm to moderate wind, west
and northwest; temperature, 30° to 40°. About five or six bucks
(three of them together) appeared, perhaps moving south.

The weather on the 20th was raw, dismal, and gusty; wind brisk,
northwest; temperature, 27° to about 35°; some ice on Simons'
Lake; a little fresh snow on higher hills. No Caribou sighted.

October 21 was somewhat foggy; nearly calm; temperature, 25° to
32°; Simons' Lake partly frozen; ground generally bare. A lone
fawn was seen as we started on the return trip to the Windy
River post.

The 22nd was largely sunny; wind very light to brisk,
southwesterly; temperature, about 30° to 46°. A medium-sized
buck was seen near the mouth of Windy River.

The 23rd was largely cloudy; wind brisk, southwest; temperature,
35° to 39°; ground practically all bare; bay and river open.
A buck started to cross to the north side of Windy River, but
went back.

For the better part of a week, till October 29, I found no
further fresh indications of Caribou in our vicinity. In the
meantime the weather was largely cloudy, with some rain and snow
(4-5 inches of the latter on the 27th); winds very light to
moderate, swinging from east to south and west; temperature, 27°
to 50°; waters generally open.

October 29 was largely cloudy; a gentle wind, south to east;
temperature, 29° to 35°; 4-5 inches of snow on ground; thin ice
on a tundra pond. The fresh track of a buck (fig. 20) was found
near camp.

On the 30th gentle rain changed to snow; calm to a moderate
wind, northeast to north; temperature, 30° to 33°. Tracks showed
the passing of about a dozen Caribou, including half a dozen
that swam westward across the mouth of Little River, breaking
through a rim of ice at the edge.

Clouds prevailed on the 31st; wind moderate to brisk, northerly;
temperature, 17° to 25.5°; 5-6 inches of snow on ground, with
drifts up to a foot deep; river and lake open. Fred reported
three Caribou.

November 1 marked the long-delayed "freeze-up." Windy Bay and
the edges of Windy River were frozen, while pieces of ice
floated down the river. The day was cloudy, with continual snow
flurries after noon; wind light to brisk, southeast;
temperature, 21° to 31°; about 6 inches of snow on ground.

The 2nd was cloudy, with some rain and sleet; wind moderate to
brisk, southeast to west; temperature, 29° to 34°. No Caribou
sighted for two days.

On the 3rd it was cloudy all day; wind light, northwest;
temperature, 16° to 20°. A herd of about 50 Caribou (largely
does, with a few fawns and well-antlered bucks) hurried down the
side of Little River Ridge onto the ice of Duck Bay, with the
apparent intention of crossing to the south side of Windy Bay;
but they were intercepted by a hunter and retreated
northwestward along the ridge. Fred secured three
southward-traveling bucks at a distance from camp.

No Caribou were sighted on the three following days (November 4
to 6), which were more or less cloudy, with some snow; wind
light to brisk, southerly to northerly; temperature, 13° to
24.5°; ice 3 inches thick on Windy Bay; about 6 inches of snow
on ground.

There was snow during the night of November 6 and the morning of
the 7th, resulting in drifts up to a yard deep; wind brisk,
northerly; temperature, -3° to 13°. Fred reported "lots" of
Caribou some 10 miles to the north, moving south.

The next three days (November 8 to 10) varied from cloudy (with
a snow flurry) to sunny; wind moderate to strong, northwest and
north; temperature, -10.5° to 1°; 6-8 inches of snow (much
drifted); Windy River gradually becoming ice-covered. No Caribou
sighted.

November 11 was partly sunny; wind moderate to brisk, northerly;
temperature, 3° to 6.5°; about 8 inches of snow on the average.
Mike Schweder reported five does moving south across the mouth
of Windy River on the ice.

Thereafter, until my departure on December 4, no more Caribou
were actually seen in the vicinity of the headquarters on Windy
River. There were, however, tracks of single animals on November
15 and 16. Moreover, during the period from about November 7 to
15, while traveling northward to the upper Kazan River, Charles
Schweder saw thousands of Caribou, in herds up to 300, moving
southward. He surmised that their course took them somewhere
between Ennadai and Nueltin lakes. Fred also reported many to
the northward on the 7th, as already noted. This was perhaps the
last large migratory movement of the year in our general area.
Thereafter virtually all of the animals were presumably in the
timbered area to the southward. None was sighted from the plane
during the flight to Churchill on December 4.

