Chapter V: Part 5

Apparently the commonest method employed by the Caribou for indicating or communicating suspicion or alarm is erecting the stub of a tail to a vertical position. This brings its white under side into full view, as the silent flashing of a danger signal to other Caribou. However, a solitary animal will exhibit signaling behavior as well as one in a band. The tail remains erect, whether the animal stands to stare uneasily at a suspicious object or flees from it in alarm. The action is common to old and young of both sexes. It is so characteristic of a fleeing animal as to give significance to the expression, "high-tailing it." In normal, unalarmed progress the tail extends backward in a drooping curve (figs. 11, 12).

I was not fortunate enough to detect any flashing of the white throat, as described by Preble (1902: 42).

Another silent signal is a most peculiar sprawling posture of the hind legs, attained by thrusting one of them well out to one side and setting the foot down. The legs are not then symmetrically placed; the one not moved obviously bears most of the weight of the hind quarters. I managed to film this stance in a buck standing on a sky-line on August 24 (cover). On September 9 another buck assumed the posture while looking over our camp from a ridge on the opposite side of Windy River. According to Charles Schweder, this is an expression of suspicion or alarm, designed to communicate the same feeling to other Caribou. When the others notice it, they stop and assume the same pose; it may be observed in does and even fawns. Charles added that the tail is erected at the same time--a very natural accompaniment, though I failed to notice it.

In all the literature on the Barren Ground Caribou, I have found just one reference to this posture, and that a distinctly fragmentary one:

"While [the Caribou are] thus circling around I have often been amused at the manner in which they carry one hind leg. A novice in the hunting field, after having fired a shot in their direction, would think that he had broken one hind leg of each member of the herd." (A. J. Stone, 1900: 53.)

The author makes this observation just after mentioning a herd sighted near the shore of Franklin Bay. A virtually identical posture in the Norway Reindeer has been sketched by Seton (1929, +3+: 112, pl. 18), who labels it "surprize." An analogy to the posture of the Caribou might be found in a hand thrust out, with fingers spread, by a military scout as a signal of warning or caution to his fellow scouts. A sprawling leg is perhaps the nearest approximation to the human signal that a Caribou can attain.

As noted in the section on _Gaits_, an alarmed Caribou may set off by taking an initial leap into the air. According to Dugmore, such an act on the part of the Newfoundland Caribou plays an important role in its system of communications, not by means of sight or sound, but through the olfactory sense. He observes (1913: 89-90):

"For hours afterwards _every_ Caribou, on arriving at the place where the frightened ones had jumped, has started violently, and has on nearly every occasion turned and run in a manner that showed every indication of fear, even though my presence was entirely unknown to them. My idea is that when the animal is suddenly frightened it expels a certain fluid from the glands in the foot, and that this fluid is a signal of alarm, a silent and invisible warning, but none the less so positive that none dare ignore it."

As for the foot click--a presumptive means of communication (_cf._ Seton, 1929, +3+: 69; Jacobi, 1931: 212-216)--I must confess that I was always so engrossed with photography whenever the Caribou were close at hand (up to within a dozen feet) that I had no thought of this phenomenon and did not detect it.

_References._--Richardson, 1829: 242; A. J. Stone, 1900: 53;
Preble, 1902: 42; Seton, 1929, +3+: 105; Murie, 1939: 245;
Harper, 1949: 230; Banfield, 1951a: 19, 27.

_Food_

The ground lichens (including the various species of _Cladonia_) in the Windy River area in 1947 did not seem, for the most part, to have a height of more than 2 or 3 inches. The average length of several local specimens of _Cladonia_ is approximately 51 mm. This condition was in considerable contrast to the great spongy masses I had noted in the Tazin River basin, between Athabaska and Great Slave lakes, in 1914. I have no means of knowing whether the condition in Keewatin represented severe cropping by Caribou in past years and subsequent slow recovery, or whether it is a normal condition. According to Charles Schweder, the growth depends upon rain, and so varies from year to year. During the warmer months, from June to September, the local Caribou seemed to me to be feeding very largely on the higher vegetation, such as willow, dwarf birch, alder, and sedges. I had no definite evidence of their consuming lichens during that period. By early October the species of _Cladonia_ seemed to have attained a somewhat fuller growth than they had exhibited several months previously. Perez-Llano discusses (1944: 29-30) the utilization by Reindeer of various lichens. Dix has reported (1951) on a collection of lichens from the Windy River area.

Some miscellaneous observations along Windy and Little rivers follow: June 16, 20 Caribou feeding apparently on patches of crowberry (_Empetrum_) and dwarf birch (_Betula glandulosa_) on a ridge; June 29, a Caribou feeding apparently on dwarf birches; June 30, a buck grazing in a sedge bog; August 26, several bucks browsing on willow tops (probably _Salix planifolia_) in a riverside thicket, and some does on dwarf birch and perhaps tall grass or low willow; August 27, numbers feeding largely on willow and dwarf birch; August 28 and 30, low alders, willow, and dwarf birches nibbled off. By early October the leaves of the three last-mentioned shrubs were no longer available, having dropped off. During the summer they had seemed to be preferred above the lichens. Cabot has remarked (1912: 46) on the fondness of _Rangifer arcticus caboti_ for dwarf birch in Labrador.

Charles Schweder reported as follows on the food of Caribou. In summer they live chiefly upon leaves, especially those of dwarf birch, and to some extent upon "grass" (probably largely sedges). Toward the last of June a Caribou was killed with fat an inch thick on its haunches--perhaps the effect of recent feeding on the fresh green vegetation. In August and September the animals also eat mushrooms and get very fat on them; they seem to be especially fond of a certain red kind, which Charles has found in their stomachs. The Eskimos' name for mushrooms signifies "deer food." The Caribou feed upon dead "grass" (perhaps mostly sedges) in the fall, but not in the winter. Charles has seen them digging through 4 feet of snow to get at the reindeer lichens; but for the most part their winter feeding in this region is on the tops of the hills, which remain bare. They also eat tree lichens, especially in the winter time.

