Chapter VI: Book I: The Later Roman Empire in the East (2)

1210 Alexius, father-in-law of Theodore, claims throne,
supported by the sultan of Iconium. The latter slain in
battle, Alexius falls into Theodore’s hand, and is put into a
monastery.

1214 War with Henry of Romania. Peace defining limits of
empire.

1214-1222 Years of peace.

1222 Death of Theodore. His son-in-law, =Joannes (III) Ducas
Vatatzes=, succeeds. Theodore Angelus, despot of Epirus and
Ætolia, assumes title of emperor of Thessalonica.

1224 Victory of Pemanene over Robert, the Latin emperor.

1225 Peace with the Latins. Conspiracy of Nestongos.

1233 Defeat of the Latins by Joannes in Bithynia. Naval
campaign to obtain sovereignty of the sea. The Greek fleets
driven back to Asia by the Venetian, Marino Sanuti.

1234 Alliance of Joannes Vatatzes and Asan of Bulgaria against
Baldwin II. Vatatzes reduces the empire of Thessalonica to a
despotat (despotat of Epirus).

1236 Attack of the allies on Constantinople unsuccessful.

1237 Asan breaks the alliance as Constantinople is about to be
attacked the second time.

1241 On the death of John Asan of Bulgaria, Vatatzes begins to
assert his supremacy over the emperor of Thessalonica.

1242 Joannes Comnenus, the Thessalonian emperor, reduced
to rank of despot by Vatatzes. Alliance with the sultan of
Iconium to resist threatened invasion of Mongols who have
already destroyed the Seljuk empire.

1245 Joannes Vatatzes reconquers Byzantine dominions in Thrace
from the infant king Michael of Bulgaria.

1246 Vatatzes unites despotat of Epirus to the empire.

1251-1253 War with Michael II, despot of Epirus, ending in a
peace ceding some Thracian territory to Vatatzes.

1254 Death of Joannes Vatatzes. His son =Theodore (II)
Lascaris= succeeds.

1255-1256 War with Bulgaria resulting in slight concessions to
Theodore.

1257 War with Michael of Epirus conducted by Michael
Palæologus, with unfavourable results.

1258 Death of Theodore. Succeeded by his young son =Joannes
(IV) Lascaris=. The prime minister Muzalon and the patriarch
Arsenius are regents.

1259 =Michael (VIII) Palæologus= proclaimed emperor as the
result of a successful conspiracy. Muzalon murdered. The
emperor goes to war with Michael of Epirus and puts him to
flight. Battle of Pelagonia. Capture of William Villehardouin,
prince of Achaia.

1261 The general Strategopulus captures Constantinople. Fall
of the Latin Empire. Michael removes the seat of empire
thither.

THE PALÆOLOGUS DYNASTY AT CONSTANTINOPLE (1261-1453 A.D.)

1261 Michael imprisons Joannes IV and has his eyes put out.
For this Arsenius excommunicates Michael. Important commercial
treaty with the Genoese renewed after hostilities in 1275.
Pope Urban IV frees Villehardouin from his promises to Michael
on his release. Warfare results.

1263 Urban IV mediates between Michael and Villehardouin.

1264 Peace between the emperor and Michael of Epirus.

1265 Deposition of Arsenius causing the Arsenite schism.

1269 Charles of Anjou, aided by Joannes of Thessaly and
Michael of Epirus, takes up arms against the emperor to
restore Baldwin II.

1271 Great defeat of the imperial forces at Demetriades
(Volo). Constantinople in danger. Michael proposes union of
Greek and Latin churches as a means of saving his throne.

1274 Union of churches effected at council of Lyons. It is
opposed by a large faction in the Greek church. It was never
really completed, and falls to pieces at Michael’s death.

1280 The Seljuk Turks take Nyssa.

1281 Treaty of Orvietto between the pope, Naples, and Venice
to conquer the Greek Empire for Philip, son of Baldwin II. The
plan is frustrated by the Sicilian Vespers.

1282 Death of Michael in an expedition against Joannes Ducas
of Thessaly. He is a conspicuous example of the misuse of
despotic power. His son =Andronicus (II) Palæologus= succeeds.
Ecclesiastical troubles compel the emperor to neglect military
matters for a time.

1290 Unsuccessful attack upon Nicephorus of Epirus.

1295 =Michael IX=, son of Andronicus, receives the imperial
title from his father.

1301 Foundation of Ottoman Empire by Osman, who attacks the
Greek Empire. Disgraceful defeat of Greeks commanded by
Michael, near Nicomedia. The command given to a Tatar chief.
The Ottomans gradually conquer all the Byzantine possessions
in Asia.

1303 The Catalan Grand Company, engaged by Michael to help
fight the Turks, and headed by Roger de Flor, lands in
Constantinople.

1304 Relief of Philadelphia by Roger. He conceives the idea of
forming a principality in the East.

1305 Roger de Flor visits Constantinople to demand pay for his
men.

1306 Turks retake Philadelphia. Plan of Ferdinand of Majorca
to conquer a kingdom in the Greek Empire.

1307 Roger de Flor created cæsar. He sets out for Asia but is
assassinated. The company breaks its ties with Michael, and
sets out to conquer territory for itself. Battle of Apros. The
company takes possession of several districts. Excommunication
of Andronicus by Clement V.

1310 The company and their Turkish auxiliaries enter service
of the duke of Athens. Conquest of Rhodes by knights of St.
John.

1311 Battle of the Cephisus and victory of the Catalan Grand
Company over the duke of Athens pave way for the conquest of
Attica. The Turkish auxiliaries return home.