On November 7 the temperature had taken a sharp downward turn,
dropping below zero for the first time that season; and it did
not again rise above 6.5° till November 12. This cold spell,
combined with a snow blizzard from the north on the 6th and 7th,
coincided at least in part with the large migratory movement
noted above, and it may have been the stimulus for it.

The general weather conditions that obtained from November 12 on
may be summarized as follows. It was at least predominantly
cloudy on all but four or five days. There was snowfall on six
days, and drifting snow in the air on several other days. The
winds were predominantly north, northwest, and west; less
commonly, east and southeast. They were a little more frequently
light than moderate or brisk. The extremes of temperature during
this period were 22.5° and -23°; the average daily mean,
approximately 1°. There was an average of probably at least 8
inches of snow on the ground, with deeper drifts. The river was
not wholly frozen over at least up to the end of November.

_Retrograde autumnal movement_

It would doubtless be difficult to find, among other animals, any exact parallel to this curious feature of caribou migration. According to Charles Schweder, it takes place in the Nueltin Lake region in September--sometimes as early as the first of the month. Herds up to 200 strong may then be seen moving northward, but generally the numbers are smaller--say 10 to 30 in a band. Some of the more notable autumnal movements toward the north, as reported by Charles, were the following: at Simons' Lake in 1936 and again in 1938, when herds of fat bucks were streaming past for a month and a half; likewise at Josie's Bay in 1940; and through the Windy Hills and across Windy River in 1943. Fred Schweder, Jr., said that most of the animals, in returning northward at this season, cross Windy River 4 miles above its mouth or Windy Bay 4 miles from its head; comparatively few pass the mouths of Windy and Little rivers. He remarked further that it is mostly bucks, with few does and fawns, that make the passage on Windy Bay.

More or less evidence of such a movement toward the north in 1947 has been presented in preceding pages, in the notes for September 6, 7, 11, 14, 20, 24, and 28, October 1, and even October 23. The numbers observed so involved on each of these days varied from a solitary buck or a doe with a fawn to about 300 of the animals. On some of these days, however, other Caribou were observed making their way toward the south. It is thus obvious that there was no universal impulse among the Caribou of a given area to move simultaneously in a certain direction.

The general weather conditions on the nine above-mentioned days may be summarized as follows. Every day but one was largely or wholly cloudy; snow falling on three days, but ground bare on other days; wind predominantly from the north; extreme temperatures, 26° and 61°; mean daily average, 37.5°. Whether or not there is significance in the matter, it appears that on those days within the period extending from September 6 to October 1, when the Caribou were not definitely observed moving northward, the winds were less likely to be northerly. Furthermore, within this period there was never enough snow to interfere appreciably with the animals' feeding on the ground lichens of the Barrens.

By October 6 there were 6 inches of snow on the ground, and on the following day 200 Caribou swimming southward across Windy Bay may have marked the beginning of the final movement into the timbered country. It appears possible that a considerable fall of snow may have a definite influence in inducing the Caribou to retreat from the Barrens.

On a trip from Windy River north to the Kazan River region in September, 1946, Charles Schweder found, during the first 45 miles, that the Caribou were moving north; at the Kazan they were moving south, although some were merely loitering. Northwest of the Kazan, the animals were taking a westward course. During the latter part of his return trip to Windy River, 11 or 12 days later, they had reversed the previous direction and were traveling south.

For such a distinct and regular feature in the life cycle of the species as the retrograde autumnal movement there must be some biological explanation. Several possible factors appear reasonably clear. Perhaps we may consider the Barren Grounds the true and preferred home of _Rangifer arcticus_, from which a proportion of the population is driven during part of the year under stress of insect attacks or shortage of food. When the animals begin to enter the woods in August, there is no shortage of food; thus an insect-induced frenzy may possibly be regarded as a potent force driving them southward. In September a state of comparative peace descends upon the caribou world: the current crop of adult insects has subsided; the larvae of warble and nostril flies have not attained the formidable size of the following spring and perhaps are not yet causing any severe discomfort; little or no snow covers up the food supply; the lakes and rivers, still unfrozen, offer a ready way of escape from pursuing Wolves; moderate or even balmy weather gives nature a pleasant mood. In short, both man and beast may well look upon early autumn as the very finest time of year both on the Barrens and in the adjacent wooded country.

