Chapter V: Book I: The Later Roman Empire in the East (1)

_INTRODUCTION_

THE SCOPE, THE SOURCES, AND THE CHRONOLOGY OF LATER ROMAN HISTORY IN THE EAST

The period upon which we are now entering presents peculiar difficulties for the historian. The body politic under consideration is in some respects unique. Historians are not even agreed as to the name by which it should properly be designated. It is an empire having its capital at Constantinople; an empire not come suddenly into being in the year 395, at which point, for the sake of convenience, we are now taking up this history; but which is in reality nothing more or less than the continuation of that Roman Empire in the East, the affairs of which we left with the death of Theodosius. That emperor, as we have seen, held sway over an undivided Roman commonwealth. On his death the power that he had wielded passed to his two sons, one of whom nominally held sway in the East, the other in the West. The affairs of the Western division of the empire under Honorius and his successors have claimed our attention up to the time of the final overthrow of Rome in the year 476. We are now returning to follow the fortunes of Arcadius, the other heir of Theodosius, and his successors.

But whether this Eastern principality should properly be spoken of as the Later Roman Empire, or as the Eastern, Byzantine, or Greek Empire, is, as has been suggested, a moot point among historians. The difficulty is perhaps met to the best advantage if we disregard the controversial aspects of the question and make free use of each and all of these names; indeed, in so doing, convenience joins hands with logicality. The empire of Arcadius and his immediate successors was certainly entitled to be called the Roman Empire quite as fully as, for example, were the dominions of Diocletian and Constantine. There was no sudden breach of continuity, no thought of entrance upon a new epoch with the accession of Arcadius. It was no new thing that power was divided, and that there should be two capitals, one in the East and one in the West. On the contrary, as we have seen, there had been not merely a twofold but a fourfold division of power most of the time since the day of Diocletian. No contemporary could have predicted that after the death of Theodosius the Roman dominions in the East and in the West would never again be firmly united under a single head. Nor indeed is it quite true that the division was complete and permanent; for, as we shall see, there were to be rulers like Justinian and Zeno who had a dominating influence over the Western territories, and who regarded themselves as masters of the entire Roman domain. And even when the division became complete and permanent, as it scarcely did before the time of Charlemagne, it could still be fairly held that the Roman Empire continued to exist with its sole capital at Constantinople, whither Constantine had transferred the seat of power, regardless of the fact that the Western dominion had been severed from the empire. The fact that this Western dominion included the city of Rome itself, which had given its name to the empire, and hence seemed indissoluble from it, is the chief reason for the seeming incongruity of applying the term Later Roman Empire to the dominion of the East.

It must not be overlooked, however, that there were other reasons for withholding the unqualified title of Roman Empire from the Eastern dominions. The chief of these is that the court of Constantinople departed very radically from the traditions of the West, taking on oriental manners and customs, and, what is most remarkable, gradually relinquishing the Latin speech and substituting for it the language of Greece. We have seen in our studies of earlier Roman history the marked tendency to the Hellenisation of Rome through the introduction of Greek culture from the time when the Roman Republic effected the final overthrow of Greece. It will be recalled that some of the most important histories of Rome, notably those of Polybius and Appian and Dionysius and Dion Cassius, were written in Greek. The emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote his _Meditations_ in the same language. But this merely represented the tendency of the learned world. There was no propensity to substitute Greek for Latin as the language of everyday life so long as the seat of empire remained in the West. Now, however, as has been intimated, this strange substitution was effected; the writers of this Later Roman Empire in the East looked exclusively to classical Greece for their models, and in due course the language of court and of common people alike came to be Greek also, somewhat modified from the ancient idiom with the sweep of time, but in its essentials the same language which was spoken at Athens in the time of Pericles. Obviously there is a certain propriety in this use of the term Greek Empire as applied to a principality whose territory included the ancient realms of Athens, and whose customs and habits and speech thus preserved the traditions of ancient Hellas.

The use of the terms Eastern Empire and Byzantine Empire requires no elucidation, having an obvious propriety. As has been said, we shall find it convenient here to employ one or another of the four terms indiscriminately; giving preference perhaps, if a choice must be made, to the simplest and most non-committal form, Eastern Empire.

By whatever name designated, the principality whose fortunes we are to follow will hold our interest throughout a period of more than a thousand years, from the death of Theodosius in 395 to the final overthrow of Constantinople in 1456. This period is almost exactly coincident with the epoch pretty generally designated by historians as the Middle Ages, and usually estimated as a time of intellectual decadence.

As a general proposition this estimate is doubtless just. It must be born in mind, however, that the characterisation applies with far less force to the conditions of the Eastern Empire than to the conditions of Western Europe. The age of Justinian was certainly not a dark age in any proper acceptance of that term. If no subsequent period quite equalled this in brilliancy, yet there were epochs when the Eastern Empire showed something of its old-time vitality. Indeed, there was an almost incessant intellectual output which served at least to sustain reminiscences of ancient culture, though it could not hope to rival the golden ages of the past. In point of fact, the chief defect of the literature of the time was that it did attempt to rival the classical literature. We have just pointed out that the later Byzantine Empire was essentially Greek in language and thought. Unfortunately the writers of the time failed to realise that in a thousand years of normal development the language--always a plastic, mobile thing, never a fixed structure--changes, grows, evolves.

Instead of contenting themselves with the use of the language with which they were familiar in everyday speech as the medium of their written thoughts, they insisted on harking back to the earlier classical period, consciously modelling their phraseology and style upon authors who had lived and died a thousand years earlier. No great art was ever produced by such conscious imitation. Great art is essentially spontaneous, never consciously imitative; the epoch-making works are done in the vernacular by artists whose first thought is to give expression to their spontaneous feelings and emotions, unhampered by tradition. It was thus that Homer, Sophocles, Euripides, Herodotus, and Aristophanes wrote; and if Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Livy, and Tacitus were more conscious craftsmen, somewhat in the same measure were they less great as artists.

But the Byzantine writers were rather to be compared with the Alexandrians of the age of the Ptolemies. They were far more scientific than their predecessors and proportionately less artistic. As grammarians they analysed and criticised the language, insisting on the retention of those chance forms of speech which the masters of the earlier day had used spontaneously. The critical spirit of the grammarian found its counterpart everywhere in the prevalence of the analytical rather than the synthetic cast of thought. As the masters of the past were the models, so were their stores of knowledge the chief sources on which to draw. What Aristotle had said must be considered the last word as regards physical knowledge. What the classical poets and historians had written must needs be copied, analysed, and praised as the final expression of human thought. Men who under different auspices and in a different atmosphere might perhaps have produced original works of some significance, contented themselves with elaborating anthologies, compiling dictionaries and encyclopædias, and epitomising chronicles of world history from the ancient sources. It is equally characteristic of the time that writers who did attempt creative work found prose romance the most congenial medium for the expression of their ideals. Even this measure of creative enthusiasm chiefly marked the earliest period of the Byzantine era and was stifled by the conservatism of the later epoch.

