Chapter XII: Mother-Kin and Mother Goddesses (3)

(M225) But why do the Bechuanas sew up the eyelids of the bull which is to be used for this purpose? The answer appears to be given by the ceremonies which the same people observe when they are going out to war. On that occasion a woman rushes up to the army with her eyes shut and shakes a winnowing-fan, while she cries out, “The army is not seen! The army is not seen!” And a medicine-man at the same time sprinkles medicine over the spears, crying out in like manner, “The army is not seen! The army is not seen!” After that they seize a bull, sew up its eyelids with a hair of its tail, and drive it for some distance along the road which the army is to take. When it has preceded the army a little way, the bull is sacrificed, roasted whole, and eaten by the warriors. All the flesh must be consumed on the spot. Such parts as cannot be eaten are burnt with fire. Only the contents of the stomach are carefully preserved as a charm which is to lead the warriors to victory. Chosen men carry the precious guts in front of the army, and it is deemed most important that no one should precede them. When they stop, the army stops, and it will not resume the march till it sees that the men with the bull’s guts have gone forward.(660) The meaning of these ceremonies is explained by the cries of the woman and the priest, “The army is not seen! The army is not seen!” Clearly it is desirable that the army should not be perceived by the enemies until it is upon them. Accordingly on the principles of homoeopathic magic the Bechuanas apparently imagine that they can make themselves invisible by eating of the flesh of a blind bull, blindness and invisibility being to their simple minds the same thing. For the same reason the bowels of the blind ox are carried in front of the army to hide its advance from hostile eyes. In like manner the custom of sacrificing and eating a blind ox on the place where a new town is to be built may be intended to render the town invisible to enemies. At all events the Bawenda, a South African people who belong to the same Bantu stock as the Bechuanas, take great pains to conceal their kraals from passers-by. The kraals are built in the forest or bush, and the long winding footpaths which lead to them are often kept open only by the support of a single pole here and there. Indeed the paths are so low and narrow that it is very difficult to bring a horse into such a village. In time of war the poles are removed and the thorny creepers fall down, forming a natural screen or bulwark which the enemy can neither penetrate nor destroy by fire. The kraals are also surrounded by walls of undressed stones with a filling of soil; and to hide them still better from the view of the enemy the tops of the walls are sown with Indian corn or planted with tobacco. Hence travellers passing through the country seldom come across a Bawenda kraal. To see where the Bawenda dwell you must climb to the tops of mountains and look down on the roofs of their round huts peeping out of the surrounding green like clusters of mushrooms in the woods.(661) The object which the Bawenda attain by these perfectly rational means, the Bechuanas seek to compass by the sacrifice and consumption of a blind bull.

(M226) This explanation of the use of a blinded ox in sacrifice is confirmed by the reasons alleged by a Caffre for the observance of a somewhat similar custom in purificatory ceremonies after a battle. On these occasions the Bechuanas and other Caffre tribes of South Africa kill a black ox and cut out the tip of its tongue, an eye, a piece of the ham-string, and a piece of the principal sinew of the shoulder. These parts are fried with certain herbs and rubbed into the joints of the warriors. By cutting out the tongue of the ox they think to prevent the enemy from wagging his tongue against them; by severing the sinews of the ox they hope to cause the enemy’s sinews to fail him in the battle; and by removing the eye of the ox they imagine that they prevent the enemy from casting a covetous eye on their cattle.(662)

IV. Some Customs Of The Pelew Islanders.

We have seen that the state of society and religion among the Pelew Islanders in modern times presents several points of similarity to the condition of the peoples about the Eastern Mediterranean in antiquity.(663) Here I propose briefly to call attention to certain other customs of the Pelew Islanders which may serve to illustrate some of the institutions discussed in this volume.

§ 1. Priests dressed as Women.

(M227) In the Pelew Islands it often happens that a goddess chooses a man, not a woman, for her minister and inspired mouthpiece. When that is so, the favoured man is thenceforth regarded and treated as a woman. He wears female attire, he carries a piece of gold on his neck, he labours like a woman in the taro fields, and he plays his new part so well that he earns the hearty contempt of his fellows.(664) The pretended change of sex under the inspiration of a female spirit perhaps explains a custom widely spread among savages, in accordance with which some men dress as women and act as women through life. These unsexed creatures often, perhaps generally, profess the arts of sorcery and healing, they communicate with spirits, and are regarded sometimes with awe and sometimes with contempt, as beings of a higher or lower order than common folk. Often they are dedicated and trained to their vocation from childhood. Effeminate sorcerers or priests of this sort are found among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo,(665) the Bugis of South Celebes,(666) the Patagonians of South America,(667) and the Aleutians and many Indian tribes of North America.(668) In the island of Rambree, off the coast of Aracan, a set of vagabond “conjurors,” who dressed and lived as women, used to dance round a tall pole, invoking the aid of their favourite idol on the occasion of any calamity.(669) Male members of the Vallabha sect in India often seek to win the favour of the god Krishna, whom they specially revere, by wearing their hair long and assimilating themselves to women; even their spiritual chiefs, the so-called Maharajas, sometimes simulate the appearance of women when they lead the worship of their followers.(670) In Madagascar we hear of effeminate men who wore female attire and acted as women, thinking thereby to do God service.(671) In the kingdom of Congo there was a sacrificial priest who commonly dressed as a woman and gloried in the title of the Grandmother. The post of Grandmother must have been much coveted, for the incumbent might not be put to death, whatever crimes or rascalities he committed; and to do him justice he appears commonly to have taken full advantage of this benefit of clergy. When he died, his fortunate successor dissected the body of the deceased Grandmother, extracting his heart and other vital organs, and amputating his fingers and toes, which he kept as priceless relics, and sold as sovereign remedies for all the ills that flesh is heir to.(672)