Under these circumstances a definite retrograde movement out of the wooded country in September on the part of many Caribou must indicate their preference for the Barrens at this season. In any event, the movement begins just after the insect menace has subsided to a negligible stage. Possibly another inducement for retreating from the wooded country in the early fall is the dearth of open areas in which the animals may spend their resting periods, in comparative safety from Wolves. It is only after the freeze-up that the surfaces of the lakes and rivers supply this desideratum. This condition lasts from November to June--precisely that part of the year in which the Caribou are present in the wooded country in the greatest numbers.

But by November what are the conditions on the Barrens? The weather has become severe; snow has covered up a large part of the ground lichens; tree lichens are not to be had. And so at this season, with the coming of the first heavy snows, there is a final movement out of the Barrens into the shelter of the woods, leaving only a minority of the animals to face a bleak and bitter winter in the open country. The biggest herds of the year may then be seen passing southward. A few bucks are said to remain during most winters in the Windy River area.

Far to the westward, toward Great Slave and Great Bear lakes, the retrograde movements are somewhat different and more complicated (Clarke, 1940: 96).

"Mr. Carl Buchholz, of Churchill, describes the caribou migration at the 60th parallel, north of Churchill, as a southward migration in August, northward in September, and then south in the autumn" (Clarke, 1940: 97). (See also the next paragraph.)

_Fall migration in the Churchill region_

The following notes for 1947 were kindly furnished me by Angus MacIver. He reported large numbers of Caribou moving southward across Caribou Creek (25 miles south of Churchill) about November 10, a day after the local freeze-up. He would then see thousands in a day. Prior to that time (perhaps in September?) there had been two "runs" to the northward and northwestward; these presumably represented the normal retrograde migration in the fall. The herds engaged in these two northerly movements must have previously passed southward farther inland. He reported also that the rutting season this year had commenced a little later than the usual October 15.