Charles has seen Caribou chew the cud while standing as well as while lying down. He once saw a buck thus occupied while standing on a hill for half a day in a breeze that kept the mosquitoes down.

Among the hundreds of Caribou observed at the river crossings and elsewhere, I do not recall seeing a single one pause to drink.

The _Influence of food supply on distribution_ of the Barren Ground Caribou has been discussed in a previous section.

_References._--Hearne, 1795: 317; Franklin, 1823: 242;
Richardson, "1825": 329, and 1829: 243; Godman, 1831, +2+: 284;
Richardson, in Back, 1836: 498, and 1861: 275; Murray, 1858:
202; B. R. Ross, 1861: 439; Kumlien, 1879: 54; J. B. Tyrrell,
1894: 441; Russell, 1898: 226; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 80;
Lydekker, 1898: 49; Elliot, 1902: 276; Stone and Cram, 1904: 53;
Buchanan, 1920: 105-106, 131; Hewitt, 1921: 61; Blanchet, 1925:
33; Seton, 1929, +3+: 107-108; Kitto, 1930: 87; Jacobi, 1931:
223; Harper, 1932: 30; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 84; Weyer,
1932: 39; Hornby, 1934: 105; Murie, 1939: 245; Clarke, 1940:
106-107; G. M. Allen, 1942: 299; Soper, 1942: 143; Downes, 1943:
228; Porsild, 1943: 383; R. M. Anderson, 1948: 15; Manning,
1948: 26-28; Rand, 1948a: 212; Harper, 1949: 230; Banfield,
1951a: 11, 19-20, 28-29; Barnett, 1954: 106.

_Scatology_

The pellets of the Caribou are small, more or less blackish, very irregular in shape, somewhat compressed, and generally deposited in little piles, in which the individual components do not stand out very distinctly, being pressed against each other. They are quite unlike the oblong, curvilinear, comparatively symmetrical scats of the White-tailed Deer and the Moose. I did not observe, nor learn of, any particular seasonal variation in the shape or other characters.

_References._--Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 81; Manning, 1943a:
50.

_Voice_

My impression of the adult Caribou is that it is a comparatively silent animal during most of the year. At the rutting season, however, when the bucks do their fighting with a clash of antlers, their voice is heard, as Fred Schweder, Jr., informed me. It is about as loud as the fawn's grunt, but a different sort of sound. Fred has also known a doe to call when its fawn was shot.

The only vocal sound that I heard from the Caribou was the grunt or bawling of the fawns on the fall migration, and only during the last week of August, when the "big movement" was under way. It was uttered chiefly at the river crossings, apparently as a result of the fawns' anxiety lest they be separated from their mothers during the slight uncertainty or confusion of these passages, when a considerable number of animals were participating. It seemed to be a fair equivalent of a human child's crying out: "Don't leave me behind!" or "Where are you, mamma?" The grunt is very different from the bleating of a lamb or the bawling of a domestic calf. It is a surprisingly raucous or guttural, almost explosive, yet not very loud note, which I rendered at various times as _gwuf_, _goff_, _gowk_, or _gorr_. Perhaps the last rendering comes nearest to the actual sound. With one or two exceptions, I did not identify any individual uttering one of these grunts; but the Schweder boys, from their intimate knowledge of the species, assured me that this was the voice of the fawn. In one case the sound came rather definitely from a fawn that had become somewhat separated from its band in going up the adjacent ridge after crossing Little River. But for the most part the grunts seemed to come from swimming animals.

On August 30 another sort of sound--probably not a vocal one--seemed to come from one of the older animals among a large band crossing Little River. It was probably produced by a vigorous vibration of the nostrils. It is further discussed in the section on _Shaking off moisture and insects_.

It is rather astonishing that Seton, after seeing and studying many Caribou at close range in Mackenzie, should say no more about their voice than: "They snort a good deal and grunt a little" (1911: 210). In his later monographic account he practically ignores the topic, merely referring to the animals' "sniffing, snorting" (1929, 3: 105).

_References._--Lyon, 1824: 336; Pike, 1917 (1892): 89; Stone and
Cram, 1904: 53; Seton, 1911: 210, and 1929, +3+: 105; Hornaday,
1914, +2+: 103; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Sutton and
Hamilton, 1932: 84; Murie, 1939: 245; Downes, 1943: 226,
256-257; Harper, 1949: 230; Banfield, 1951a: 22.

_Reproduction_

By the time the rutting season arrived in mid-October, there were comparatively few Caribou left in the Windy River area. Consequently my information on the subject was derived mainly from Charles Schweder and Fred Schweder, Jr. Weeks before the scheduled season, there were certain manifestations of the sexual urge. For example, on September 5 about 20 Caribou were passing the Bear Slough. The band consisted mostly of does and fawns, but included several middle-aged bucks (with antlers much less than the maximum size) and possibly some younger bucks. Twice I saw one of the animals attempt to cover another, but driving rain and the compactness of the band prevented me from determining the sex or age of those involved. During a trip to the Kazan River, lasting from September 17 to October 1, Fred observed a good deal of fighting among the Caribou--obviously a prelude to the mating season. In Charles' opinion, these early contests are not very much in earnest; the real fighting begins about October 15. On October 8 Charles and Fred referred to fighting that was going on among a herd of about 100 between Glacier Pond and Lake Charles. Perhaps less than a quarter of this herd were older bucks; the rest, younger bucks, does, and fawns.

In former years, while living at the "Old Post" on Red River, Charles used to go out and watch the fighting on a big open muskeg, about a mile square, where the Caribou would congregate practically every year at the rutting season, up to a thousand strong. They would stay for three or four days, then disappear. Nothing on the same scale had come to his notice in the vicinity of the Windy River post. At this season, when the animals are in large herds, the bucks utter their calls, as mentioned in the section on _Voice_. According to Fred, one sees in October a good many bucks with an antler broken off in the fighting. The break generally occurs at about the middle of the antler. On September 29 Charles reported a buck with a broken antler, which he interpreted as evidence of the beginning of the fighting season. During the rutting season he once shot a buck with a broken jaw, and another with an eye gone. The possible inference was that these injuries had been sustained in fighting. A buck secured on October 16 had apparently been wounded in fighting; there was pus in its neck, and it was considered unfit for eating. I heard nothing as to the possible use of hoofs in contests between bucks, as reported by Jacobi (1931: 233) for the Reindeer.