(M228) We may conjecture that in many of these cases the call to this strange form of the religious life came in the shape of a dream or vision, in which the dreamer or visionary imagined himself to be a woman or to be possessed by a female spirit; for with many savage races the disordered fancies of sleep or ecstasy are accepted as oracular admonitions which it would be perilous to disregard. At all events we are told that a dream or a revelation of some sort was the reason which in North America these men-women commonly alleged for the life they led; it had been thus brought home to them, they said, that their medicine or their salvation lay in living as women, and when once they had got this notion into their head nothing could drive it out again. Many an Indian father attempted by persuasion, by bribes, by violence, to deter his son from obeying the mysterious call, but all to no purpose.(673) Among the Sauks, an Indian tribe of North America, these effeminate beings were always despised, but sometimes they were pitied “as labouring under an unfortunate destiny which they cannot avoid, being supposed to be impelled to this course by a vision from the female spirit that resides in the moon.”(674) Similarly the Omahas, another Indian tribe of North America, “believe that the unfortunate beings, called _Min-qu-ga_, are mysterious or sacred because they have been affected by the Moon Being. When a young Omaha fasted for the first time on reaching puberty, it was thought that the Moon Being appeared to him, holding in one hand a bow and arrows and in the other a pack strap, such as the Indian women use. When the youth tried to grasp the bow and arrows the Moon Being crossed his hands very quickly, and if the youth was not very careful he seized the pack strap instead of the bow and arrows, thereby fixing his lot in after life. In such a case he could not help acting the woman, speaking, dressing, and working just as Indian women used to do.”(675) Among the Ibans or Sea Dyaks of Borneo the highest class of sorcerers or medicine-men (_manangs_) are those who are believed to have been transformed into women. Such a man is therefore called a “changed medicine-man” (_manang bali_) on account of his supposed change of sex. The call to transform himself into a woman is said to come as a supernatural command thrice repeated in dreams; to disregard the command would mean death. Accordingly he makes a feast, sacrifices a pig or two to avert evil consequences from the tribe, and then assumes the garb of a woman. Thenceforth he is treated as a woman and occupies himself in feminine pursuits. His chief aim is to copy female manners and habits as accurately as possible. He is employed for the same purposes as an ordinary medicine-man and his methods are similar, but he is paid much higher fees and is often called in when others have been unable to effect a cure.(676) Similarly among the Chukchees of North-Eastern Asia there are shamans or medicine-men who assimilate themselves as far as possible to women, and who are believed to be called to this vocation by spirits in a dream. The call usually comes at the critical age of early youth when the shamanistic inspiration, as it is called, first manifests itself. But the call is much dreaded by the youthful adepts, and some of them prefer death to obedience. There are, however, various stages or degrees of transformation. In the first stage the man apes a woman only in the manner of braiding and arranging the hair of his head. In the second he dons female attire; in the third stage he adopts as far as possible the life and characteristics of the female sex. A young man who is undergoing this final transformation abandons all masculine occupations and manners. He throws away the rifle and the lance, the lasso of the reindeer herdsman, and the harpoon of the seal-hunter, and betakes himself to the needle and the skin-scraper instead. He learns the use of them quickly, because the spirits are helping him all the time. Even his pronunciation changes from the male to the female mode. At the same time his body alters, if not in outward appearance, at least in its faculties and forces. He loses masculine strength, fleetness of foot, endurance in wrestling, and falls into the debility and helplessness of a woman. Even his mental character undergoes a change. His old brute courage and fighting spirit are gone; he grows shy and bashful before strangers, fond of small talk and of dandling little children. In short he becomes a woman with the appearance of a man, and as a woman he is often taken to wife by another man, with whom he leads a regular married life. Extraordinary powers are attributed to such transformed shamans. They are supposed to enjoy the special protection of spirits who play the part of supernatural husbands to them. Hence they are much dreaded even by their colleagues in the profession who remain mere men; hence, too, they excel in all branches of magic, including ventriloquism.(677) Among the Teso of Central Africa medicine-men often dress as women and wear feminine ornaments, such as heavy chains of beads and shells round their heads and necks.(678)

(M229) And just as a man inspired by a goddess may adopt female attire, so conversely a woman inspired by a god may adopt male costume. In Uganda the great god Mukasa, the deity of the Victoria Nyanza Lake and of abundance, imparted his oracles through a woman, who in ordinary life dressed like the rest of her sex in a bark cloth wrapped round the body and fastened with a girdle, so as to leave the arms and shoulders bare; but when she prophesied under the inspiration of the god, she wore two bark cloths knotted in masculine style over her shoulders and crossing each other on her breast and back.(679) When once the god had chosen her, she retained office for life; she might not marry or converse with any man except one particular priest, who was always present when she was possessed by the deity.(680)