_References on migration._--Dobbs, 1774: 20, 22; Hearne, 1795:
39, 40, 56, 66, 74, 85-87, 286, 299; Franklin, 1823: 241-242;
Sabine, in Franklin, 1823: 667; Richardson, "1825": 328-329, and
1829: 242-243; Godman, 1831, +2+: 283-284; John Ross, 1835a:
328, 330, 337, 376, 390, 529-530, 628; J. C. Ross, in John Ross,
1835b: xvii; Richardson, in Back, 1836: 498; Simpson, 1843:
76, 196, 233, 277, 301, 320-321, 328, 386; Rae, 1850: 93;
Richardson, 1852: 290, 296; Rae, 1852a: 79; J. Anderson, 1857:
326, 328; Murray, 1858: 203; Richardson, 1861: 274, 275; B. R.
Ross, 1861: 438-439; Osborn, 1865: 223-224, 226; Kumlien, 1879:
54; R. Bell, 1881: 15C; Caton, 1881: 108; Gilder, 1881: 196-197;
Nourse, 1884: 235, 356; Schwatka, 1885: 77-79, 83; Boas, 1888:
502; Collinson, 1889: 244, 290; Pike, 1917 (1892): 48-49, 50,
89-91, 101, 174, 204, 209, 220; J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128-130;
Dowling, 1893: 103, 107; J. B. Tyrrell, 1894: 442, 1896: 13, 63,
and 1897: 10, 19, 21, 49-50, 76, 124, 140, 142, 165; Russell,
1895: 48, and 1898: 88, 226; Whitney, 1896: 157, 238, 241;
Lydekker, 1898: 48; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 77-78, 80;
Jones, 1899: 368, 374; Hanbury, 1900: 66-67, 69, 71; A. J.
Stone, 1900: 50, 53; W. J. McLean, 1901: 5, 6; Elliot, 1902:
259, 260, 274-275; Preble, 1902: 42; J. W. Tyrrell, 1924 (1902):
26, 31; Hanbury, 1904: 10, 30, 32, 34, 58, 93, 108, 120, 121,
139; Hornaday, 1904: 137; Stone and Cram, 1904: 52; MacFarlane,
1905: 683-685; J. A. Allen, 1908a: 490; Amundsen, 1908, +1+:
97, 102-106, 200, 247, 326-329; Preble, 1908: 137-139; Cameron,
1912: 127; Wheeler, 1912: 199-200; R. M. Anderson, 1913a: 6,
and 1913b: 502; Stefánsson, 1913a: 94-96, 99, 100, 103, 106,
1913b: 203-204, 224-225, 263-265, 269, 294, 348-350, and 1914:
39, 41, 54; Chambers, 1914: 93; Hornaday, 1914, +2+: 101-104;
Wheeler, 1914: 58; Harper, 1915: 160; Camsell, 1916: 21;
Thompson, 1916: 99-101; Kindle, 1917: 107-108; Camsell and
Malcolm, 1919: 46; Whittaker, 1919: 166-167; Buchanan, 1920:
105-108, 128-129; Hewitt, 1921: 60-63; Stefánsson, 1921: 401;
Jenness, 1922: 15, 17, 25-26, 125; Blanchet, 1925: 32-34, and
1926b: 46-48; Mallet, 1926: 79; Preble, 1926: 137-138;
Rasmussen, 1927: 54, 214-217, 246; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 51,
56, 101, 106; Seton, 1929, +3+: 122, 125-128; Blanchet, 1930:
49-52; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 58, 192-196; Hoare, 1930: 13,
14, 16, 21, 22, 27, 31, 33, 36-38; Kitto, 1930: 87; Mallet,
1930: 20-23, 27; Jacobi, 1931: 80-84, 192-210; Harper, 1932: 30,
31; Munn, 1932: 58; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 79, 81; Weyer,
1932: 40; Birket-Smith, 1933: 91-94, 112, 118; Ingstad, 1933:
34, 134-135, 156-159, 161, 163, 225, 229-231, 280, 291, 293,
296, 324; Weeks, 1933: 65; R. M. Anderson, 1934a: 81, 1937:
103, and 1938: 400; Hornby, 1934: 105-107; Birket-Smith, 1936:
91; Hamilton, 1939: 244-247, 359; Murie, 1939: 244; Clarke,
1940: 8-9, 11, 85-100; G. M. Allen, 1942: 298-299; Soper, 1942:
143; Downes, 1943: 215, 221, 224, 249, 250, 253-256, 260;
Manning, 1943a: 52, and 1943b: 103; Porsild, 1943: 389; Soper,
1944: 248-249; Wright, 1944: 186, 190; Gavin, 1945: 227-228;
R. M. Anderson, 1947: 178, and 1948: 15; Manning, 1948: 26-28;
Rand, 1948a: 212, and 1948b: 149; Banfield, 1949: 478, 481;
Harper, 1949: 226-230, 239-240; Banfield, 1951a: 6, 9-12, 28,
and 1951b: 120; Anonymous, 1952: 267; Barnett, 1954: 96, 103.

SUMMATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

The localities from which hitherto unpublished notes on _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ are presented in this paper include the following. Keewatin: Nueltin, Windy, "Highway" (at source of Putahow River), and Ennadai lakes; Little Dubawnt, Kazan, Red, Windy, Little, and Thlewiaza rivers; between Eskimo Point and Baker Lake. Manitoba: Nueltin (southern part), Nejanilini, Reindeer, and Split lakes; Seal River; Churchill; Cape Churchill; "Little Barrens" south of Churchill; between Churchill and Knife Lake; Caribou Creek, 25 miles south of Churchill. Saskatchewan: small lakes southwest of Reindeer Lake; lakes south of Lake Athabaska. Details as to occurrence and status in these localities are supplied on other pages.