A BRIEF SURVEY OF THE SOURCES

But if the reminiscent culture of the Byzantine Empire failed to produce an Herodotus, a Thucydides, or a Livy, it gave to the world, nevertheless, a line of historians and chronologists of the humbler class, beginning with Procopius the secretary of Justinian’s general, Belisarius, and ending with Ducas, Phrantzes, Laonicus Chalcocondyles, and Critobulus, the depicters of the final overthrow of Constantinople, who have left us a tolerably complete record of almost the entire life of the Eastern Empire. A list of these historians--numbering about half a hundred names--has been given in our general bibliography of Rome in Volume VI.

Here we shall add only a very brief résumé of the subject, naming the more important authors. For the later period of the undivided Roman Empire and the earlier Byzantine epoch we have, among others, the following works: the history of the war with Attila, bringing the story of the empire to the year 474, by Priscus, a Thracian, and the continuation of his history to the year 480 by Malchus of Philadelphia; the important history of Zosimus, which we have had occasion to quote in an earlier volume; and, most important of all, the historical works of Procopius of Cæsarea in Palestine. The last-named author was, as already mentioned, the secretary of Justinian’s famous general, Belisarius. He accompanied that general on many of his campaigns and apparently was associated with him on very intimate terms. This association, together with the character of his writings, has caused Procopius to be spoken of rather generally in later times as the Polybius of the Eastern Empire,--a compliment not altogether unmerited.

His works are by far the most important of the Byzantine histories, partly because of their intrinsic merit and partly because of the character of the epoch with which they deal. The more pretentious of his works has two books on the Persian War, two on the war with the Vandals, and four on the Gothic war. Curiously enough, another work ascribed to Procopius, and now generally admitted to be his, deals with the lives of Justinian and Theodora and to some extent with that of Belisarius himself, in a very different manner from that employed in the other history just mentioned. This so-called secret history was apparently intended for publication after the author’s death; it therefore gives vent to the expression of what are probably the true sentiments of the author, showing up the character of his patrons in a very different and much less complimentary light from that in which they are depicted in the earlier work. As an illustration of the difference between the diplomatic and the candid depiction of events this discrepancy of accounts coming from the same pen is of the highest interest. The moral for the historian--vividly illustrative of Sainte-Beuve’s famous saying that history is a tradition agreed upon--need hardly be emphasised.

Among the later Byzantine historians the names of John Zonaras, of Nicetas Acominatus, of Nicephorus Gregoras, occur as depicters of the events of somewhat comprehensive periods; Agathias, Simocatta, Epiphaneia, Anna Comnena, and George Phrantzes as biographers or writers on more limited epochs. Of these Anna Comnena in particular is noteworthy because her life of her father Alexius I has been spoken of as the only really artistic historical production of the period. It is popularly known as having supplied Sir Walter Scott with the subject and some of the materials for his last romance, _Count Robert of Paris_. But most noteworthy of all is the fact that this is the first important historical production, so far as is known, that ever came from the pen of a female writer.

The list of chronologies or epitomes of world history includes the _Chronicon Paschale_, and the works of Georgius Syncellus, Malalas, Cedrenus, Michael Glycas, and Constantine Manasses. In some respects more important than any of these were the collections of excerpts from ancient authors which were made by Stobæus, by Photius, and by Suidas. These have preserved many fragments of the writings of historians of antiquity that would otherwise have been altogether lost. A very noteworthy collection of excerpts, comprising in the aggregate a comprehensive history of the world made up from the writings of the Greek historians, forms one portion of the encyclopædia which the emperor Constantine (VII) Porphyrogenitus--himself a writer of some distinction--caused to be compiled in the tenth century. This work contained extracts, often very extensive, from the writings of most of the Greek classical historians. It was apparently very popular in the Middle Ages, and has been supposed to be responsible for the loss of many of the works from which it made excerpts. Unfortunately, the encyclopædia itself has come down to us only in fragments; but, even so, it gives us excerpts from such writers as Polybius, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Diodorus, Nicholas of Damascus, Appian, and Dion Cassius, and of numerous Byzantine histories that are not otherwise preserved.

Taken together, even the extant portions of the Byzantine histories make up a very bulky literature. Being produced in this relatively recent time, a correspondingly large proportion of it has been preserved. Not, indeed, that many of the original manuscripts of the Byzantine historians have come down to us, but they appear to have been copied very extensively by the monks of western Europe, who found in them an interest which the classical writings often failed to arouse. The very fact that so many of these writings epitomise ancient history furnishes, perhaps, the explanation of this popularity. In the day when the reproduction of books was so laborious a process, condensation was naturally a merit that appealed to the bookmaker. Hence, as has been suggested, the epitome was often made to do service for the more elaborate original work, which latter was allowed to drop altogether out of view. But the modern world has not looked upon the Byzantine writings with the same interest. For the most part they had never been translated into modern European languages, and the original texts have been collated, edited, and printed in comparatively recent times.

On the other hand, these writings were almost the first to be subjected to the critical analysis of the historian, working with what we speak of as the modern spirit. Tillemont began the laborious process of reconstructing in detail the chronology of later Roman history, with the aid of these materials, and the work was taken up a little later by Edward Gibbon, and carried to completion in what is incontestably the greatest historical work of modern times,--if not, indeed, the greatest of any age,--_The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_. In this work, Gibbon not only set an epochal standard for future historians, but he so exhaustively covered the ground as to leave almost nothing for a successor in the same field. His work is the more remarkable because it was produced at a time when the general tendency was to accept the writings of the ancients in a much less critical spirit than that to which they have been more recently subjected. Gibbon, however, vaulted at once to the critical heights. Indeed, he went a step beyond most critics of more recent generations, in that he insisted on applying to the traditions and superstitions of all ancient nations the same critical standards. Most of Gibbon’s contemporaries and a large proportion of his successors, until very recent times, while looking askance at the traditions of Greece and Rome, have wished to adjudge Hebrew traditions by a different standard. It has been a curious illustration of the illogicality of even critical minds, that the very critics who have inveighed against the credulity of the ages which could accept the myths of Greece and Rome as historical, should have inveighed also against the mind which had the breadth of view to see that all ancient myths and traditions must be weighed in the same historical balance. Only in our own day have considerable numbers of critics attained the plane of historical impartiality which Gibbon had reached a century and a quarter ago, but in most other regards his example found a readier following.

THE CHRONOLOGY OF LATER ROMAN HISTORY IN THE EAST

EARLY DAYS OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE (395-565 A.D.)