(M230) Perhaps this assumed change of sex under the inspiration of a goddess may give the key to the legends of the effeminate Sardanapalus and the effeminate Hercules,(681) as well as to the practice of the effeminate priests of Cybele and the Syrian goddess. In all such cases the pretended transformation of a man into a woman would be intelligible if we supposed that the womanish priest or king thought himself animated by a female spirit, whose sex, accordingly, he felt bound to imitate. Certainly the eunuch priests of Cybele seem to have bereft themselves of their manhood under the supposed inspiration of the Great Goddess.(682) The priest of Hercules at Antimachia, in Cos, who dressed as a woman when he offered sacrifice, is said to have done so in imitation of Hercules who disguised himself as a woman to escape the pursuit of his enemies.(683) So the Lydian Hercules wore female attire when he served for three years as the purchased slave of the imperious Omphale, Queen of Lydia.(684) If we suppose that Queen Omphale, like Queen Semiramis, was nothing but the great Asiatic goddess,(685) or one of her Avatars, it becomes probable that the story of the womanish Hercules of Lydia preserves a reminiscence of a line or college of effeminate priests who, like the eunuch priests of the Syrian goddess, dressed as women in imitation of their goddess and were supposed to be inspired by her. The probability is increased by the practice of the priests of Hercules at Antimachia, in Cos, who, as we have just seen, actually wore female attire when they were engaged in their sacred duties. Similarly at the vernal mysteries of Hercules in Rome the men were draped in the garments of women;(686) and in some of the rites and processions of Dionysus also men wore female attire.(687) In legend and art there are clear traces of an effeminate Dionysus, who perhaps figured in a strange ceremony for the artificial fertilization of the fig.(688) Among the Nahanarvals, an ancient German tribe, a priest garbed as a woman presided over a sacred grove.(689) These and similar practices(690) need not necessarily have any connexion with the social system of mother-kin. Wherever a goddess is revered and the theory of inspiration is held, a man may be thought to be possessed by a female spirit, whether society be organized on mother-kin or on father-kin. Still the chances of such a transformation of sex will be greater under mother-kin than under father-kin if, as we have found reason to believe, a system of mother-kin is more favourable to the development and multiplication of goddesses than of gods. It is therefore, perhaps, no mere accident that we meet with these effeminate priests in regions like the Pelew Islands and Western Asia, where the system of mother-kin either actually prevails or has at least left traces of it behind in tradition and custom. Such traces, for example, are to be found in Lydia and Cos,(691) in both of which the effeminate Hercules had his home.

(M231) But the religious or superstitious interchange of dress between men and women is an obscure and complex problem, and it is unlikely that any single solution would apply to all the cases. Probably the custom has been practised from many different motives. For example, the practice of dressing boys as girls has certainly been sometimes adopted to avert the Evil Eye;(692) and it is possible that the custom of changing garments at marriage, the bridegroom disguising himself as a woman, or the bride disguising herself as a man, may have been resorted to for the same purpose. Thus in Cos, where the priest of Hercules wore female attire, the bridegroom was in like manner dressed as a woman when he received his bride.(693) Spartan brides had their hair shaved, and were clad in men’s clothes and booted on their wedding night.(694) Argive brides wore false beards when they slept with their husbands for the first time.(695) In Southern Celebes a bridegroom at a certain point of the long and elaborate marriage ceremonies puts on the garments which his bride has just put off.(696) Among the Jews of Egypt in the Middle Ages the bride led the wedding dance with a helmet on her head and a sword in her hand, while the bridegroom adorned himself as a woman and put on female attire.(697) At a Brahman marriage in Southern India “the bride is dressed up as a boy, and another girl is dressed up to represent the bride. They are taken in procession through the street, and, on returning, the pseudo-bridegroom is made to speak to the real bridegroom in somewhat insolent tones, and some mock play is indulged in. The real bridegroom is addressed as if he was the syce (groom) or gumasta (clerk) of the pseudo-bridegroom, and is sometimes treated as a thief, and judgment passed on him by the latter.”(698) Among the Bharias of the Central Provinces of India “the bridegroom puts on women’s ornaments and carries with him an iron nut-cutter or dagger to keep off evil spirits.”(699) Similarly among the Khangars, a low Hindustani caste of the same region, “the bridegroom is dressed in a yellow gown and overcloth, with trousers of red chintz, red shoes, and a marriage crown of date-palm leaves. He has the silver ornaments usually worn by women on his neck, as the _khang-wāri_ or silver ring and the _hamel_ or necklace of rupees. In order to avert the evil eye he carries a dagger or nut-cracker, and a smudge of lampblack is made on his forehead to disfigure him and thus avert the evil eye, which, it is thought, would otherwise be too probably attracted by his exquisitely beautiful appearance in his wedding garments.”(700) These examples render it highly probable that, like the dagger or nut-cracker which he holds in his hand, the woman’s ornaments which he wears are intended to protect the bridegroom against demons or the evil eye at this critical moment of his life, the protection apparently consisting in a disguise which enables him to elude the unwelcome attentions of malignant beings.(701)

(M232) A similar explanation probably accounts for the similar exchange of costume between other persons than the bride and bridegroom at marriage. For example, after a Bharia wedding, “the girl’s mother gets the dress of the boy’s father and puts it on, together with a false beard and moustaches, and dances holding a wooden ladle in one hand and a packet of ashes in the other. Every time she approaches the bridegroom’s father on her rounds she spills some of the ashes over him and occasionally gives him a crack on the head with her ladle, these actions being accompanied by bursts of laughter from the party and frenzied playing by the musicians. When the party reach the bridegroom’s house on their return, his mother and the other women come out, and burn a little mustard and human hair in a lamp, the unpleasant smell emitted by these articles being considered potent to drive away evil spirits.”(702) Again, after a Khangar wedding the father of the bridegroom, dressed in women’s clothes, dances with the mother of the bride, while the two throw turmeric mixed with water on each other.(703) Similarly after a wedding of the Bharbhunjas, another Hindustani caste of the Central Provinces, the bridegroom’s father dances before the family in women’s clothes which have been supplied by the bride’s father.(704) Such disguises and dances may be intended either to protect the disguised dancer himself against the evil eye or perhaps rather to guard the principal personages of the ceremony, the bride and bridegroom, by diverting the attention of demons from them to the guiser.(705) However, when at marriage the bride alone assumes the costume and appearance of the other sex, the motive for the disguise may perhaps be a notion that on the principle of homoeopathic magic she thereby ensures the birth of a male heir. Similarly in Sweden there is a popular superstition that “on the night preceding her nuptials the bride should have a baby-boy to sleep with her, in which case her first-born will be a son”;(706) and among the Kabyles, when a bride dismounts from her mule at her husband’s house, a young lad leaps into the saddle before she touches the ground, in order that her first child may be a boy.(707)