During the rutting season the herd is likely to be a large one, and to do little traveling. It is composed of fawns as well as adults. The bucks pursue the does, and sometimes chase each other. Charles thinks the young bucks keep away from the does at this time, being unable to fight the older bucks with larger antlers. Fred reports a proportion of about 10 bucks to 50 does in these herds--a probable indication of polygamy. He expressed the opinion that the bucks do not mate until 8-10 years old, and the does not until about four years old. However, he was basing his estimate of the age on the total number of points on the antlers--one point for each year; and on this basis the age was probably much overestimated. Earlier sexual maturity on the part of the doe might be another indication of polygamy in the species.

At the onset of this season, the bucks neglect their feeding to some extent; consequently those killed have stomachs only partly filled, instead of completely filled, as at other times. By mid-October their fat becomes tinted with reddish, and the whole flesh becomes so rank and musky that it is disdained not only by human beings but even by the Wolves. This condition seems to be considerably more pronounced in the Caribou than in the White-tailed Deer. The hunters forego eating the old bucks for a period of several weeks. Meanwhile the younger bucks, not engaged in mating, remain fit to eat. Hearne (1795: 69) reported the flesh of bucks as still unpalatable as late as December 30.

The rutting season is said to continue through October into November. The end of the period is uncertain, but it may coincide with the shedding of the antlers of the old bucks.

_References._--Hearne, 1795: 72, 198-199; Richardson, "1825":
327-328, 1829: 243, and 1861: 274; Pike, 1917 (1892): 48, 90;
J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 80; Hanbury, 1904: 73; Stone and
Cram, 1904: 52; Blanchet, 1925: 33; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 51,
56; Seton, 1929, +3+: 124-125; Jacobi, 1931: 232; Sutton and
Hamilton, 1932: 81, 84-86; Weyer, 1932: 40; Ingstad, 1933: 158;
Hornby, 1934: 105; Murie, 1939: 244; Manning, 1943a: 52;
Banfield, 1951a: 10, 26, 31.

_Fawns_

Since the fawning takes place far to the north of the Nueltin Lake region, practically no local information concerning it was obtained. Charles Schweder stated that in the spring migration the pregnant does pass to an undetermined distance north of the upper Kazan River (below Ennadai Lake). Although the migration at Nueltin Lake continues throughout June, the rearguard is composed largely of bucks, and the comparatively few does accompanying them toward the last may be barren. Fisher (1821: 199) and Parry (1821: 183) report a small fawn of _R. pearyi_ on Melville Island on June 2. Richardson states ("1825": 329) that the young are born in May and June. There is evidently some geographical and individual variation in the time of birth (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931: 232). Apparently the gestation period in the Caribou covers approximately eight months or a little less. In the domesticated Reindeer it is 231 to 242 days, according to Jacobi (1931: 234); in the White-tailed Deer, 205 to 212 days, according to Seton (1929, +3+: 258).

Fred Schweder, Jr., stated that he had never found more than a single unborn fawn in any one of the animals he had secured; yet he has seen as many as four fawns following a doe. Of course there is no proof that this individual was the actual mother of so many fawns; a stray or bereaved youngster might well endeavor to attach itself to a foster mother. On August 28, at Little River, I saw a doe being followed by two fawns. On September 16 Fred reported seeing three old does without fawns. Presumably most of the does do not bear young until they are two years old (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931: 235); thus many yearling does without family cares should be observed during the summer.

On September 12 Charles Schweder stated that the does would soon be losing their milk; yet on occasion he has found them with milk as late as November (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931: 235). On September 21, when he secured a doe (fig. 21) that was accompanied by a fawn, I asked if he thought the latter was still nursing. By way of answer, he squeezed a couple of the doe's mammae, and some milk exuded. Thus the mammary glands were still functioning at that date; they appeared well developed. By August 27, at an age of perhaps two and a half months, the fawns were browsing on their own account, and their teeth were well developed. Fred Schweder, Jr., then spoke of having seen fawns nursing four times during that month, the last occasion having been on the 25th. On the 27th I had the rare privilege of witnessing such a nursery rite across the mouth of Little River. The wilderness baby was so large that it was obliged to lower its forequarters very decidedly in order to reach the maternal font (from a lateral position). This attitude left its hind quarters thrust high and ludicrously into the air. I did not notice that it wriggled its tail as a bovine calf might have; but Charles Schweder spoke of having seen a fawn hold its tail erect while nursing. He also said that the bigger fawns kneel down with their front legs while so engaged. In his opinion, when a doe is killed in the autumn, its fawn does not go and join other Caribou, but lingers near the fatal spot until a Wolf or some other enemy overcomes it. For this reason it is his practice to secure the fawn also, if possible, when he takes the mother. On September 13 a fawn remained by its dead mother, permitting one of the hunters to approach within 30 feet and to throw rocks at it three times, finally taking it by that means. After a doe was killed on September 21, its fawn lingered in the vicinity for a day or two.

_References._--Franklin, 1823: 242; Richardson, "1825": 329;
John Ross, 1835a: 432; Simpson, 1843: 277, 281, 381; J.
McLean, 1932 (1849): 359; Armstrong, 1857: 477-478; Murray,
1858: 202; Osborn, 1865: 227; Nourse, 1884: 264-265; Pike, 1917
(1892): 204, 209; Dowling, 1893: 107: Russell, 1895: 51; R. M.
Anderson, 1913b: 504-505; Hewitt, 1921: 62; Blanchet, 1926b: 47;
Seton, 1929, +3+: 124-125; Blanchet, 1930: 49, 53;
Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 192, 193; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932:
86; Ingstad, 1933: 161; Clarke, 1940: 88-90; Gavin, 1945: 228;
Banfield, 1951a: 26, 27; Scott, 1951: 179, 180; Barnett, 1954:
96.