The Roman Empire, permanently divided at the death of
Theodosius (395) into an eastern and a western section does
not, nevertheless, lose its unity as an organisation. The
period of disintegration has set in, and the extinction of
the western section in 476 is an event in this disintegration
rather than the “fall” of an empire. It was not until 800, the
year of Charlemagne’s accession, that there were really two
empires, and that the term “Eastern Empire” may properly be
applied. But for convenience we call the history of Arcadius
and his successors that of the Eastern Roman Empire.

395 A.D. =Arcadius=, co-regent, and elder son of Theodosius,
continues to reign at Constantinople. The Huns ravage Asia
Minor, and the Visigoths, under Alaric, rise in Mœsia and
Thrace. At the death of Rufinus, the eunuch Eutropius becomes
chief adviser of the emperor, supported by Gainas.

398 Alaric becomes governor of Eastern Illyricum.

399 Death of Eutropius.

401 Death of Gainas. The emperor comes entirely under the
influence of his dissolute wife, Eudoxia.

408 =Theodosius II= succeeds his father. He is but seven years
of age and is controlled by his sister Pulcheria. Alaric moves
upon Rome.

410 Death of Alaric.

421 Theodosius marries Athenais (Eudocia). War breaks out with
Persia.

425 Organisation of the University of Constantinople.

438 Publication of the Theodosian Code.

439 Genseric takes Carthage.

441 War with Persia. War with the Huns and Vandals continues.

442 Invasion of Thrace and Macedonia by Attila.

447 Peace of Anatolius made with the Huns.

450 Death of Theodosius. =Marcian= is raised to the throne by
Pulcheria, whom he marries. He makes a wise ruler and resists
payment of tribute to the Huns.

457 The Theodosian dynasty comes to an end with Marcian. The
choice of the emperor rests with the army, and the general
Aspar brings about the election of =Leo I=, a native of Thrace.

465 Great fire at Constantinople.

468 With the co-operation of Anthemius, Leo plans a great
expedition against Genseric in Africa, but it fails through
treachery of Aspar, who is executed, 469.

474 Leo I dies, leaving empire to his grandson =Leo II=. The
latter dies the same year and =Zeno=, his father, reigns,
but =Basiliscus= at once drives him out and rules for twenty
months, when Zeno recovers the throne.

476 With the resignation of Romulus Augustulus the western
division is definitely detached from the empire.

478-481 The Ostrogoths invade the Balkan peninsula.

483 Promulgation of the _Henoticon_.

488 Zeno induces Theodoric and the Ostrogoths to leave
Illyricum and attack Rome.

491 At death of Zeno, =Anastasius I= is proclaimed emperor,
through influence of the empress Ariadne, who marries him.

491-496 The Isaurian War instigated by the supporters of
Longinus results favourably for Anastasius.

499 The Bulgarians invade Thrace.

502-505 Unsuccessful war with Persians, who take several
provinces.

507 The “Long Wall” of Thrace is built to keep out the Goths.

514 Revolt of Vitalianus.

518 Death of Anastasius; =Justin I=, an illiterate Illyrian
peasant, obtains the emperorship through the army. With
him the empire enters on a new era. He prepares his nephew
Justinian to succeed him..

527 Justinian created augustus.

528 Justin dies; =Justinian I=, “the great,” sole monarch.
He is the chief figure of his time. His wife is the empress
Theodora. He begins active warfare at once against the Arians,
Jews, and pagans. Belisarius appointed commander-in-chief in
the East.

529 First edition of the Justinian _Code_ published.

530 Belisarius defeats the Persians at Dara.

531 Chosroes ascends the Persian throne.

532 Peace made with Persia. Insurrections break out in
Constantinople. St. Sophia burned. Belisarius quells the riots.

533 Belisarius begins a campaign against the Vandals in
Africa. The _Pandects_ published.

534 Belisarius captures the Vandal king Gelimer and destroys
his kingdom, and for this is made sole consul.

535-540 Belisarius in Italy and Sicily against the Ostrogoths.
He makes himself master of Rome and other cities.

540 Recall of Belisarius. Persian invasion of Syria.

542 Repulse of the Persians. Belisarius degraded by Theodora
on his return from the campaign. The great plague.

543 Totila, king of the Goths, captures Naples.

544 Belisarius proceeds to Italy against Totila.

545 Five years’ peace with Persia. Totila besieges Rome.
Belisarius has not sufficient forces to resist him.

546 Capture of Rome by Totila.

547 Romans recover Rome.

548 Totila retakes Rome. Belisarius returns to Constantinople.
Death of Theodora. Conspiracy against Justinian.

549 The imperial armies occupy the lands of the Lazi.

550 Slavonians and Huns invade the empire.

551 Battle of Sinigaglia. The Goths lose Sicily.

552 The eunuch Narses arrives in Italy as commander-in-chief.
Recovers Rome. Defeat and death of Totila.

553 End of the Ostrogothic War.

554-557 Terrible earthquakes visit Constantinople and other
cities.

558 Belisarius repels the invading Huns under Zabergan.

562 Fifty years’ peace with Persia. Narses continues his
victorious career in Italy.

565 Death of Justinian.

FROM JUSTIN II TO THE DEPOSITION OF JUSTINIAN II (565-695 A.D.)

565 =Justin II= succeeds Justinian I. He determines to change
Justinian’s unpopular system and refuses payment to an embassy
of Avars, which is the cause of serious depredations in the
provinces.

567 The Gepid kingdom overthrown by Lombards and Avars.

568 Lombard invasion of Italy.

571 Birth of Mohammed.

572 War breaks out with the Persians. They make several
important conquests, and

574 Justin, realising his inability to govern, makes Tiberius,
the captain of the guard, cæsar.

575 Peace with Persia.

576 Battle of Melitene. The Romans reach the Caspian Sea.

578 Justin dies. =Tiberius= emperor.

581 The imperial army led by Maurice defeats the Persians at
Constantina.

582 =Maurice= elected emperor. Death of Tiberius.

584 Treaty with the Avars, whose depredations have become very
serious.

586 Roman victory at Solachon.

589 Persian victory at Martyropolis. Slavonic colonies begin
to settle in the Peloponnesus.

590 Maurice crowns his son Theodosius at Easter. Rebellion of
Vaharan of Persia, who deposes Hormisdas or Hormuz.

591 Maurice puts Chosroes II on the Persian throne. He
proceeds against the Avar invasion of Thrace.

602 Rebellion in the army. =Phocas=, the centurion, made
emperor. Maurice put to death.

603 War with Persia breaks out.

604 Treaty of peace with the Avars.

606-608 Disastrous invasion of Asia Minor by the Persians.
They advance to Chalcedon.

609 Revolts in Africa and Alexandria.

610 =Heraclius=, son of the governor of Africa, accomplishes
the overthrow and death of Phocas.