(M233) Be that as it may, there is no doubt that the assumption of woman’s dress is sometimes intended to disguise a man for the purpose of deceiving a demon. Thus among the Boloki or Bangala on the Upper Congo a man was long afflicted with an internal malady. When all other remedies had failed, a witch-doctor informed the sufferer that the cause of his trouble was an evil spirit, and that the best thing he could do was to go far away where the devil could not get at him, and to remain there till he had recovered his health. The patient followed the prescription. At dead of night he left his house, taking only two of his wives with him and telling no one of his destination, lest the demon should hear it and follow him. So he went far away from his town, donned a woman’s dress, and speaking in a woman’s voice he pretended to be other than he was, in order that the devil should not be able to find him at his new address. Strange to say, these sage measures failed to effect a cure, and wearying of exile he at last returned home, where he continued to dress and speak as a woman.(708) Again, the Kuki-Lushai of Assam believe that if a man kills an enemy or a wild beast, the ghost of the dead man or animal will haunt him and drive him mad. The only way of averting this catastrophe is to dress up as a woman and pretend to be one. For example, a man who had shot a tiger and was in fear of being haunted by the animal’s ghost, dressed himself up in a woman’s petticoat and cloth, wore ivory earrings, and wound a mottled cloth round his head like a turban. Then smoking a woman’s pipe, carrying a little basket, and spinning a cotton spindle, he paraded the village followed by a crowd roaring and shrieking with laughter, while he preserved the gravity of a judge, for a single smile would have been fatal. To guard against the possibility of unseasonable mirth, he carried a porcupine in his arms, and if ever, tickled beyond the pitch of endurance, he burst into a guffaw, the crowd said, “It was the porcupine that laughed.” All this was done to mortify the pride of the tiger’s ghost by leading him to believe that he had been shot by a woman.(709)

(M234) The same dread of attracting the attention of dangerous spirits at critical times perhaps explains the custom observed by some East African tribes of wearing the costume of the opposite sex at circumcision. Thus, when Masai boys have been circumcised they dress as women, wearing earrings in their ears and long garments that reach to the ground. They also whiten their swarthy faces with chalk. This costume they retain till their wounds are healed, whereupon they are shaved and assume the skins and ornaments of warriors.(710) Among the Nandi, a tribe of British East Africa, before boys are circumcised they receive a visit from young girls, who give them some of their own garments and ornaments. These the boys put on and wear till the operation of circumcision is over, when they exchange the girls’ clothes for the garments of women, which, together with necklaces, are provided for them by their mothers; and these women’s garments the newly circumcised lads must continue to wear for months afterwards. Girls are also circumcised among the Nandi, and before they submit to the operation they attire themselves in men’s garments and carry clubs in their hands.(711)

(M235) If such interchange of costume between men and women is intended to disguise the wearers against demons, we may compare the practice of the Lycian men, who regularly wore women’s dress in mourning;(712) for this might be intended to conceal them from the ghost, just as perhaps for a similar reason some peoples of antiquity used to descend into pits and remain there for several days, shunning the light of the sun, whenever a death had taken place in the family.(713) A similar desire to deceive spirits may perhaps explain a device to which the Loeboes, a primitive tribe of Sumatra, resort when they wish to obtain male or female offspring. If parents have several sons and desire that the next child shall be a girl, they dress the boys as girls, cut their hair after the girlish fashion, and hang necklaces round their necks. On the contrary, when they have many daughters and wish to have a son, they dress the girls up as boys.(714)

(M236) On the whole we conclude that the custom of men dressing as women and of women dressing as men has been practised from a variety of superstitious motives, among which the principal would seem to be the wish to please certain powerful spirits or to deceive others.

§ 2. Prostitution of Unmarried Girls.

(M237) Like many peoples of Western Asia in antiquity, the Pelew Islanders systematically prostitute their unmarried girls for hire. Hence, just as in Lydia and Cyprus of old, the damsels are a source of income to their family, and women wait impatiently for the time when their young daughters will be able to help the household by their earnings. Indeed the mother regularly anticipates the time by depriving the girl of her virginity with her own hands.(715) Hence the theory that the prostitution of unmarried girls is a device to destroy their virginity without risk to their husbands is just as inapplicable to the Pelew Islanders as we have seen it to be to the peoples of Western Asia in antiquity. When a Pelew girl has thus been prepared for her vocation by her mother, she sells her favours to all the men of her village who can pay for them and who do not belong to her own exogamous clan; but she never grants her favours to the same man twice. Accordingly in every village of the Pelew Islands it may be taken as certain that the men and women know each other carnally, except that members of the same clan are debarred from each other by the rule of exogamy.(716) Thus a well-marked form of sexual communism, limited only by the exogamous prohibitions which attach to the clans, prevails among these people. Nor is this communism restricted to the inhabitants of the same village, for the girls of each village are regularly sent away to serve as prostitutes (_armengols_) in another village. There they live with the men of one of the many clubs or associations (_kaldebekels_) in the clubhouse (_blay_), attending to the house, consorting freely with the men, and receiving pay for their services. A girl leading this life in the clubhouse of another village is well treated by the men: a wrong done to her is a wrong done to the whole club; and in her own village her value is increased, not diminished, by the time she thus spends as a prostitute in a neighbouring community. After her period of service is over she may marry either in the village where she has served or in her own. Sometimes many or all of the young women of a village go together to act as prostitutes (_armengols_) in a neighbouring village, and for this they are well paid by the community which receives them. The money so earned is divided among the chiefs of the village to which the damsels belong. Such a joint expedition of the unmarried girls of a village is called a _blolobol_. But the young women never act as _armengols_ in any clubhouse of their own village.(717)

(M238) Thus, while the Pelew custom of prostituting the unmarried girls to all the men of their own village, but not of their own clan, is a form of sexual communism practised within a local group, the custom of prostituting them to men of other villages is a form of sexual communism practised between members of different local groups; it is a kind of group-marriage. These customs of the Pelew Islanders therefore support by analogy the hypothesis that among the ancient peoples of Western Asia also the systematic prostitution of unmarried women may have been derived from an earlier period of sexual communism.(718)