_Growth_

During late August and early September the fawns probably averaged about 50 lb. in weight. (For the measurements of two specimens, see the section on _Measurements_.) Yet they varied so much in size that some appeared nearly twice as big as others. On September 7 an exceptionally small fawn was secured (estimated weight, 35 lb.) (fig. 23). Its coat was soft and woolly, representing an earlier stage than that seen in any of the other fawns of that season. It was molting into the next pelage, and its hide was unprime. It must have been born at an unusually late date. Fred Schweder, Jr., remarked that he sometimes sees this stage in the growth of fawns when the Caribou come down early from the north (about the first of August), but it seems remarkable that it should have been found in a September fawn. The present specimen has actually smaller measurements than one secured on August 2 at Artillery Lake (Seton, 1929, +3+: 97). The collector reported that the parent doe appeared of ordinary size--not a particularly small or young one. The yearlings noted on the spring migration in May (south of Churchill) and in June (at Nueltin Lake) appeared roughly half the size of the adults.

Evidently several years are required for the attainment of full growth. The younger adult bucks, with smaller antlers, are appreciably inferior in body size to the older bucks, with better developed antlers.

_References._--Seton, 1929, +3+: 97, 98; Banfield, 1951a: 30.

_Antlers_

In late August and early September antlers were already in evidence on the fawns, at an age of less than three months. They consisted of bony knobs, covered with skin, and were an inch or two long. I obtained no information as to when the fawns may shed the velvet or the antlers themselves. By analogy with the Reindeer (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931: 237), the fawns might be expected to drop their antlers in late winter.

When the adult Caribou return from the north in August, the antlers of all are still in the velvet. However, completely hornless does are not particularly uncommon at this season; in Charles Schweder's opinion, some remain permanently in that condition. Hornless does are reported in various forms of Caribou or Reindeer in both hemispheres (Jacobi, 1931: 48). I saw also a few one-horned does on the autumn migration. In a single group of three adult does photographed at close range on August 28, one was hornless and another one-horned (fig. 11). A considerable proportion of my other photographs of Caribou groups at this season show one or more animals with a single antler or none. The hornless condition appears to be astonishingly more common in Keewatin than in regions farther west. Stefánsson, whose field operations were chiefly in northern Mackenzie and southwestern Franklin, remarks (1913b: 151) on having found, at any season when Caribou are normally horned, just three hornless animals among a thousand at whose killing he had been present. Murie (1935: 20) speaks of having observed only one hornless doe in Alaska, in September.

By late August the bucks' antlers have attained nearly their full growth, though still in the velvet. The largest head of the season was obtained on August 22. Its measurements were: right antler, in straight line from base to tip of longest prong, 995; left antler, 980; distance between main tips of the two antlers, 620; brow tine, from base to upper tip, 335; to lower tip, 290. For the older bucks, the principal period for shedding the velvet is September 10 to 20, although Charles Schweder once observed a buck that had completed the process by September 1, and Fred secured one in that condition on September 6, 1947. In Alaska old bucks shed the velvet more or less regularly in September (Murie, 1935: 26). Sick or wounded animals are said to retain the velvet for an indefinite period. For example, a buck secured on September 29 had some velvet hanging in shreds from the tips of its antlers, and it was found to have been shot in the mouth sometime previously. The younger bucks and the does lose their velvet somewhat later than the older bucks (say toward the end of September). In a doe of September 21 (fig. 21) the antlers were covered with velvet and still had soft tips. A young buck of October 2 was just shedding the velvet.

Charles Schweder spoke of noting as many as 30-33 points on the antlers of old bucks. (He probably included the brow and the bez tines in this count.) He also referred to an exceptional set of antlers at Simons' Lake with about 40 points; he had first noted it about 10 years previously, and it had doubtless been there for years before that. He had never been able to secure its equal. When I saw and photographed it in October (fig. 25), some of the points were broken off, so that an accurate count was impossible; but there must have been close to 40 originally, even without the brow tines, which were missing. The palmation was much broader than I have seen in any other Caribou.

The prong projecting backward at the angle of the main beam is by no means so uncommon in the animals of this region as a Chipewyan hunter seemed to indicate to Downes (1943: 227-228).

Charles Schweder found a pair of locked antlers about 1940 near Josie's Bay. This was the only case of which he had any knowledge. An instance of locked antlers in _Rangifer pearyi_ is mentioned by Peary (1907: 84).

There is marked variation in the dates of shedding the antlers, according to sex, age, and physiological condition of the individual. This has resulted in various conflicting statements in the literature. In the present region, the old bucks with 25 or more points are said to shed their antlers about the end of October or in November, at the close of the rutting season. (Fred Schweder, Jr., encountered a hornless buck as early as November 7, 1947.) The younger bucks, with 15 to 20 points, and the does retain their antlers till late May or June of the following year. A doe of June 3 and another of June 16 were still horned. In Alaska "the young bucks may carry their old antlers until late in April, while does carry theirs until the middle of May, some of them until June" (Murie, 1935: 26).

John Ingebrigtsen reported having seen two or three shallow lakes, between Churchill and (South?) Knife Lake, whose bottoms were fairly covered with caribou antlers. They were visible through clear ice. It appears probable that these lakes, while ice-covered, were favored resorts of large numbers of Caribou for their midday or nocturnal rests at a period when they were shedding their antlers (November for the old bucks, May or June for the does and young bucks).

It is natural that the season at which the new antlers of the Barren Ground Caribou begin to grow should vary greatly according to sex and age, just as the shedding of the antlers does; probably also, for the various forms of _Rangifer_, according to locality (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931: 237). On Southampton Island "the new antlers begin to appear in the males in March and April" (Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 85). In Alaska Murie (1935: 24) "has found old bucks late in April with velvet knobs well begun." Seton's account (1929, +3+: 102-103) of the seasonal change of antlers is not only meager but largely at variance with the information I assembled in Keewatin. Recently gathered information is supplied by Banfield (1951a: 17-18).