614 The Persian War continues. Damascus captured.

615 Jerusalem taken by the Persians.

616 Persian invasion of Egypt.

617 Occupation of Chalcedon by the Persians. Heraclius
contemplates moving to Carthage.

620 Peace made with Avars who have attempted to seize the
emperor.

622 Heraclius takes command in person of the Persian War.

622-628 The war is vigorously conducted. Campaigns in
Cappadocia, Pontus, Armenia, Cilicia, and Assyria, ending
628 with treaty of peace with Siroes.

629 Heraclius restores the holy cross to Jerusalem.

632 Death of Mohammed.

633 The Mohammedan conquests begin. The imperial cities fall
before them in the following order: Bosra (634), Damascus
(635), Emesa, Heliopolis, Antioch, Chalcis, Berœa, Edessa
(636), Jerusalem (637).

638 Constantine, the king’s son, fails in an attempt to
recover Syria. Mesopotamia lost to the Mohammedans.

639 Amru invades Egypt.

641 Death of Heraclius. Death of =Constantine III=, after
three months’ reign. Another son of Heraclius, by Martina,
=Heracleonas=, whom Heraclius appointed to reign conjointly
with Constantine, reigns alone for five months and then is
banished. His brother David is appointed emperor under the
name of Tiberius. His fate is unknown. =Constans II=, son
of Constantine, becomes emperor. Alexandria taken by the
Mohammedans.

647 Mohammedans drive the Romans out of Africa.

648 The _Type_ of Constans published.

649 Mohammedans invade Cyprus.

650 They take Aradus.

652 Armenia falls into their hands.

654 They capture Rhodes.

655 They defeat Constans in the great naval battle off Mount
Phœnix in Lycia. Pope Martin is banished to the Chersonesus.

658 Campaign of Constans against the Slavs. Peace made with
the Mohammedans.

661 Constans leaves Constantinople and spends winter at Athens.

662-663 Great Mohammedan invasion of Asia Minor.

663 Constans in Rome.

668 Mohammedans advance to Chalcedon and hold Amorium for a
short time. Assassination of Constans at Syracuse. His son
=Constantine (IV) Pogonatus= succeeds.

669 Mohammedans invade Sicily and carry off 180,000 prisoners
from Africa.

670 Foundation of Kairwan, near Carthage.

673-677 Mohammedans besiege Constantinople. The Romans use the
newly invented Greek fire against them.

678 Peace concluded with the Mohammedans.

679 Bulgarian War and foundation of the Bulgarian kingdom.

681 Constantine deprives his brothers Heraclius and Tiberius
of the imperial title. The troops of the Orient had demanded
that they, too, should receive the crown, and thus the Trinity
in heaven might be represented on earth.

685 =Justinian II= succeeds his father. The caliph and emperor
make peace.

687 Transference of the Mardaites from Lebanon to Thrace and
Asia Minor.

689-690 Successful expedition of Justinian against the
Bulgarians and Slavs. The Greeks are forced to emigrate from
Cyprus; two hundred thousand Slavs transported to Asia Minor.

692 Battle of Sebastopolis. Symbatius revolts. Mohammedan
subjection of Armenia.

THE TWENTY YEARS’ ANARCHY (695-716 A.D.)

695 In consequence of his cruelties the general Leontius
deposes Justinian, cuts off his nose, and banishes him to the
Chersonesus. =Leontius= emperor.

697 Revolt of Lazica. Great Mohammedan invasion of Asia Minor.
Hassan proceeds against Africa with success. Carthage taken.

698 The Mohammedans retake Carthage. Leontius dethroned.
Aspimar becomes emperor as =Tiberius III=. The Mohammedans
continue to ravage the empire.

705 =Justinian II=, now named =Rhinotmetus=, from his nasal
mutilation, recovers the throne.

709 Tyana falls before the Mohammedans in their ravages on the
Bosporus.

710 Great cruelty shown to Ravenna and the Chersonesus by the
emperor.

711 Justinian overthrown by Bardanes, who becomes emperor
under the name of =Philippicus=. In his reign the Mohammedans
invade Spain (711) and the Bulgarians ravage Thrace (712). The
Mohammedans take Antioch in Pisidia.

713 Philippicus dethroned and his eyes put out. Artemius his
secretary is raised to the emperorship as =Anastasius II=. He
tries honestly to bring about reforms, and sends an embassy to
Damascus to arrange a peace with the Mohammedans.

715 The army determines to depose Anastasius, and chooses an
obscure person, =Theodosius III=, who unwillingly assumes the
purple.

716 The Mohammedans again invade Asia Minor and besiege
Amorium. =Leo III the Isaurian= relieves the town, makes a
truce with the besiegers, and is proclaimed emperor by the
army.

THE ISAURIAN DYNASTY AND SUCCEEDING KINGS (716-820 A.D.)

717 Mohammedans besiege Pergamus. They begin the siege of
Constantinople, which is raised the following year.

726 The dispute over image-worship arises. Publication of the
first iconoclastic decree. The great iconoclastic schism
begins, immersing the empire in many calamities and revolts,
leading to the final separation of the Greek and Latin
churches.

The Mohammedans invade Cappadocia.

727-728 Revolts in Italy and Greece.

734 Mohammedan invasion of Asia Minor.

739 Battle of Acronum.

740 =Constantine (V) Copronymus= succeeds his father.

742 Defeat of the rebel Artavasdes, who has obtained
possession of Constantinople.

744-747 The Great Plague devastates the empire.

746 Mohammedan invasion of Cyprus.

750 Fall of the Omayyad dynasty. Two rival Saracen powers are
formed. Ravenna taken by the Lombards.

751 Capture of Melitene and Theodosipolis by Constantine.

753 Invasion of Italy by Pepin. Council of Constantinople
favours iconoclasm.

755 Invasion of Thrace by the Bulgarians. Pepin continues
invasion of Italy.

757 The Bulgarians driven back to their own territory with
great slaughter.

760-765 Constantine invades Bulgaria. Victory of Anchialus,
762.

766 Wreck of the Roman fleet at the mouth of the Danube.
Edicts against image-worship extended and vigorously enforced.

773-774 Campaigns against the Bulgarians. Victory of
Lithosoria. Peace made with the Bulgarian monarch, which
Constantine breaks.

775 =Leo IV=, son of Constantine, succeeds him. He is a
zealous iconoclast. He marries the empress Irene.

778 Successful campaign against the Bulgarians.

780 Capture of Semaluos by Harun-ar-Rashid. Death of Leo.
=Irene= becomes regent for the ten-year-old =Constantine VI=.

781 Revolt of Elpidius in Sicily.

782 The Mohammedans under Harun-ar-Rashid invade Asia Minor.

787 Council of Nicæa sanctions image-worship.

788 The Bulgarians gain a victory at the Strymon.

789 The Arabs invade Rumania.

790 Constantine assumes control of the government. Irene is
unwilling to relinquish power and a struggle between the two
begins.