(M239) A somewhat similar custom prevails in Yap, one of the western group of the Caroline Islands, situated to the north of the Pelew group. In each of the men’s clubhouses “are kept three or four unmarried girls or _Mespil_, whose business it is to minister to the pleasures of the men of the particular clan or brotherhood to which the building belongs. As with the Kroomen on the Gold Coast, each man, married or single, takes his turn by rotation in the rites through which each girl must pass before she is deemed ripe for marriage. The natives say it is an ordeal or preliminary trial to fit them for the cares and burden of maternity. She is rarely a girl of the same village, and, of course, must be sprung from a different sept. Whenever she wishes to become a _Langin_ or respectable married woman, she may, and is thought none the less of for her frailties as a _Mespil_.... But I believe this self-immolation before marriage is confined to the daughters of the inferior chiefs and commons. The supply of _Mespil_ is generally kept up by the purchase of slave girls from the neighbouring districts.”(719) According to another account a _mespil_ “must always be stolen, by force or cunning, from a district at some distance from that wherein her captors reside. After she has been fairly, or unfairly, captured and installed in her new home, she loses no shade of respect among her own people; on the contrary, have not her beauty and her worth received the highest proof of her exalted perfection, in the devotion, not of one, but of a whole community of lovers?”(720) However, though the girl is nominally stolen from another district, the matter is almost always arranged privately with the local chief, who consents to wink hard at the theft in consideration of a good round sum of shell money and stone money, which serves “to salve the wounds of a disrupted family and dispel all thoughts of a bloody retaliation. Nevertheless, the whole proceeding is still carried out with the greatest possible secrecy and stealth.”(721)

§ 3. Custom of slaying Chiefs.

(M240) In the Pelew Islands when the chief of a clan has reigned too long or has made himself unpopular, the heir has a formal right to put him to death, though for reasons which will appear this right is only exercised in some of the principal clans. The practice of regicide, if that word may be extended to the assassination of chiefs, is in these islands a national institution regulated by exact rules, and every high chief must lay his account with it. Indeed so well recognized is the custom that when the heir-apparent, who under the system of mother-kin must be a brother, a nephew, or a cousin on the mother’s side, proves himself precocious and energetic, the people say, “The cousin is a grown man. The chief’s _tobolbel_ is nigh at hand.”(722)

(M241) In such cases the plot of death is commonly so well hushed up that it seldom miscarries. The first care of the conspirators is to discover where the doomed man keeps his money. For this purpose an old woman will sleep for some nights in the house and make inquiries quietly, till like a sleuth-hound she has nosed the hoard. Then the conspirators come, and the candidate for the chieftainship despatches his predecessor either with his own hand or by the hand of a young cousin. Having done the deed he takes possession of the official residence, and applies to the widow of the deceased the form of persuasion technically known as _meleket_. This consists of putting a noose round her neck, and drawing it tighter and tighter till she consents to give up her late husband’s money. After that the murderer and his friends have nothing further to do for the present, but to remain quietly in the house and allow events to take their usual course.

(M242) Meantime the chiefs assemble in the council-house, and the loud droning notes of the triton-shell, which answers the purpose of a tocsin, summon the whole population to arms. The warriors muster, and surrounding the house where the conspirators are ensconced they shower spears and stones at it, as if to inflict condign punishment on the assassins. But this is a mere blind, a sham, a legal fiction, intended perhaps to throw dust in the eyes of the ghost and make him think that his death is being avenged. In point of fact the warriors take good care to direct their missiles at the roof or walls of the house, for if they threw them at the windows they might perhaps hurt the murderer. After this formality has been satisfactorily performed, the regicide steps out of the house and engages in the genial task of paying the death duties to the various chiefs assembled. When he has observed this indispensable ceremony, the law is satisfied: all constitutional forms have been carried out: the assassin is now the legitimate successor of his victim and reigns in his stead without any further trouble.

(M243) But if he has omitted to massacre his predecessor and has allowed him to die a natural death, he suffers for his negligence by being compelled to observe a long series of complicated and irksome formalities before he can make good his succession in the eyes of the law. For in that case the title of chief has to be formally withdrawn from the dead man and conferred on his successor by a curious ceremony, which includes the presentation of a coco-nut and a taro plant to the new chief. Moreover, at first he may not enter the chief’s house, but has to be shut up in a tiny hut for thirty or forty days during all the time of mourning, and even when that is over he may not come out till he has received and paid for a human head brought him by the people of a friendly state. After that he still may not go to the sea-shore until more formalities have been fully observed. These comprise a very costly fishing expedition, which is conducted by the inhabitants of another district and lasts for weeks. At the end of it a net full of fish is brought to the chief’s house, and the people of the neighbouring communities are summoned by the blast of trumpets. As soon as the stranger fishermen have been publicly paid for their services, a relative of the new chief steps across the net and solemnly splits a coco-nut in two with an old-fashioned knife made of a Tridacna shell, while at the same time he bans all the evils that might befall his kinsman. Then, without looking at the nut, he throws the pieces on the ground, and if they fall so that the two halves lie with the opening upwards, it is an omen that the chief will live long. The pieces of the nut are then tied together and taken to the house of another chief, the friend of the new ruler, and there they are kept in token that the ceremony has been duly performed. Thereupon the fish are divided among the people, the strangers receiving half. This completes the legal ceremonies of accession, and the new chief may now go about freely. But these tedious formalities and others which I pass over are dispensed with when the new chief has proved his title by slaying his predecessor. In that case the procedure is much simplified, but on the other hand the death duties are so very heavy that only rich men can afford to indulge in the luxury of regicide. Hence in the Pelew Islands of to-day, or at least of yesterday, the old-fashioned mode of succession by slaughter is now restricted to a few families of the bluest blood and the longest purses.(723)

(M244) If this account of the existing or recent usage of the Pelew Islanders sheds little light on the motives for putting chiefs to death, it well illustrates the business-like precision with which such a custom may be carried out, and the public indifference, if not approval, with which it may be regarded as an ordinary incident of constitutional government. So far, therefore, the Pelew custom bears out the view that a systematic practice of regicide, however strange and revolting it may seem to us, is perfectly compatible with a state of society in which human conduct and human life are estimated by a standard very different from ours. If we would understand the early history of institutions, we must learn to detach ourselves from the prepossessions of our own time and country, and to place ourselves as far as possible at the standpoint of men in distant lands and distant ages.