Measurements of the length of antlers in the velvet (right and left, respectively) were recorded as follows: adult male, June 18, 420, 440; adult male (figs. 3, 4), August 17, 1165, 1205; adult female (fig. 21), September 21, 220, 165.

Scratching or anointing of antlers in the velvet with a hind hoof was observed in an adult buck on June 16, and in a fawn on August 27.

While there is undoubtedly some correlation between the age of a Caribou and the number of points on its antlers, I am not aware that such a correlation has been worked out to a satisfactory degree. The Schweder brothers judged a Caribou's years by the number of points on both antlers, yet freely admitted that they had limited confidence in such a criterion. Probably they would be nearer the actual facts if they counted the points on only one antler. The situation is complicated by the fact (if we are to credit Jacobi, 1931: 238) that bucks in other forms of _Rangifer_ exhibit the best development of antlers at six to eight years.

_References._--Hearne, 1795: 198-199; Franklin, 1823: 240-241;
Lyon, 1824: 270; Richardson, "1825": 327-328, and 1829: 241;
Richardson, in Back, 1836: 499; Armstrong, 1857: 478; Murray,
1858: 199-206; B. R. Ross, 1861: 439; Osborn, 1865: 227; Pike,
1917 (1892): 49; J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128; Dowling, 1893: 107;
Russell, 1895: 51, and 1898: 225; Whitney, 1896: 238-239; J. W.
Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 79-80; A. J. Stone, 1900: 53; W. J.
McLean, 1901: 6; Elliot, 1902: 279-280; Hanbury, 1904: 95, 116,
133; Hornaday, 1904: 138; J. A. Allen, 1908a: 488; R. M.
Anderson, 1913b: 505; Stefánsson, 1913b: 151; Buchanan, 1920:
126; Blanchet, 1925: 33, 1926b: 47-48, and 1930: 49;
Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 50, 89, 239-251; Seton, 1929, +3+:
102-103; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 192; Jacobi, 1931: 237; Sutton
and Hamilton, 1932: 81-86; Ingstad, 1933: 159; Hornby, 1934:
105; Murie, 1935: 20, and 1939: 244; Clarke, 1940: 95; Downes,
1943: 228; Manning, 1943a: 52-53; Harper, 1949: 228; Banfield,
1951a: 17-18; Barnett, 1954: 104.

_Rubbing trees_

Charles Schweder gave the following account. The bucks hasten the shedding of the velvet in the autumn by rubbing their antlers on various trees--willow, spruce, or tamarack. The individual may complete the operation in possibly half a day. It is thought, however, that most of the velvet comes off at the first tree. The animals usually select a tree standing by itself rather than one in a thicket. It is usually a small tree--say 4 feet high and 1 inch in diameter. Perhaps a spruce is most often selected. Branches are broken and much of the bark is scraped off in the process. The velvet soon dries up, so that it is little noticed. Charles did not recall having seen any hanging in a tree.

The numbers of rubbing trees that I noticed at Simons' Lake in mid-October indicated that Caribou must have been much more numerous there during the previous month than in the vicinity of the Windy River post. These trees were particularly in evidence on the outskirts of a spruce and tamarack thicket at the head of the lake. They were mostly tamaracks, with some black spruces. Of the two spruces shown in figure 26, the larger was about 4 feet high. Many of the young trees had been killed. The branches and the tops had been pretty generally broken off and were lying on the ground. Most of the damage was fresh, but some of it dated from previous years.

_Reference._--Hanbury, 1904: 232.

MORPHOLOGY AND TAXONOMY

_Pelage and molt_

When the Caribou migrate northward through the Nueltin Lake region in May and June, they still retain their winter pelage. It is now worn and faded, and harsh as well, in contrast to the fresh, dark, soft autumn coat.

This stage is represented by an adult buck (No. 1046) of June 18. The general color above is Cream-Buff (capitalized color terms are derived from Ridgway, 1912), changing gradually to Isabella Color on sides of head and body; no distinct dark longitudinal stripe on lower sides (such as appears in summer and autumn pelage); tail Cream-Buff above, the rest Cartridge Buff; rump-patch varying from Cartridge Buff to Cream-Buff; tip of snout and chin dirty whitish; small area below nostrils near Mummy Brown; triangular area behind nostrils Cream-Buff; crown Cartridge Buff; ears Olive-Buff on outer surface, Cartridge Buff on inner surface; posterior venter Cartridge Buff; legs Isabella Color in front, remainder Cream-Buff; hoofs black, bordered above with Cartridge Buff hairs, forming a band ½-2 inches in width; antler velvet in this and other specimens Olive-Brown. The marked difference between the dark brownish and white pelage of the autumn and the Cream-Buff coat of early June presumably results from wear and fading, without molt. The does and the yearlings in June appear grayer than the adult bucks.

In another adult male (No. 1033), collected June 3, the darker part of the pelage is Buffy Brown rather than Cream-Buff.

The molt of the bucks begins in June but takes place chiefly in July, while the animals are somewhere to the north of the Nueltin Lake region. On their return in August they have largely completed their summer transformation in appearance. A buck of August 17 had just a little of the winter fur still clinging to its lower back; and another on August 20 was in similar condition. At this season the white mane is developed only on its lower portion (figs. 9, 10, 12), but by the end of September the white has spread upward over practically the whole neck (fig. 22), and in some cases over the shoulders.