791 The emperor conducts a campaign against the Bulgarians.

792 A conspiracy formed against Constantine by his uncles is
suppressed and severely punished. Irene’s dignity restored.
Second campaign against the Bulgarians.

795 Constantine divorces his wife Maria and marries Theodota.

796 Third Bulgarian campaign of Constantine.

797 Irene, taking advantage of Constantine’s unpopularity on
account of his treatment of Maria, imprisons him and has his
eyes put out. She now reigns alone. Conspiracy to place one of
Constantine V’s sons on the throne.

798 Peace made with the Mohammedans.

800 Revival of the western division of the empire by the
coronation of Charlemagne. There are now two distinct empires.

802 Conspiracy against and deposition of Irene. =Nicephorus
I=, the treasurer, chosen emperor. He maintains political
order but is a hard fiscal oppressor.

803 Death of Irene in exile. Bardanes, the general, proclaims
himself emperor, but receiving no support, negotiates for his
own pardon. Treaty with Charlemagne, regulating confines of
the two empires.

806 Humiliating peace with Harun-ar-Rashid.

808 Unsuccessful attempt of Arsaber to obtain throne.

809 Death of Harun-ar-Rashid reopens the struggle with the
Mohammedans.

810 Treaty of peace with Charlemagne, who unsuccessfully tries
to make the Venetians and their allies tributary to him.

811 The emperor at war with the Mohammedans and Bulgarians.
Death of Nicephorus in an attack by the Bulgarians. His son
=Stauracius= succeeds. He is unable to hold out against the
unpopularity of his father’s fiscal severity. After two
months’ reign, a revolution places =Michael (I) Rhangabe= on
the throne. The Mohammedans, owing to civil strife, do not
trouble the empire, but the Bulgarians continue their attacks,
with such success that

813 Michael is deposed, and the general =Leo (V) the Armenian=
is saluted as emperor. Michael retires to a monastery. The
Bulgarians approach the walls of Constantinople.

814 Annihilation of the Bulgarian army by Leo, at Mesembria.
Thirty years’ truce concluded. Leo pursues a variable policy
in regard to image-worship.

820 Leo assassinated in a conspiracy in favour of =Michael
(II) the Stammerer=, who takes the throne.

THE AMORIAN DYNASTY (820-867 A.D.)

821 Rebellion of Thomas, a claimant of the throne. He is
crowned at Antioch, and lays siege to Constantinople.

822 The Bulgarians, taking advantage of civil discord, invade
the empire. Thomas delivered up to Michael, and hanged.

823 The Mohammedans capture Crete.

827 Mohammedan conquest of Sicily begun. It is not completed
until 878.

829 =Theophilus= succeeds his father. He is a zealous
iconoclast.

831 A Mohammedan invasion of long duration begins.

832 Brilliant victory of Theophilus in Charsiana. The
Mohammedans capture Heraclea.

836 Theophilus destroys Zapetra.

838 Mohammedan victory at Dasymon. Amorium is captured.

842 Death of Theophilus, due to chagrin at Mohammedan
successes. His son =Michael (III) Porphyrogenitus=, or =the
Drunkard=, succeeds at the age of four, with his mother
=Theodora= as regent. Image-worship restored at Council of
Constantinople. End of the Iconoclastic controversy. Slavonic
insurrection in the Peloponnesus suppressed. Failure of an
attempt to conquer the Abasges, and to recover Crete. War with
the Mohammedans continues.

845 Truce with the Mohammedans.

847 Conversion of the Khazars to Christianity. The Bulgarians
follow their example a few years later.

848 Revolt of the Paulicians, who join the Arabs.

854 Theodora retires to private life.

856 Bardas, her brother, becomes cæsar. Photius elected
patriarch in place of the deposed Ignatius.

858 A great war with the Arabs begins. Omar lays Pontus waste.
Successful campaign of Leo, the commander-in-chief, who is
finally captured by the Mohammedans.

860 Michael badly defeated near Melitene.

862 Omar invades Cappadocia, Pontus, and Cilicia.

863 Battle of Amasia. Great victory of Petronas, the emperor’s
uncle. Death of Omar. The end of trouble with the Mohammedans
for some years.

865 First appearance of the Russians in the empire. They
attack Constantinople, but are driven off.

866 Michael kills Bardas with the aid of Basil the Macedonian,
who becomes cæsar.

867 Assassination of Michael at the instigation of =Basil=,
who takes the throne. Basil removes Photius and restores
Ignatius.

THE BASILIAN DYNASTY (867-1057 A.D.)

871 The Paulicians attacked and reduced to obedience.

872 Basil takes the field against the Mohammedans.

875-876 Victories of Basil in Cilicia.

877 Death of Ignatius. Photius regains the patriarchate.

881 Basil plans to drive the Mohammedans out of Sicily and
Italy. Cyprus recovered and held for eleven years.

885 Nicephorus Phocas expels the Mohammedans from Italy. They
still hold Sicily. Accusation against Leo, the emperor’s son,
by Santabaren, in which the former narrowly escapes death.

886 Death of Basil, who is wounded while hunting. His son,
=Leo (VI) the Philosopher=, succeeds. He has Santabaren’s eyes
put out, and banishes him. Photius deposed.

887-888 Arabs invade Asia Minor, and attempt to regain Italy.
They give up the attempt on the latter country in 891.

Stylianus, Leo’s father-in-law and prime minister, by his
treatment of Bulgarian merchants, precipitates a war with
Bulgaria. This country wins several victories, and

893 Leo makes a treaty of peace.

895 Conspiracy of Samonas against the emperor. Further Arab
invasions of Sicily.

904 The Arabs capture Thessalonica with a fleet. The last
remains of the senate’s authority destroyed by a constitution
of Leo. Second Russian expedition to Constantinople.

911 Mohammedan naval victory off Samos. Death of Leo. His
infant son, =Constantine (VII) Porphyrogenitus=, and his
brother =Alexander= rule together.

912 Death of Alexander. He nominates, before dying, a regency
of six members, exclusive of the patriarch, to act during
Constantine’s minority. Attempt of Constantine Ducas to gain
the throne suppressed by John Eladas, one of the regents. =Zoe
Carbonopsina=, mother of Constantine, admitted to supreme
power by the regency.

913-914 Simeon, king of Bulgaria, invades the empire with no
positive results.

917 The Patzinaks defeat Leo Phocas at Achelous, which causes
Romanus Lecapenus to intrigue for the throne.

919 Constantine marries Romanus’ daughter Helena. =Romanus (I)
Lecapenus= crowned emperor as colleague to Constantine.

920 =Christopher=, son of Romanus, is raised to the imperial
dignity.