INDEX.

Aban, a Persian month, ii. 68

Abd-Hadad, priestly king of Hierapolis, i. 163 _n._ 3

Aberdeenshire, All Souls’ Day in, ii. 79 _sq._

Abi-baal, i. 51 _n._ 4

Abi-el, i. 51 _n._ 4

Abi-jah, King, his family, i. 51 _n._ 2;
“father of Jehovah,” 51 _n._ 4

Abi-melech, “father of a king,” i. 51 _n._ 4

Abi-milk (Abi-melech), king of Tyre, i. 16 _n._ 5

Abimelech massacres his seventy brothers, i. 51 _n._ 2

Abipones, of South America, their worship of the Pleiades, i. 258 _n._ 2

Abraham, his attempted sacrifice of Isaac, ii. 219 _n._ 1

Abruzzi, gossips of St. John in the, i. 245 _n._ 2;
marvellous properties attributed to water on St. John’s Night in the,
246;
Easter ceremonies in the, 256;
the feast of All Souls in the, ii. 77 _sq._;
rules as to sowing seed and cutting timber in the, 133 _n._ 3

Abu Rabah, resort of childless wives in Palestine, i. 78, 79

Abydos, head of Osiris at, ii. 11;
the favourite burial-place of the Egyptians, 18 _sq._;
specially associated with Osiris, 18, 197;
tombs of the ancient Egyptian kings at, 19;
the ritual of, 86;
hall of the Osirian mysteries at, 108;
representations of the Sed festival at, 151;
inscriptions at, 153;
temple of Osiris at, 198

Acacia, Osiris in the, ii. 111

Achaia, subject to earthquakes, i. 202

Acharaca, cave of Pluto at, i. 205 _sq._

Acilisena, temple of Anaitis at, i. 38

Adad, Syrian king, i. 15;
Babylonian and Assyrian god of thunder and lightning, 163

Adana in Cilicia, i. 169 _n._ 3

Addison, Joseph, on the grotto _dei cani_ at Naples, i. 205 _n._ 1

Adhar, a Persian month, ii. 68

Adom-melech or Uri-melech, king of Byblus, i. 14, 17

_Adon_, a Semitic title, i. 6 _sq._, 16 _sq._, 20, 49 _n._ 7

Adonai, title of Jehovah, i. 6 _sq._

Adoni, “my lord,” Semitic title, i. 7;
names compounded with, 17

Adoni-bezek, king of Jerusalem, i. 17

Adoni-jah, elder brother of King Solomon, i. 51 _n._ 2

Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, i. 17

Adonis, myth of, i. 3 _sqq._;
Greek worship of, 6;
in Greek mythology, 10 _sqq._;
in Syria, 13 _sqq._;
monuments of, 29;
in Cyprus, 31 _sqq._, 49;
identified with Osiris, 32;
mourning for, at Byblus, 38;
said to be the fruit of incest, 43;
his mother Myrrha, 43;
son of Theias, 43 _n._ 4, 55 _n._ 4;
the son of Cinyras, 49;
the title of the sons of Phoenician kings in Cyprus, 49;
his violent death, 55;
music in the worship of, 55;
sacred prostitution in the worship of, 57;
inspired prophets in worship of, 76;
human representatives of, perhaps burnt, 110;
doves burned in honour of, 147;
personated by priestly kings, 223;
the ritual of, 223 _sqq._;
his death and resurrection represented in his rites, 224 _sq._;
festivals of, 224 _sqq._;
flutes played in the laments for, 225 _n._ 3;
the ascension of, 225;
images of, thrown into the sea or springs, 225, 227 _n._ 3, 236;
born from a myrrh-tree, 227, ii. 110;
bewailed by Argive women, i. 227 _n._;
analogy of his rites to Indian and European ceremonies, 227;
his death and resurrection interpreted as representations of the decay
and revival of vegetation, 227 _sqq._;
interpreted as the sun, 228;
interpreted by the ancients as the god of the reaped and sprouting corn,
229;
as a corn-spirit, 230 _sqq._;
hunger the root of the worship of, 231;
perhaps originally a personification of wild vegetation, especially
grass and trees, 233;
the gardens of, 236 _sqq._;
rain-charm in the rites of, 237;
resemblance of his rites to the festival of Easter, 254 _sqq._, 306;
worshipped at Bethlehem, 257 _sqq._;
and the planet Venus as the Morning Star, 258 _sq._;
sometimes identified with Attis, 263;
swine not eaten by worshippers of, 265;
rites of, among the Greeks, 298;
lamented by women at Byblus, ii. 23

Adonis and Aphrodite, i. 11 _sq._, 29, 280;
their marriage celebrated at Alexandria, 224

—— and Attis identified with Dionysus, ii. 127 _n._

—— and Osiris, similarity between their rites, ii. 127

——, Attis, Osiris, their mythical similarity, i. 6, ii. 201

——, the river, its valley, i. 28 _sqq._;
annual discoloration of the, 30, 225

Aedepsus, hot springs of Hercules at, i. 211 _sq._

Aedesius, Sextilius Agesilaus, dedicates altar to Attis, i. 275 _n._ 1

Aegipan and Hermes, i. 157

Aelian, on impregnation of Judean maid by serpent, i. 81

Aeneas and Dido, i. 114 _n._ 1

Aeschylus, on Typhon, i. 156

Aesculapius, in relation to serpents, i. 80 _sq._;
reputed father of Aratus, 80 _sq._;
his shrines at Sicyon and Titane, 81;
his dispute with Hercules, 209 _sq._