In an adult male (No. 1144) of October 16, representing the pelage of the rutting season, the posterior crown is near Tilleul Buff, the anterior crown somewhat browner; sides of head and upper throat between Verona Brown and Buffy Brown; area about and between eyes somewhat darker; triangular area behind nostrils (apex extending halfway to eyes) and lower chin between Mummy Brown and Warm Blackish Brown; tip of snout and chin Cartridge Buff; ears pale creamy white on both surfaces; whole neck and shoulder mantle whitish, washed with Cartridge Buff, and changing gradually to the brownish of the sides of the head; long hairs along median ventral line of the neck tipped with Natal Brown; dorsal area, from shoulders to rump, Prout's Brown; stripe on lower sides Mummy Brown, separated from dorsal area by an ill-defined lighter stripe, mixed with whitish hairs; top of tail slightly paler than back, the rest white; small rump-patch mostly white; chest Mummy Brown; mid-venter varying from Deep Olive-Buff anteriorly to Cream-Buff posteriorly; posterior venter white; forelegs near Bone Brown; hind legs between Mummy Brown and Olive-Brown, with a pale spot on the inner side of the heel (this spot noticeable also in doe and fawn); hoofs black, bordered above with whitish hairs. The hides of this specimen and of two other adult bucks (No. 1111, September 29, and No. 1132, October 16) were prime. The dark lateral stripe, which shows quite distinctly in summer and fall specimens of both sexes (figs. 7, 8, 10, 21, 22), from fawns (except very young ones) to adults, and which is also a prominent feature in Old World Reindeer (_cf._ Flerov, 1933), has been largely or wholly overlooked in some descriptions of _Rangifer a. arcticus_.

The summer molt occurs later in the does than in the bucks. Some of the former return toward the end of August while still retaining most of the winter pelage. Others exhibit remnants of it in patches, especially on the lower back; this was true even of an adult doe (No. 1101) secured as late as September 21 (fig. 21). Its hide, however, was prime. In this specimen the crown is near Verona Brown, with varying admixture of whitish hairs; sides of head Verona Brown; upper throat a little paler; a poorly defined area behind nostrils, and lower chin, Mummy Brown; tip of snout and chin Cartridge Buff; ears Drab, varying to Pale Olive-Buff, especially on inner surface; neck Drab dorsally, mixed with whitish hairs, the remainder Pale Olive-Buff; dorsal area, from shoulder to rump, Mars Brown; lateral stripe on lower sides Mars Brown, separated from dorsal area by a poorly defined but conspicuous area of Light Cinnamon-Drab; top of tail like back, the rest whitish, washed laterally with Pale Pinkish Buff; small rump-patch mostly white; chest Mummy Brown; venter Light Drab, becoming whitish in inguinal region; forelegs Natal Brown, slightly darker in front; hind legs Natal Brown, with a pale spot on the inner edge of the heel; hoofs black, bordered above with whitish "spats" varying from ½ to 1½ inches in width.

Another doe, secured on November 3 but not preserved, was apparently in long, full winter pelage, with whitish mane and shoulders. The dorsum generally was grayish; the top of the rump, buffy gray. The white rump-patch appeared to be more extensive, and to contain longer hairs, than in the doe of September 21; likewise the white "spats" appeared much more extensive.

As winter comes on, the fur of the Caribou grows longer and paler gray. One incipient stage of such a change from the summer coat began to be noticeable as early as September 13. A buck that came trotting down out of the Windy Hills on September 27 revealed the splendor of its new winter coat, with an amazing amount of creamy white, chiefly on the mane and shoulders. The long mane wears off during the winter, according to Charles Schweder. It looks best, he added, when the bucks start to fight in the fall. A yearling or large fawn on October 21 was distinctly creamy about the neck and shoulders. After describing a winter female from Wager River, Seton remarks (1929, +3+: 98): "The general impression is of a creamy white animal, with a gray blanket on its back."

For the first couple of months of its life the fawn wears a soft and woolly coat. An example was furnished by a male fawn (No. 1095; fig. 23) of September 7, which must have been born several weeks later than the average date. It was actually smaller and less developed than another male fawn collected on August 20. It was molting into the next pelage (described in the following paragraph), and its hide was unprime. The general color is Deep Brownish Drab; this is overlaid with longer hairs of Pale Olive-Buff on the median dorsal line of the neck, on the venter, and on part of the legs; a median stripe on the back near Hay's Brown; no distinct lateral stripe; ears and posterior crown Cartridge Buff; forepart of crown Deep Brownish Drab; area above eye Cream-Buff; snout varying from Deep Brownish Drab above to Pale Gull Gray on sides; transverse band behind nostrils Dusky Brown; tip of snout whitish; tail Deep Brownish Drab above, pale creamy on sides, and white beneath; rump-patch whitish; chin anteriorly whitish, posteriorly Dusky Drab; throat whitish to Pale Gull Gray; lower part of legs, in front, Buffy Brown; hoofs black, bordered above with a very narrow (¼-inch) strip of whitish hairs. A very similar young fawn, taken on August 2, 1907, has been described by Seton (1929, +3+: 98).

In a male fawn (No. 1072) collected on August 20 the general color is between Olive-Brown and Natal Brown; a paler longitudinal area separating the lateral stripe from the dorsal area; ears Clove Brown externally, pale creamy internally; transverse band behind nostrils Blackish Brown; tip of snout whitish; sides of head varying from Cream-Buff above eyes to Cartridge Buff below; tail Bone Brown above, white below; rump-patch whitish; legs Buffy Brown, darker in front; chin anteriorly whitish, posteriorly Hair Brown; throat Cartridge Buff; venter Light Drab; hoofs black, bordered above with a narrow (¼- to ½-inch) strip of whitish hairs.

_References._--Franklin, 1823: 240-241; Richardson, 1829: 242;
B. R. Ross, 1861: 439; Schwatka, 1885: 60-61; J. B. Tyrrell,
1892: 128; Russell, 1898: 91, 226; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898):
79; A. J. Stone, 1900: 52; Hanbury, 1904: 194; MacFarlane, 1905:
682-683; Blanchet, 1925: 33, and 1926b: 47; Seton, 1929, +3+:
98-99, 104; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Jacobi, 1931: 236;
Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 81, 84-86; Murie, 1939: 244; Clarke,
1940: 89, 90; Downes, 1943: 226; Manning, 1943a: 53; Harper,
1949: 228, 229, 230; Banfield, 1951a: 15-17.