921 The war with the Bulgarians assumes serious proportions;
further increased

923 by an alliance between King Simeon of Bulgaria and the
Mohammedans.

926 A temporary end is put to the troubles with the Bulgarians
and Arabs by an interview between Romanus and Simeon.

927 Peter, Simeon’s successor, enters Byzantine territory,
demanding war or the hand of the emperor’s granddaughter.
Romanus agrees to the latter alternative.

928 Romanus makes his sons, =Stephanus= and =Constantine
VIII=, associate emperors. There are now five emperors.

931 Death of Christopher.

934-940 Period of complete peace in the empire, except for
petty warfare with Lombard princes. Constantine VII plans to
regain the sole power.

941 A Russian fleet of ten thousand galleys appears before
Constantinople. Romans drive them off with small force.

944 Stephanus and Constantine VIII at instigation of
Constantine VII banish their father to Prota. Constantine
VII then regains full power, and banishes Stephanus and
Constantine VIII likewise to Prota, 945.

During the remainder of Constantine’s reign the war with the
Mohammedans is prosecuted with great vigour, especially when
Nicephorus Phocas succeeds in assembling a large army. Many
conspiracies against Constantine by the deposed emperors.

959 Death of Constantine, the result of poison administered by
his son =Romanus II=, who becomes emperor.

961 Brilliant conquest of Crete by Nicephorus. The Mohammedans
expelled after occupation of 150 years.

962 Nicephorus attacks Aleppo, but is unable to take the
citadel.

963 Death of Romanus, which has been attributed to poison
administered by the empress Theophano. =Nicephorus (II)
Phocas= marries Theophano and obtains the throne. His chief
aim is to break the Mohammedan power.

964-965 Conquest of Tarsus by the Byzantines. Nicephorus
recalled to Constantinople by troubles with Bulgarians and
Hungarians. To repel them he makes alliance with Sviatoslaff,
prince of Kieff, which causes a bloody war with the Russians.

965 Embassy of Liutprand to Constantinople. The emperor
imprisons him.

968 Nicephorus returns to Asia Minor and recovers Antioch, 328
years in the Mohammedan power. He prepares to attack Baghdad.

969 Joannes Zimisces, the general, and Theophano conspire
against Nicephorus, who is assassinated. =Joannes (I)
Zimisces= takes the throne. He associates with him the young
sons of Romanus II, =Basil II=, and =Constantine IX=, who were
nominal rulers during reign of Nicephorus. The brother of
Nicephorus, Leo, and his son Bardas Phocas make unsuccessful
attempts to invite rebellion and regain the throne. They are
banished.

970 Sviatoslaff conquers Bulgaria and invades Thrace.
Philippopolis taken and inhabitants massacred.

971 Joannes proceeds against the Russians. Capture of
Presthlava and King Boris of Bulgaria. Siege and capture of
Dorystolon. Peace with the Russians. Bulgaria again a part of
the empire and Boris a pensioner of the Byzantine court. The
Mohammedan wars carried on.

972 Marriage of Otto the Great and Theophano, daughter of
Romanus II.

973 Imperial victory at Nisibis. Defeat at Amida.

974 Joannes takes command of the Mohammedan War.

975 Many victories but futile siege of Tripolis. Antioch shuts
out the imperial force.

976 Death of Joannes Zimisces, probably by poison. =Basil II=
head of affairs with his brother for colleague. He is one of
the greatest of the Eastern emperors.

_Beginning of Period of Greatest Splendour of the Empire_

979 Defeat of Sclerus by Bardas Phocas, the general, after a
desperate revolt to capture the throne. The Bulgarians begin a
long struggle to regain their independence.

982 On death of Otto, Basil consolidates his authority in
southern Italy.

989 Death of Bardas Phocas, who for two years has been in
revolt against the emperor. Sclerus, conspiring for the second
time against the throne, dies.

991 Southern Iberia ceded to the empire by King David.

995 Campaign of Basil in Syria. Aleppo taken. Unsuccessful
attack on Tripolis.

996 Great defeat of King Samuel of Bulgaria at the Sperchius.

1002 Samuel invades Thrace, takes Hadrianopolis, but is driven
off. The war now proceeds for some years in desultory fashion.

1014 Basil resumes the Bulgarian War in earnest. Great victory
under Nicephorus Xiphias at Zetunium. Basil puts out the eyes
of 15,000 prisoners. Death of Samuel. The emperor’s cruelty
engenders a last effort in the Bulgarians, but by 1018 the
destruction of the kingdom is complete. Gibbon calls this
the most important triumph of Roman arms since the time of
Belisarius.

1022 Victory of Basil over a coalition of Armenian princes.
They sue for peace.

1025 Basil prepares to expel Mohammedans from Sicily, but
dies. His brother =Constantine IX= becomes sole emperor.

1027 Attack by the Patzinaks and Mohammedans repulsed.

1028 Constantine on his death-bed appoints =Romanus (III)
Argyrus= his successor, makes him divorce his wife, and marry
his daughter Zoe.

1030 Romanus defeated by the Mohammedans at Azaz and takes
refuge in Antioch. He becomes the prey of melancholy, and Zoe
takes the reins of government.

1031 Mohammedan pirates ravage Illyricum and Corfu. They are
driven off by the people of Ragusa.

1032 Conspiracy and death of Constantine Diogenes.

1033 Capture of Edessa by the imperial fleet.

1034 Death of Romanus, probably by slow poison administered
by Zoe, who now causes her paramour, =Michael (IV) the
Paphlagonian=, to be proclaimed emperor, and marries him the
day of her husband’s death. Earthquake at Jerusalem lasting
forty days. Great famine throughout the empire.

1037 The Mohammedans attack the empire on all sides. They
capture Edessa. The Patzinaks invade Thrace.

1038 The Mohammedans regain Edessa, by a stratagem that is the
origin of the Tale of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves.

1039 The imperial force and the Normans attack the Mohammedans
in Sicily. Messina (Messana) and Syracuse taken.

1040 A fresh Mohammedan army from Africa utterly defeated in
Sicily. The Norman power begins to get the control in the
island. The Bulgarians attempt to recover independence. They
invade Thrace and Macedonia.

1041 Michael drives them back and brings the country again
to Byzantine rule. Death of Michael. =Zoe= attempts to rule
alone, but finds herself unequal to the task. She adopts her
husband’s nephew, =Michael (V) Calaphates=, and makes him
emperor. He expels Zoe. At his imprudent acts the people rise
in rebellion.

1042 After a fierce battle between the people of
Constantinople and the adherents of Michael, the latter and
his uncle flee. =Zoe= and her sister =Theodora= are proclaimed
co-empresses. Zoe has the eyes of Michael and his uncle put
out. Jealous of her sister, Zoe marries =Constantine (X)
Monomachus=. Rebellion of Maniaces, brother of Constantine’s
mistress Sclerena. He is murdered in the midst of his camp.