The Caribou have been so thoroughly distributed over the approximately 300,000 square miles of the mainland Barren Grounds between Hudson Bay and the Mackenzie Valley that it is fairly safe to say that there is scarcely one square mile in this vast territory that has not been trod by the animals during the past century. See maps by Preble (1908: pl. 19), Seton (1929, +3+: 60), Clarke (1940: figs. 3, 4), Banfield (1949: 479), and Anonymous (1952: 267).

The appended annotated bibliography supplies, in abstract form,
most of the hitherto published information on the geographical
distribution of _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. In its preparation
I have included records of Caribou from the Arctic islands north
to Lancaster Sound, Barrow Strait, Viscount Melville Sound, and
McClure Strait--all approximately in latitude 74° N. This has
been done as a matter of having a convenient, well-defined
regional boundary, not with any conviction that _arcticus_ has
ranged so far to the north in the more westerly islands,
especially in recent years, when it is said to have become
restricted to the southern fringe of the islands (Clarke, 1940:
98; R. M. Anderson, 1947: 178; Banfield, 1949: fig. 1). The
islands north of latitude 74° are doubtless the exclusive domain
of _Rangifer pearyi_. It is possible that this species may also
occur to some extent on Banks, Victoria, Prince of Wales, and
Somerset islands. The typical _R. a. arcticus_, as currently
recognized, ranges eastward to Baffin, Salisbury, Coats, and
Southampton islands and to the western shore of Hudson Bay. (The
animals of the last three islands may be distinct insular
forms.) The southern limits of the winter range in northwestern
Ontario, central Manitoba, northern Saskatchewan, and
northeastern Alberta have been discussed in preceding pages. On
the west the range extends to the Mackenzie Delta (formerly),
Great Bear and Great Slave lakes, Wood Buffalo Park, and Lake
Claire. The timbered country (Hudsonian and Canadian Zones) is
practically entirely deserted by the Barren Ground Caribou in
mid-summer. At this season, in Keewatin at least, the animals
tend to draw away also from the southernmost portions of the
Barren Grounds.

_References._--Since practically every paper in the entire
bibliography presents some data on geographical distribution,
only a few, containing more than an average amount of new or
summarized information on the subject, have been selected for
inclusion in the following list of references: Hearne, 1795;
Franklin, 1823; Lyon, 1824; Franklin and Richardson, 1828;
Simpson, 1843; Pike, 1917 (1892); Russell, 1898; Preble, 1902;
Hanbury, 1904; Amundsen, 1908; Preble, 1908; R. M. Anderson, in
Stefánsson, 1913b; Stefánsson, 1913a, 1913b, and 1921; Hewitt,
1921; Jenness, 1922; Rasmussen, 1927; Seton, 1929, +3+;
Blanchet, 1930; Critchell-Bullock, 1930; Hoare, 1930; Jacobi,
1931; Clarke, 1940; Manning, 1943a; Wright, 1944; R. M.
Anderson, 1947; Manning, 1948; Banfield, 1949 and 1951a.

_Distributional maps._--Grant, 1903: map following p. 196;
Preble, 1908: pl. 19; Dugmore, 1913: 138; Hewitt, 1921: 57;
Seton, 1929, +3+: 60, map 2; Jacobi, 1931: 77, fig. 17; R. M.
Anderson, 1934b: 4062, fig. 6; Murie, 1939: 241; Clarke, 1940:
figs. 3, 4; Banfield, 1949: 479, fig. 1, and 1951a: figs.
4-10; Anonymous, 1952: 267.

ECOLOGY

_Habitats_

Within their natural range the Caribou apparently resort to practically every type of terrestrial and aquatic habitat (other than cliffs and precipices). On the Barren Grounds proper they frequent the open summits and slopes of the ridges, the dwarf birch thickets, the sedge bogs, and the peat bogs. Their trails traverse all the upland spruce and tamarack tracts, the wooded muskegs, and the willow thickets along the rivers. In the summer and fall they swim the rivers and the narrower lakes, and during the winter and spring they cross these on the ice. They do not avoid rapids; in fact, they seek the shallower ones as fords, and they swim the deeper ones (_cf._ Clarke, 1940: 88). They also cross the tundra ponds on the ice, but probably walk around these smaller bodies of water, as a rule, when they are not frozen. While they may prefer to approach the river crossings over open slopes, they do not hesitate to maintain trails through the dense thickets of willow on the banks.