_Albinism_

In _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ this appears to be an exceptionally rare phenomenon. There are references to albinos by the following authors: Russell (1895: 51; 1898: 91, 226), Whitney (1896: 237), Boas (1901: 150, 501), MacFarlane (1905: 682-683), Ingstad (1933: 312), and Degerbøl (1935: 49, 51).

_Foot-glands_

I dissected out the glands from the hind feet of an adult male Caribou (No. 1046). Seton (1929, +3+: 68) has discussed these structures in the Woodland Caribou and the Norwegian Reindeer; and Pocock (1911: 960-962, fig. 138B) and Jacobi (1931: 22, fig. 4), in the Reindeer. Many hairs had their base in the glands, and there was a fatty secretion on the hairs adjacent to the glands. I judged that the opening to the exterior extended in a more or less dorso-anterior direction. One of the suggested functions of these glands is anointing the velvet covering of the antlers. I was highly interested, therefore, in seeing an old buck on June 16 rub the tips of its growing antlers with each hind foot in turn. Meanwhile it inclined its antlers alternately to one side and backwards to place one of them at a time within convenient reach of the hind foot on that side. It seemed to rub its snout as well as the antler tips. In Charles Schweder's experience this action was always carried out with the hind foot, not the forefoot. The latter contains a similar but smaller gland, according to Jacobi (1931: 22), while Pocock (1911: 960-961) gives contrary testimony. On August 27 I also saw a fawn rubbing a knob of its skin-covered antlers with a hind foot.

Another function of the foot-glands is suggested by an observation of Dugmore's (1913: 89-90), which has been mentioned in the section on _Signaling_. I could not definitely connect any of the various occasions of panic that I observed, with scent from the foot-glands of preceding Caribou that had been frightened.

_References._--Caton, 1881: 265; Pocock, 1911: 960-962; Seton,
1929, +3+: 68, 105; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 84; Harper, 1949:
230.

_Mastology_

Very little seems to have been published on this subject. Jacobi (1931: 24) merely remarks that in the Reindeer the mammae number four, or occasionally six, but that the supernumerary ones are not functional. The four rudimentary mammae in a male fawn of _arcticus_ (No. 1072) of August 20 seemed remarkable for their arrangement in a nearly straight transverse row--quite different from the more rectangular pattern in a domestic Cow or in a male Moose, as figured by Seton (1929, +3+: 221). In an adult doe (No. 1101) of September 21 the anterior pair are about twice as far apart as the posterior pair; each of the mammae appears no more than a couple of inches from the one nearest to it. The arrangement in a two-year-old buck, as shown by Seton (1929, +3+: 106), is approximately intermediate between linear and rectangular.

_Fat_

A Caribou (probably a buck) secured about the end of June was reported to have back fat half an inch thick--possibly resulting from the fresh green spring feed. In August, however, scarcely any fat was to be found on the animals; perhaps the annual renewal of pelage and the summer harassment by flies had been deterrents to the storage of fat. In September and early October the Caribou were in prime condition. On September 19 there was a fresh piece of back fat half an inch thick; two days later there was another piece three times as thick. In 1943 (a year of great mushroom growth) the animals were said to have become particularly fat. According to Charles Schweder, the doe never becomes so fat as the buck; one of September 21, still nursing, was just slightly fat. An adult buck of September 29 was recorded as "somewhat fat"; two of October 16 were "rather fat" and "quite fat." Charles has seen as much as 3 inches of fat on a buck. The strips of back fat brought into camp on October 8 from several bucks weighed about 5 to 10 lb. apiece. Such fatness evidently prepares the bucks for the strain of the rutting season, when they neglect their feeding and become very poor and thin. This loss of fat occurs in about two weeks. The does also lose some fat at this season, but slowly. In some winters the Caribou remain fat, but in other winters they do not. In the latter case there may be deep snow that hinders their feeding. In the spring the Caribou become fat again, and they are in that condition when they arrive from the south in May.

The eagerness of the Eskimos and the Indians for fat results in their selection of the biggest bucks, which generally carry the most fat. Charles Schweder spoke of the tail of such an animal almost disappearing, apparently engulfed in fat! Besides its use in the native diet, the fat goes into the making of "Eskimo candles" (see section on _Relations to man_).

_References._--Franklin, 1823: 240; Armstrong, 1857: 477-478;
Whitney, 1896: 161; Elliot, 1902: 276; R. M. Anderson, in
Stefánsson, 1913b: 505-506; Stefánsson, 1921: 231-234,
246-247, 252; Jenness, 1922: 48, 101, 248; Birket-Smith, 1929
(1): 48, 90; Seton, 1929, +3+: 113-114; Critchell-Bullock, 1930:
193; Weyer, 1932: 40; Hornby, 1934: 105; Hamilton, 1939: 109;
Downes, 1943: 228; Manning, 1943a: 53.

BODY-MEASUREMENTS AND WEIGHTS

Columns:

A: No.
B: Sex and age
C: Date
D: Length
E: Tail
F: Foot
G: Ear from crown
H: Height at shoulder
I: Shoulder joint to hip joint
J: Circumference of neck at base
K: Circumference of body behind shoulders
L: Length of front hoof
M: Length of hind hoof
N: Estimated weight (lbs.)

======================================================================
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N
----------------------------------------------------------------------
1033 M ad Jun 3 1820 160 516 130 1000 1000 81.5 78 140
1046 M ad Jun 18 1880 190 546 137 1029 92 84.5
1065 M ad Aug 17 1750 146 555 120 1080 1010 1185* 80 74 200
1111 M ad Sep 29 1710 155 532 129 1020 740 82.5 78 200
1132 M ad Oct 16 1710 120 530 120 1002 975 200
1144 M ad Oct 16 117 545 120 1110 90 84.5 200
Average of M M ad 1774 148 537 126 1080 995 740 1093 85.2 79.8 188
----------------------------------------------------------------------
1101 F ad Sep 21 1590 113 490 134 870 860 490 77 72 160
1095 M juv Sep 7 960 90 360 85 620 525 290 610 49 45 35
1072 M juv Aug 20 1150 125 423 89 750 645 60.5 55.5 50

[Footnote *: _After skinning._]
======================================================================