1043 Invasion of the Russians; driven back after a defeat by
Catacalon.

1045 Successful war with Cacicus, vassal king of Armenia and
Iberia, ending in destruction of his kingdom.

1047 Rebellion of Tornicius.

1048 The Patzinaks invade the empire with a large army. Attack
of the Seljuk Turks under Toghril. Indecisive battle of
Capetron.

1050 Toghril retires to Persia. Death of Zoe.

1052 Second invasion of Toghril.

1053 The Patzinaks driven back to their own territory.

1054 The great schism between the Greek and Roman churches
begins. Death of Michael. =Theodora= reigns alone.

1056 Death of Theodora, after appointing =Michael (VI)
Stratioticus= her successor. Attempt of Theodosius Monomachus
to seize throne.

1057 Battle of Hades. Defeat of Michael by Isaac Comnenus and
Catacalon.

DECLINE AND FALL OF THE BYZANTINE GOVERNMENT (1057-1204 A.D.)

1057 =Isaac (I) Comnenus= proclaimed emperor. Michael retires
to a monastery. The emperor introduces a system of great
economy into all branches of the government.

1059 Invasion of the northern frontier by Hungarians and
Patzinaks. Treaty of peace concluded. Isaac, after a severe
illness, resigns crown into the hands of =Constantine (XI)
Ducas=. Through motives of economy the latter materially
reduces the size of the army.

1060-1064 Toghril Beg and Alp Arslan invade the empire from
Mesopotamia. Ani captured, 1064.

1064 The Uzes, a nomad Turkish tribe, invade from the north.
They are driven back by outbreak of the plague.

1067 Death of Constantine. The imperial title conferred on his
young sons, =Michael (VII) Ducas Parapinaces Andronicus=, and
=Constantine (XII) Ducas=. The empress =Eudocia= is regent.
She marries =Romanus (IV) Diogenes=, who is proclaimed as
emperor. Great ravage of the Turks. Massacre of Cæsarea.

1068-1069 Successful campaign of Romanus against the Turks.

1070 Manuel Comnenus takes command against the Turks. Alp
Arslan captures Manzicert. Romanus returns to the command.

1071 Byzantine expedition to Sicily defeated by Normans.
Surrender of Bari. End of the imperial authority in Italy.
Romanus taken prisoner by Alp Arslan at Manzicert. Restored
to liberty and makes a treaty of peace. Refused admittance to
Constantinople. Michael VII regains power reigning conjointly
with Constantine XII. Romanus blinded, dies of his wounds.

1072 Alp Arslan, unable to obtain payment of Romanus’ ransom,
invades empire. He finally conquers the Byzantine part of Asia
Minor, giving it to Suleiman to rule.

1074 Rebellion of Ursel. Treaty with the Turks.

1076 The Turks take possession of Jerusalem.

1078 Bryennius attempts to gain the throne. After a severe
struggle Michael abdicates in favour of =Nicephorus (III)
Botaniates=.

1081 Nicephorus, after a constant struggle with many
aspirants, is dethroned by =Alexius (I) Comnenus= after the
capture and sack of Constantinople. Many pretenders are put
down. Treaty of peace with Suleiman. Defeat of Alexius by
Robert Guiscard.

1084 Defeat of Bohemond, the Norman leader. Relief of Larissa.

1085 Alexius recovers Dyrrhachium from the Normans.

1087-1099 Patzinak war ending in imperial victory at Levounion.

1092 Tzachas, emir of Smyrna, assumes title of emperor.

1093 Murder of Tzachas at instigation of Alexius.

1096 The first crusaders appear at Constantinople.

1097-1098 With the help of the crusaders, Alexius regains
Nicæa, Antioch, and the whole of Asia Minor.

1103-1108 War of Alexius with Bohemond, prince of Antioch.

1110-1116 War against the Turks in Asia Minor, ending in many
Turkish losses, enabling Alexius to make treaty of peace.

1111 Hostilities of Alexius with Tancred and the crusaders.

1118 Death of Alexius. =Joannes Comnenus=, his son, succeeds.
Failure of conspiracy of Anna Comnena and Nicephorus Bryennius
to place latter on throne.

1119 Joannes takes Laodicea and
1120 Sozopolis in campaigns against the Turks.

1122 Great victory of Joannes over the Patzinaks in Macedonia.

1124 Joannes drives back the Servians who have seized Belgrade
and Branitzova. He now proceeds again against the Turks of
Iconium and holds Castamonia and Gangra for a short time.

1131 Campaign against Livo of Cilicia, whose dominions
1137 are united to the empire.

1138 Joannes proceeds against Raymond of Antioch, who refuses
to recognise him for his liege-lord. Raymond apologises and
helps Joannes in a successful campaign against the Turks in
Syria.

1141 Joannes defeats the sultan of Iconium.

1142 He sets out for Cilicia to conquer all the Latin
principalities taken from the empire, but
1143 dies as the result of a wound received while hunting. His
son =Manuel (I) Comnenus= succeeds.

1144 Raymond, prince of Antioch, compelled to renew bonds of
vassalage.

1145 Manuel invades Isauria and concludes treaty of peace with
Turks.

1147 Manuel promises to aid the Second Crusade, but gives
secret information of it to the Turks.

1148 War with Roger of Sicily, who attempts to invade Greece.
Manuel quickly repels an invasion of Patzinaks, and with the
help of Venice proceeds against the Normans at Corfu.

1149 Fortress at Corfu taken. Roger invites the Hungarians and
Servians to attack from the north.

1152 Imperial repulse in Cilicia, but great successes in Italy.

1153 Peace made with King Geisa of Hungary.

1153-1155 The Norman war turns against the empire. Many
defeats. Maius, the Sicilian admiral, lands at Constantinople.

1155 Peace made with William of Sicily, Roger’s successor.
Punishment of Reynolf of Antioch, successor of Raymond, and
his reduction to vassalage.

1157 Renewal of war with sultan of Iconium. Peace made.

1161 War breaks out with Stephen III of Hungary.

1163 Short interval of peace in Hungarian War.

1168 Battle of Zeugmin. Great imperial victory. End of
Hungarian War. Manuel joins with Almeric of Jerusalem in an
attack on Egypt.

1171 Failure of attack through jealousy of Almeric. War
with Venice over, Manuel attacks the Lombards. After an
unprofitable contest
1174 peace made with Venice.

1176 Renewal of war with Kilidj-Arslan, sultan of Iconium.
Crushing defeat of Manuel near Myriocephalus. Dishonourable
peace made by Manuel.