The winter habitat of the major part of the Barren Ground Caribou population comprises the Hudsonian and upper Canadian Zones. This forested habitat is characterized by sparser and smaller timber in the Hudsonian Zone and by denser and taller timber in the Canadian Zone. Important among the features of this winter habitat are the frozen surfaces of the lakes and rivers, where the Caribou are wont to congregate for their daily periods of rest (_cf._ Mallet, 1926: 79; Ingstad, 1933: 86).

_Trails_

The favorite migratory highways are the long, sinuous ridges that stretch across the Barren Grounds in a sufficiently approximate north-south direction to serve the needs of the Caribou. Here their age-old trails are particularly in evidence and may even be detected from the air. A single small ridge may bear half a dozen or more such trails (fig. 1), roughly parallel but anastomosing at frequent intervals. They probably change but little from generation to generation. They provide the smoothest courses available, avoiding rocks and shrubs and traversing intervening bogs at the most suitable points. The summits of the ridges constitute vantage points from which the animals may keep a wide lookout for Wolves and human enemies, and on which they may obtain the maximum benefit from fly-deterring breezes. Man himself is glad to utilize these trails, whether on the Barrens or in the timber tracts, wherever they lead in a direction he desires. They are kept open by the hurrying feet of hundreds or thousands of Caribou every year.

Along a well-used trail extending through low Barrens near Duck Bay, I found a certain grass (_Agrostis scabra_) growing. I did not recognize or collect it elsewhere during the season. Is this perhaps like certain other species, such as _Juncus tenuis_ (_fide_ Dr. Edgar T. Wherry) and _Eleocharis baldwinii_, in curiously thriving on beaten paths?

When the Caribou arrive at some lake or river, they generally follow the shores for a greater or lesser distance, seeking either a way around or a suitable crossing-place. The trails thus formed are generally on the nearest ridges rather than on the immediate shores. Their direction, as they conform to the winding shores, may diverge very widely from the desired migratory course.

In many parts of the Barren Grounds there must be as many as 10 linear miles of caribou trails to every square mile of territory. Even if there were only one mile of such trails to each square mile, the total, on the Barrens of Keewatin and Mackenzie alone, would equal or exceed all the railway mileage in the United States.

In contrast to the narrow ridges, the broader hilltops in the Barrens offer such freedom of movement to the Caribou that trails are much less likely to be formed in such places, even when they are frequented by large numbers of the animals. Thus I found the broad summit of Josie's Hill practically without well-defined trails, despite the regularity with which many migrant bands resort thither. In feeding or traveling over such an area, there is no occasion for restricting themselves to a narrow course. In crossing from one ridge to another through an intervening bog, the animals may leave numerous scattered and temporary trails in the dense sedge growth to mark their passage (fig. 13). On the uniform surface of such a bog, as on the broad hilltops, there is no need to confine their steps to any particular course.

It might be supposed that the Barren Ground Caribou would have some reluctance in entering thickly wooded tracts, where Wolves naturally have a much better chance of a close approach than on the open Barrens. As already stated, however, their trails may be found more or less throughout the spruce and tamarack growth in the Windy River area. One of these tracts, covering probably several square miles on the west side of Four-hill Creek, is fairly crisscrossed with trails. At deep dusk on October 2, while several of us were skinning a Black Bear in this thick timber, about five does and fawns trotted up quite close to us. Perhaps they were on their way to the open Barrens to pass the night. While wintering in the forested Hudsonian Zone, the animals may spend their nights as well as their diurnal resting periods on the frozen lakes and rivers.

Fred Schweder, Jr., says that Caribou are somewhat fearful of sand hills or eskers, and that he has never seen one lying down in such a place; he believes this is because the Wolves frequent the eskers in summertime. On the other hand, Mr. G. W. Malaher spoke of a long esker that extends down the west side of Nueltin Lake and far to the southward; this, he said, forms a migration highway for the Caribou.