Aeson and Medea, i. 181 _n._ 1

_Aetna_, Latin poem, i. 221 _n._ 4

Africa, serpents as reincarnations of the dead in, i. 82 _sqq._;
infant burial in, 91 _sq._;
reincarnation of the dead in, 91 _sq._;
annual festivals of the dead in, ii. 66;
worship of dead kings and chiefs in, 160 _sqq._;
supreme gods in, 165, 173 _sq._, 174, 186, with _n._ 5, 187 _n._ 1, 188
_sq._, 190;
worship of ancestral spirits among the Bantu tribes of, 174 _sqq._;
inheritance of the kingship under mother-kin in, 211

——, North, custom of bathing at Midsummer among the Mohammedan peoples of,
i. 249

——, West, sacred men and women in, i. 65 _sqq._;
human sacrifices in, ii. 99 _n._ 2

Afterbirth or placenta regarded as a person’s double or twin, ii. 169
_sq._
See _also_ Placenta

Afterbirths buried in banana groves, i. 93;
regarded as twins of the children, 93;
Shilluk kings interred where their afterbirths are buried, ii. 162

Agbasia, West African god, i. 79

Agdestis, a man-monster in the myth of Attis, i. 269

Agesipolis, King of Sparta, his conduct in an earthquake, i. 196

Agraulus, daughter of Cecrops, worshipped at Salamis in Cyprus, i. 145,
146

Agricultural peoples worship the moon, ii. 138 _sq._

Agriculture, religious objections to, i. 88 _sqq._;
in the hands of women in the Pelew Islands, ii. 206 _sq._;
its tendency to produce a conservative character, 217 _sq._

Ahts of Vancouver Island regard the moon as the husband of the sun, ii.
139 _n._ 1

Airi, a deity of North-West India, i. 170

Aiyar, N. Subramhanya, on Indian dancing-girls, i. 63 _sqq._

Ajax and Teucer, names of priestly kings of Olba, i. 144 _sq._, 161

Akhetaton (Tell-el-Amarna), the capital of Amenophis IV., ii. 123 _n._ 1

Akikuyu of British East Africa, their worship of snakes, i. 67 _sq._;
their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, 82, 85

Alaska, the Esquimaux of, ii. 51;
the Koniags of, 106

Albania, marriage custom in, ii. 246

Albanians of the Caucasus, their worship of the moon, i. 73

Albinoes the offspring of the moon, i. 91

Albiruni, Arab geographer, on the Persian festival of the dead, ii. 68

Alcman on dew, ii. 137

Aleutians, effeminate sorcerers among the, ii. 254

Alexander Severus, at festival of Attis, i. 273

Alexander the Great expels a king of Paphos, i. 42;
his fabulous birth, 81;
assumes costumes of deities, 165;
sacrifices to Megarsian Athena, 169 _n._ 3

Alexandria, festival of Adonis at, i. 224;
the Serapeum at, ii. 119 _n._, 217

Alexandrian calendar, used by Plutarch, ii. 84

—— year, the fixed, ii. 28, 92;
Plutarch’s use of the, 49

All Saints, feast of, perhaps substituted for an old pagan festival of the
dead, ii. 82 _sq._

All Souls, feast of, ii. 51 _sqq._;
originally a pagan festival of the dead, 81;
instituted by Odilo, abbot of Clugny, 82

Allatu, Babylonian goddess, i. 9

Allifae in Samnium, baths of Hercules at, i. 213 _n._ 2

Almo, procession to the river, in the rites of Attis, i. 273.

Almond causes virgin to conceive, i. 263;
the father of all things, 263 _sq._

Alyattes, king of Lydia, i. 133 _n._ 1

Alynomus, king of Paphos, i. 43

Amambwe, a Bantu tribe of Northern Rhodesia, its head chief reincarnated
in a lion, ii. 193

Amasis, king of Egypt, his body burnt by Cambyses, i. 176 _n._ 2

Amathus, in Cyprus, Adonis and Melcarth at, i. 32, 117;
statue of lion-slaying god found at, 117

Amatongo, ancestral spirits (Zulu term), i. 74 _n._ 4, ii. 184

Ambabai, an Indian goddess, i. 243

Ambala District, Punjaub, i. 94

Amélineau, E., discovers the tomb of King Khent, ii. 21 _n._ 1

Amenophis IV., king of Egypt, his attempt to abolish all gods but the
sun-god, ii. 123 _sqq._

America, reincarnation of the dead in, i. 91;
the moon worshipped by the agricultural Indians of tropical, ii. 138

Amestris, wife of Xerxes, her sacrifice of children, ii. 220 _sq._

Ammon, Milcom, the god of, i. 19

Ammon (the Egyptian) at Thebes, his human wives, i. 72;
of Thebes identified with the sun, ii. 123;
rage of King Amenophis IV. against the god, 124

Amoor, Gilyaks of the, i. 278 _n._ 2

Amorites, their law as to fornication, i. 37 _sq._

Amsanctus, the valley of, i. 204 _sq._

Amulets, crowns and wreaths as, ii. 242 _sq._

Amyclae, in the vale of Sparta, i. 313, 314, 315

Amyclas, father of Hyacinth, i. 313

Anacreon, on Cinyras, i. 55

Anacyndaraxes, father of Sardanapalus, i. 172

Anaitis, sacred prostitution in the worship of, i. 38

_Anassa_, “Queen,” title of goddess, i. 35 _n._ 2

Anazarba or Anazarbus, in Cilicia, i. 167 _n._ 1

Ancestor-worship among the Khasis of Assam, ii. 203;
combined with mother-kin tends to a predominance of goddesses over gods
in religion, 211 _sq._