MEASUREMENTS OF SKULLS

Columns:

A: No.
B: Sex and age
C: Date
D: Condylobasal length*
E: Zygomatic width
F: Interorbital width
G: Length of nasal
H: Maxillary tooth-row
I: Mandibular tooth-row

======================================================================
A B C D E F G H I
----------------------------------------------------------------------
1065 M ad Aug 17 373 130 140 125 94 101
1144 M ad Oct 16 356 135 140 122 82
1111 M ad Sep 29 359 134 138 112 82
1046 M ad Jun 18 374 131 135 121 97 104
1132 M ad Oct 16 350 136 138 117 83 91
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Average of M M ad 362.4 133.2 138.2 119.4 87.6 98.7
----------------------------------------------------------------------
1101 F ad Sep 21 324 117 121 101 85
1036 F ad Sep -- 118 120 83.5 79 83.5
----------------------------------------------------------------------
1072 M juv Aug 20 215 92 85 54
1095 M juv Sep 7 189 85 77 42

[Footnote *: _Tip of premaxillary to posterior plane of condyles._]
======================================================================

MEASUREMENTS OF ANTLERS

Columns:

A: No.
B: Sex and age
C: Date
D: Total length, right antler
E: Total length, left antler
F: Brow antler, length
G: Brow antler, width
H: Greatest spread of beams (outside measurement)
I: Total number of points

==============================================================
A B C D E F G H I
--------------------------------------------------------------
1065 M ad Aug 17 1165* 1205* 875*
1144 M ad Oct 16 1200 1180 290 232 668 32
1111 M ad Sep 29 1080 1080 279 235 655 32
1132 M ad Oct 16 960 903 225 197 677 30
--------------------------------------------------------------
Average of last 3 1080 1054.3 264.7 221.3 666.7 31.3

[Footnote *: _Antlers in velvet. Unless otherwise specified,
lengths of antlers were measured along the curve._]
==============================================================

MEASUREMENTS OF TESTES

Seasonal change in the size of testes in adult males is indicated by the following data: June 3, 30×18 mm.; June 18, 51×28.5; August 17, 50×35; September 29, 61×38; October 16, 60×40. Two male fawns: August 20, 18×7; September 7, 15×8.5.

_References on measurements._--J. C. Ross, in John Ross,
1835b: xviii; J. A. Allen, 1910: 8; Seton, 1929, +3+: 97;
Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 87; Flerov, 1934: 240; Murie, 1935:
75; Soper, 1944: 248; Banfield, 1951a: 30.

_References on weight._--Parry, 1824: 305; Richardson, 1829:
241, and 1852: 290; Armstrong, 1857: 475, 498; Baird, 1857: 635;
M'Clintock, 1860?: 184; Osborn, 1865: 227; Schwatka, 1885:
84-85; Collinson, 1889: 153; J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128; Whitney,
1896: 237; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 79; Jones, 1899: 329;
Hornaday, 1904: 138, and 1914, +2+: 104; J. A. Allen, 1910: 8;
Seton, 1929, +3+: 97-98; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 55; Hornby,
1934: 105; Banfield, 1951a: 15, 30.

_Geographical variation_

The comparatively few specimens available indicate that different populations on the mainland, between Hudson Bay and the Mackenzie River, vary in size. Final judgment on the significance of this variation must await the accumulation of more and better material. The lack of topotypical material from the Fort Enterprise area, Mackenzie, is a particular handicap.

The extreme and average body measurements of five adult males
from the Windy River area (see accompanying table) may be
compared with those of three adult males, taken by R. M.
Anderson, 1910 and 1912, at Langton and Darnley Bays (Nos.
34431, 34432, and 34435, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.): length, 1980-2095
(2052); tail (two specimens), 152-165 (158.5); height at
shoulder, 1066-1167 (1117); shoulder to hip (one specimen), 964.
The average length of these specimens exceeds that of the Windy
River specimens by 278 mm.; the average height at the shoulder,
by 37 mm. The length of an adult male from Artillery Lake (J. A.
Allen, 1910: 8) exceeds the Windy River average by 156 mm., and
its shoulder height (Seton, 1929, +3+: 97), by 10 mm., but the
length of its hind foot, as recorded, is 17 mm. less than the
Windy River average.

The measurements of four adult females, taken by Anderson, 1910
and 1911, at Langton Bay, Horton River, and Great Bear Lake
(Nos. 34429, 34434, 34441, 34442, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.) are:
length, 1625-1815 (1736); height at shoulder, 825-1066 (968);
shoulder to hip (one specimen), 863. The average length of these
specimens exceeds that of a Windy River adult female by 146 mm.;
the average height at the shoulder, by 98 mm. The length of an
adult female from Aylmer Lake (J. A. Allen, 1910: 8) exceeds
that of the Windy River specimen by 112 mm.; the length of its
hind foot, by 18 mm.; and the height at the shoulder (Seton,
1929, +3+: 97), by 43 mm.

Thus there appears to be a fairly uniform tendency toward greater body measurements from southwestern Keewatin to northwestern Mackenzie. The weight of Seton's male from Artillery Lake (270¾ lb.) considerably exceeds the maximum (200 lb.) that I estimated for any of the Windy River males. Maximum measurements are furnished by winter specimens from the region of Langton and Darnley Bays.

The skulls of two adult males from Horton River and Artillery
Lake (Nos. 34502 and 29031, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.) measure,
respectively: condylobasal length (tip of premaxillary to
posterior plane of condyles), 381, 371; zygomatic width, 138,
approximately 142; interorbital width, 143, 144; nasal, 126,
112; maxillary tooth-row, 87, 84; mandibular tooth-row (of No.
29031), 93. The rostral profile of the former is slightly
convex; of the latter nearly flat. Comparison with Windy River
adult males (see accompanying table) indicates a longer and a
broader skull in the more northwesterly specimens. The
measurements of the skulls of Southampton Island specimens as
presented by Sutton and Hamilton (1932: 87), suggest a somewhat
larger animal than the mainland form.