_References on habitats and trails._--J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 129,
and 1895: 445; W. J. McLean, 1901: 6; Blanchet, 1925: 33, and
1926a: 73, 96-97; Mallet, 1926: 79, 80; Seton, 1929, +3+:
100-102, 122, 127-128; Jacobi, 1931: 186-187; Ingstad, 1933: 86;
Murie, 1939: 246; Manning, 1948: 26-28; Rand, 1948a: 212;
Harper, 1949: 226, 228; Banfield, 1951a: 3.

_Influence of weather on distribution_

In the section on _Migrations_ the meteorological conditions in 1947 have been reported for any possible bearing they may have had on the daily movements of the Caribou, particularly during the fall migration. The temperature has an important effect on the activity of the insect pests (see _Influence of insects on distribution_) and thus, to a certain extent during summer and fall, on the behavior and probably the distribution of the Caribou.

Low winter temperatures on the Barren Grounds do not appear to be a factor of prime importance in the seasonal distribution of _R. a. arcticus_. "Some individuals and small herds remain in the northern part of the range at all seasons" (R. M. Anderson, 1947: 178). Peary's Caribou (_R. pearyi_) inhabits the more northerly Arctic islands throughout the year, without engaging in such extensive migrations as its relative to the south.

The forceful winds that blow over the Barren Grounds so much of the time are of distinct benefit to the Caribou during the summer in abating the very serious scourge of flies. If other things were equal (as they are not), this factor alone would make the Barrens a more favorable summer habitat than the forested country. (See _Retrograde autumnal movement_.) Air movements of similar strength during the winter must, through the wind-chill factor (_cf._ Siple and Passel, 1945), make life so much the harder for any living being; on the other hand, they tend to sweep the ridges bare of snow, thereby making readily available the Caribou's principal winter food of reindeer lichens (_Cladonia_ spp.)

_References._--Armstrong, 1857: 479; Critchell-Bullock, 1930:
192, 194-196; Hoare, 1930: 33; Jacobi, 1931: 193, 195; Clarke,
1940: 96, 99; Banfield, 1951a: 27-29.

_Influence of food supply on distribution_

The strong winter winds on the Barrens affect the Caribou in still another way. While they pack the snow so firmly that man may dispense with snowshoes, this condition naturally increases the difficulty that the Caribou experience in pawing through the snow to reach the lichens that are covered by it. The limited grazing capacity of such areas as are laid bare by the wind may force a reduction in the wintering population. Although the snow in the timbered regions to the south covers virtually the whole surface of the land, it is evidently less compact and so offers more favorable feeding conditions than the areas of hard-packed snow on the Barrens. (Charles Schweder states that Willow Ptarmigan will fly out of the Barrens to spend the night in tracts of timber, where the snow is softer and thus more suitable for the nocturnal burrows of these birds.)

Another apparent inducement for resorting to the tracts of timber in winter is the abundance there of tree lichens, such as _Alectoria_ and _Usnea_ (_cf._ Richardson, 1829: 243; J. B. Tyrrell, 1894: 441; Dix, 1951: 287), upon which the Caribou may feed without regard to snow conditions. (See also _Retrograde autumnal movement_.)

Reindeer lichens (_Cladonia_ spp.) and doubtless other lichens are of such slow growth that forest fires may deprive the Caribou of this indispensable food for a period of years. According to Mr. G. W. Malaher, the recent burning of a large area north of The Pas may have deflected the animals toward the southeast, causing them to extend their migration to an abnormal distance in that direction. For a similar reason in years past, according to Pike (1917 [1892]: 50), they avoided "great stretches of the country" near the Mackenzie River, and also on the south side of Great Slave Lake. A quarter of a century after Pike's time, Dogribs reported that Caribou had not come to the lower Taltson River for several years, "because the timber had been burned off" (Harper, 1932: 30). Some years ago, extensive fires in Manitoba were said to have been deliberately set by prospectors with the aim of exposing the underlying rock.

Charles Schweder believes that the Caribou show a certain predilection for rocky places, owing to the more luxuriant growth of lichens there.