Ancestors, propitiation of deceased, i. 46;
the worship of, the main practical religion of the Bantu tribes, ii. 176
_sqq._

Ancestral spirits on shoulders of medicine-men, i. 74 _n._ 4;
incarnate in serpents, 82 _sqq._;
in the form of animals, 83;
worshipped by the Bantu tribes of Africa, ii. 174 _sqq._;
prayers to, 175 _sq._, 178 _sq._, 183 _sq._;
sacrifices to, 175, 178 _s.q._, 180, 181 _sq._, 183 _sq._, 190;
on the father’s and on the mother’s side, the two distinguished, 180,
181.
_See also_ Dead

Anchiale in Cilicia, i. 144; monument of Sardanapalus at, 172

Andania in Messenia, sacred men and women at, i. 76 _n._ 3

Andriamasinavalona, a Hova king, vicarious sacrifice for, ii. 221

Anemone, the scarlet, sprung from the blood of Adonis, i. 226

Angel, the Destroying, over Jerusalem, i. 24

Angus, belief as to the weaning of children in, ii. 148

Anhalt, custom at sowing in, i. 239

Animals sacrificed by being hanged, i. 289 _sq._, 292;
and plants, edible, savage lamentations for, ii. 43 _sq._;
dead kings and chiefs incarnate in, 162, 163 _sq._, 173, 193;
sacrificed to prolong the life of kings, 222

Anje-a, a mythical being who brings children to women, i. 103

Anklets made of human sinews worn by king of Uganda, ii. 224 _sq._

Ankole, in Central Africa, the Bahima of, ii. 190

Anna, sister of Dido, i. 114 _n._ 1

Annam, offerings to the dead in spring in, i. 235 _n._ 1;
annual festivals of the dead in, ii. 62 _sqq._

Annual death and resurrection of gods, i. 6

Anointing as a ceremony of consecration, i. 21 _n._ 2 and 3, 68, 74

—— sacred stones, custom of, i. 36

Antelopes, soul of a dead king incarnate in, ii. 163

_Anthesteria_, festival of the dead at Athens, i. 234 _sq._

Antigonus, King, i. 212

Antimachia in Cos, priest of Hercules at, ii. 258

Antioch, destroyed by an earthquake, i. 222 _n._ 1;
festival of Adonis at, 227, 257 _sq._

Antiochus, Greek calendar of, i. 303 _n._ 3

Antwerp, feast of All Souls in, ii. 70

Anubis, Egyptian jackal-headed god, ii. 15, 18 _n._ 3, 22 _n._ 2;
finds the body of Osiris, 85

Apameia, worship of Poseidon at, i. 195

Aphaca in Syria, sanctuary of Astarte at, i. 28, 259;
meteor as signal for festival at, 259

Aphrodite, her sacred doves, i. 33, 147;
sanctuary of, at Paphos, 33 _sqq._;
the month of, 145;
her blood dyes white roses red, 226;
name applied to summer, ii. 41

—— and Adonis, i. 11 _sq._, 29, 280;
their marriage celebrated at Alexandria, 224

—— and Cinyras, i. 48 _sq._

—— and Pygmalion, i. 49 _sq._

—— of the Lebanon, the mourning, i. 29 _sq._

Apinagos Indians of Brazil, their dances and presentation of children to
the moon, ii. 145 _sqq._

Apis, sacred Egyptian bull, ii. 11, 119 _n._;
mourning for the death of, i. 225;
held to be an image of the soul of Osiris, ii. 130

Apollo, the friend of Cinyras, i. 54;
music in the worship of, 54 _sq._;
reputed father of Augustus, 81;
the Catalonian, 147 _n._ 3;
his musical contest with Marsyas, 288;
purified at Tempe, ii. 240

—— and Artemis, their priesthood at Ephesus, ii. 243 _sq._

—— and Marsyas, i. 55

—— at Delphi, sacrifices of Croesus to, i. 180 _n._ 1;
and the Dragon at Delphi, ii. 240

—— of the Golden Sword, i. 176

—— the Four-handed, ii. 250 _n._ 2

Apotheosis by being burnt alive, i. 179 _sq._

Appian, on the costume of a priest of Isis, ii. 85 _n._ 3

Apples forbidden to worshippers of Cybele and Attis, i. 280 _n._ 7

Apuleius, on the worship of Isis, ii. 119 _n._

Arab name for the scarlet anemone, i. 226

Arabic writer on the mourning for Tá-uz (Tammuz) in Harran, i. 230

Arabs resort to the springs of Callirrhoe in Moab, i. 215 _sq._

—— of Moab, their custom at harvest, ii. 48, 96;
their remedies for ailments, 242

Aratus of Sicyon, deemed a son of Aesculapius, i. 81

Araucanian Indians of South America eat fruit of Araucanian pine, i. 278
_n._ 2

Araunah, the threshing-floor of, i. 24

Arcadians sacrifice to thunder and lightning, i. 157

Archigallus, high-priest of Attis, i. 268, 279;
prophesies, 271 _n._

Arctic origin, alleged, of the Aryans, i. 229 _n._ 1

Arenna or Arinna, i. 136 _n._ 1;
the sun-goddess of, 136

Arensdorf, custom at sowing in, i. 239

Argaeus, Mount, in Cappadocia, i. 190 _sq._

Argive brides wore false beards, ii. 260

—— women bewail Adonis, i. 227 _n._

Aristomenes, Messenian hero, his fabulous birth, i. 81

Aristophanes, on the Spartan envoy, i. 196 _n._ 4;
on Hercules as patron of hot springs, 209

Aristotelian philosophy, revival of the, i. 301

Aristotle on the political institutions of Cyprus, i. 49 _n._ 7;
on earthquakes, 211 _n._ 3

_Armengols_, in the Pelew Islands, ii. 265

Armenia, sacred prostitution of girls before marriage in, i. 38, 58