1177 Manuel breaks peace. Imperial victory on the Mæander.
Honourable peace.

1180 Death of Manuel. His son, =Alexius (II) Comnenus=,
succeeds, under guardianship of mother, Maria of Antioch.

1183 =Andronicus (I) Comnenus= usurps the throne after
inducing Alexius to have his mother put to death, and then
killing him. Marries Alexius’ widow, Agnes, daughter of Louis
VII of France.

1184 Isaac, sent to Cyprus to govern by the emperor, causes
rebellion by his misgovernment, which entirely separates the
island from the empire.

1185 Silician invasion at instigation of Greek fugitives.
William II destroys Thessalonica, but is induced to
desist from attack on Constantinople. The lieutenant,
Hagiochristophorites, incites rebellion at Constantinople
against Isaac. The people take Isaac’s part and proclaim him
emperor. Death of Andronicus at hands of mob. =Isaac (II)
Angelus= emperor. Victory at Demerize over Silician invaders.

1186 Rebellion of the Bulgarians and Wallachians owing to
unjust taxation.

1187 Defeat of rebels by Joannes Cantacuzenus. Alexius Branas
given command of army. He takes advantage of victories to
proclaim himself emperor and appears before Constantinople,
but is defeated and killed by Isaac’s brother-in-law, Conrad
of Montferrat. William II of Sicily gives up his conquests in
Greece.

1188 Wallachian successes lead to formation of independent
kingdom.

1189 Emperor Frederick I of Germany appears with 150,000
crusaders. The terrified Isaac offers to make alliance with
Saladin, but the latter declines.

Theodore Mancaphas proclaims himself emperor. He is pardoned,
and gives up claim. Careers of the “False Alexius” and other
pretenders.

1191 Capture of Cyprus by Richard I of England. It is lost
forever to the empire.

1194 Isaac recognises the Wallachian kingdom.

1195 Isaac deposed by the nobles, and his brother =Alexius
(III) Angelus-Comnenus= “the tyrant” made emperor. Alexius has
Isaac’s eyes put out, and imprisons him in a Constantinople
dungeon. Alexius’ extravagant conduct completes the
destruction of the financial mechanism of the Roman Empire.
Great disorder and anarchy throughout the empire.

1197 Peace purchased from Mueddin, sultan of Angora.

1198 War with the sultan of Iconium.

1199 Rebellion of Chryses, the Wallachian officer. Alexius
makes peace, leaving him in possession of several towns.

1200 Ivan the Bulgarian attempts to found independent monarchy
in Thrace and Macedonia.

1202 Alexius, son of Isaac II, escaping to Italy, brings about
treaty between Venetians and crusaders to replace Isaac and
himself on the throne.

1203 Siege of Constantinople. Flight of Alexius III to Italy.
Crusaders occupy the city. =Isaac III= and =Alexius (IV)
Angelus= on the throne. Great fire in Constantinople. Constant
trouble between Alexius and the crusaders, in consequence of
which
1204 =Alexius (V) Ducas= “=Murzuphlus=,” a party leader, seizes the
throne. Murder of Alexius IV. Isaac dies of grief. Alexius
finds it impossible to hold out against the crusaders. Capture
and sack of Constantinople by crusaders and Venetians. Treaty
of partition. End of true Byzantine Empire. The Latin Empire
of Romania founded with Baldwin, count of Flanders. The Greek
Empire continues at Nicæa.

THE LATIN EMPIRE OF ROMANIA (1204-1261 A.D.)

1204 =Baldwin I= elected emperor. His dominions consist only
of Constantinople and Thrace, for the rest of the empire is
divided among the Flemish, French, and Venetian leaders.

1205 Joannice of Bulgaria revolts, and obtains possession of
Hadrianopolis. Capture of Baldwin in siege of town. He dies in
captivity. His brother =Henry I= succeeds.

1206 Treaty with David Comnenus, brother of the emperor of
Trebizond, in the interest of the latter.

1207 Death of Joannice. Henry marries his daughter, and thus
effects peace with Bulgaria. Treaty with Theodore Lascaris,
emperor of Nicæa.

1209 Parliament of Ravenika (ancient Chalcidice) summoned by
Henry to determine definitely the feudal relations of all
subjects of the empire.

1214 War between Henry and Theodore. Defeat of Henry in
Bithynia. Siege of Pemanene. Peace, ceding to Theodore all
territory east of Sardis and Nicæa.

1215 A mock union between the Greek and Roman churches in
Henry’s dominions.

1216 Death of Henry during expedition against Theodore, the
despot of Epirus. =Pierre de Courtenai=, then in France,
chosen emperor. He falls into the hands of Theodore of Epirus
on his way to Constantinople, and dies in captivity, 1219.

1221 His second son, =Robert de Courtenai=, after a delay of
two years, is made emperor.

1222 Theodore of Epirus takes possession of the Lombard
kingdom of Thessalonica. Defeat of Robert at Serres.

1223-1224 Robert invades Nicæa with many losses. Revolt of the
Greeks in Hadrianopolis. Theodore of Epirus takes the city.

1228 Death of Robert. His young brother, =Baldwin II=,
succeeds. =Jean de Brienne=, titular king of Jerusalem,
elected guardian and colleague. The empire is attacked by
Joannes Vatatzes of Nicæa and John Asan, king of Bulgaria.

1233 Jean de Brienne routed in Bithynia.

1234 Alliance between Vatatzes and Asan to attack
Constantinople. They ravage the whole Latin Empire.

1236 Danger to Constantinople averted by help from the
Venetians and Geoffrey of Achaia.

1237 Death of Jean de Brienne. The Bulgarian king abandons
Nicæa and makes alliance with Latins. Baldwin visits western
Europe to obtain help. Louis IX of France gives pecuniary
assistance.

1240 Baldwin with his new army attacks Nicæa and obtains some
advantage.

1243 Baldwin makes alliance with Seljuk Turks, but in spite
of this is compelled to
1245 revisit western Europe for assistance.

1259 On the accession of Michael Palæologus, the Nicæan Empire
attacks the Latin Empire.

1261 Recovery of Constantinople by the Greeks of Nicæa. End
of the Latin Empire of Romania. Although driven from their
dominions, the descendants of Baldwin II are known in eastern
Europe as titular emperors until 1383 when, with the death of
James de Baux, the family of Baldwin became extinct.

THE GREEK EMPERORS AT NICÆA (1204-1261 A.D.)

1204 After the capture of Constantinople Theodore Lascaris,
leader of the anti-Latin party, flees to Bithynia, and makes
himself master of the city of Nicæa.

1206 =Theodore (I) Lascaris= crowned emperor by the Greek
patriarch. His title is contested by several princes, among
them Alexius Comnenus, reigning as emperor of Trebizond. David
Comnenus, the latter’s brother, proceeds against him, but is
badly defeated on the Sangarius.