_References._--Richardson, "1825": 328-329; Bompas, 1888: 24;
Pike, 1917 (1892): 50; Wheeler, 1914: 60; Blanchet, 1930: 52;
Jacobi, 1931: 192, 194, 195; Harper, 1932: 30; Ingstad, 1933:
34, 161, 163; Hornby, 1934: 105; R. M. Anderson, 1938: 400;
Clarke, 1940: 100, 106-107; G. M. Allen, 1942: 299; Downes,
1943: 261; Porsild, 1943: 389; Wright, 1944: 186; R. M.
Anderson, 1948: 15; Banfield, 1951a: 5, 11, 27-29.

_Influence of insects on distribution_

It is quite possible that the blood-sucking mosquitoes (_Aedes_) and black flies (_Simulium_) and the parasitic warble flies (_Oedemagena_) and nostril flies (_Cephenemyia_) have a definite and important influence on the extent and dates of caribou migration.

As far as I am able to judge from my own experience, mosquitoes are more or less equally numerous and ferocious in the Canadian, the Hudsonian, and the Arctic Zones of the Northwest. Naturally the season begins earlier in the more southerly localities. In two seasons (1914, 1920) at the western end of Lake Athabaska they began to be troublesome about the middle of June, whereas at Nueltin Lake this stage was reached about the first of July. In the Athabaska and Great Slave lakes region (Canadian and Hudsonian Zones) I have never had occasion to regard black flies as serious in respect to either numbers or ferocity; but there is universal agreement that conditions are vastly different and worse on the Barren Grounds. At Nueltin Lake the _Simulium_ hordes become troublesome at approximately the same time as the mosquitoes. Toward the end of August there is a merciful diminution in the numbers of both mosquitoes and black flies on the Barrens, and after the first of September they may be practically disregarded, except on an occasional day of unseasonable warmth.

It may be remarked in passing that one of the insect terrors of the Athabaska region, the so-called "bulldog" (a species of Tabanidae), did not come to my attention as a pest at Nueltin Lake though I collected two species of _Tabanus_. Malloch (1919), in reporting on the Diptera of the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913-18, does not include a single species of Tabanidae. On the other hand, Twinn (1950: 18) states that 17 species have been found at Churchill; he refers to tabanids as "very abundant in forested regions of the North." The "bulldog" may be presumed to contribute to the summer misery of the Woodland Caribou and the Moose as well as of man.

The season during which the adult warble flies and nostril flies harass the Caribou probably lasts only a few weeks in July and August. While the adults evidently cause no pain, they no doubt arouse an instinctive dread in the prospective hosts of their larvae. While I have no information as to whether they follow the hosts into the wooded country, it would appear quite likely that they do so if we are to credit statements by Franklin (1823: 242), Richardson (1829: 251), and B. R. Ross (1861: 438) that these pests infest the Woodland Caribou as well as the Barren Ground species. Furthermore, _Cephenemyia_ has been reported in Pennsylvania as a parasite of the White-tailed Deer (_Odocoileus_) (Stewart, 1930?). The scarcity of available study material may be judged from the fact that the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913-18 secured only three adults of _Oedemagena_ and none of _Cephenemyia_ (Malloch, 1919: 55-56).

From the foregoing it may be seen that the wooded country represents a virtually fly-free haven for the Barren Ground Caribou during nearly ten months of the year. Is it any wonder, then, that they hasten throughout August toward or into the shelter of the woods, to gain freedom from the winged scourges of the Barrens? (See also _Retrograde autumnal movement_.)

In the spring migration of 1947 the last of the Caribou passed the Windy River area on July 1, just before the mosquitoes and black flies had become seriously troublesome. It might be surmised that the animals keep marching northward in advance of the appearance of these flies, as long as that is feasible; and that when fairly overwhelmed by the winged hordes, they desist from further progress in that direction. The fawns are born at such a time (in late May or June) as to pass their first few tender weeks before becoming subject to serious insect attacks.

(See also _Retrograde autumnal movement_; _Relations to flies_.)

_References._--Richardson, "1825": 328-329; Hoare, 1930: 33,
37-38; Jacobi, 1931: 193-195; Soper, 1936: 429; Hamilton, 1939:
247, 301; Clarke, 1940: 95-96; Porsild, 1943: 389; Banfield,
1951a: 27-29.

_Effect of combined environmental factors on distribution_