1315 Victory of Philes Palæologus over Turks at Bizya.

1320 The emperor Michael dies.

1321 Beginning of civil war by partisans of the emperor’s
grandson Andronicus led by Cantacuzenus and Synadenus.

1322 Peace of Epibates concludes civil war.

1325 Andronicus compelled to bestow imperial crown on his
grandson =Andronicus (III) Palæologus=; the two reign together.

1327 Andronicus II brings charges against Andronicus III.
Civil war breaks out again.

1328 Synadenus overcomes garrison of Constantinople.
Abdication of Andronicus II puts an end to civil war, but the
court remains full of intrigue.

1329 Imperial defeat at Pelekanon by the Ottoman Orkhan.

1330 Surrender of Nicæa to Orkhan.

1330-1337 Ottoman invasions of the European provinces.

1334-1337 Expedition of Andronicus into Epirus.

1337 The Mongols cross the Danube and ravage northern
district. =Anne= regent for Nicephorus II, despot of Epirus,
turns the despotat over to Andronicus.

1338 Surrender of Nicomedia to Orkhan.

1339 Revolt in the despotat of Epirus put down.

1341 Death of Andronicus. His young son =Joannes (V)
Palæologus= succeeds with Empress =Anne= of Savoy as regent.
Rebellion of the prime minister =Joannes (VI) Cantacuzenus=,
who is proclaimed emperor and guardian of Joannes. He often
calls himself Joannes V. Apocauchus and Joannes Apri intrigue
against Cantacuzenus. A long civil struggle commences.

1342 Stephen Dushan of Servia allies himself with rebels and
invades empire.

1343 Cantacuzenus makes alliance with Turks. The war continues
with violence.

1344 Cantacuzenus takes Gratianopolis and makes treaties with
Servia and Bulgaria.

1345 Murder of Apocauchus. Vicinity of Constantinople
devastated.

1346 Defection of Orkhan from Anne’s cause leads to triumph of
Cantacuzenus. Earthquake at Constantinople destroys portion of
St. Sophia.

1347 Treaty of Cantacuzenus with Anne recognises right of
former to rule for ten years. The Black Death rages.

1350 Cantacuzenus uses money sent by Russians to rebuild St.
Sophia to pay Ottoman mercenaries.

1351 Joannes V takes up arms against Cantacuzenus.

1352 Peace with Genoa after three years’ war. Cantacuzenus
hires Turkish mercenaries to fight Bulgarians and Servians.

1353 Cantacuzenus proclaims his son Matthæus emperor, and a
deadly strife between him and the Palæologus family ensues.

1354 Cantacuzenus dethroned. Joannes V sole emperor. Matthæus
Cantacuzenus continues civil war.

1357 Matthæus Cantacuzenus delivered to Joannes by his captors
the Servians and made to renounce all rights to the throne.

1361 The Ottoman Turks under Murad I take Hadrianopolis. This
seals the fate of the Greek Empire.

1363 The Ottomans take Philippopolis and Serres. Defeat of
Louis of Hungary.

1369-1370 Joannes visits Rome to obtain help for his falling
empire, but is unsuccessful. On way home is arrested for debt
in Venice and released with money raised by his son, Manuel.

1375 Andronicus, Joannes’ eldest son, conspires against him
while the emperor is absent on a visit to Murad. He is aided
by Saugdi, eldest son of Murad. Murad hastens to Europe and
quells rebellion. Both Andronicus and Saugdi have their eyes
put out.

1377 Andronicus escapes from prison, imprisons his father, and
confers title on his own son.

1381 Joannes rescued by Venetians under Carlo Zeno. Concludes
treaty with Andronicus, recognising his and his son’s rights
to the title. Treaty with Murad in which Joannes acknowledges
himself the vassal of the Ottoman Empire.

1384 Manuel, second son of Joannes, proclaimed emperor and
crowned.

1389 Battle of Kossova. Great Ottoman victory over the
Servians. Assassination of Murad. Bajazet succeeds, renews
treaty with Joannes, and puts Manuel at head of Greek troops
in Ottoman army.

1390 Ottomans capture Philadelphia the last independent Greek
community in Asia Minor.

1391 Death of Joannes. =Manuel (II) Palæologus= sole emperor.
He hastens to Constantinople, fearing his brother will seize
the crown.

1396 Great victory of Bajazet at Nicopolis. He now determines
to proceed against Constantinople. Manuel visits France for
help.

1398 Marshal Boucicault arrives at Constantinople with his
fleet. The Tatar conqueror, Timur, distracts Bajazet’s
attention from the empire.

1399 Joannes of Selymbria, son of Andronicus, enters
Constantinople and is proclaimed emperor. Manuel visits
European courts for help.

1402 Manuel returns home, his mission unsuccessful. Battle of
Angora. Crushing defeat of Bajazet by Timur.

1403 Treaty of Suleiman and Manuel, the former yielding up
territory in Macedonia and Thessaly.

1410 Musa, Suleiman’s brother, after the latter’s death,
reconquers territory ceded by Suleiman to Manuel.

1412 Musa begins a feeble siege of Constantinople, but is soon
distracted by civil troubles.

1413-1421 During reign of Muhammed I, the Greek Empire enjoys
uninterrupted peace. Manuel employs time in reorganising
administration and consolidating his power.

1419 Manuel makes his son, =Joannes (VII) Palæologus=,
co-emperor.

1422 Murad II besieges Constantinople to punish Manuel for his
intrigues. He is obliged to raise siege in order to proceed
against his brother, Mustapha.

1423 Manuel assumes monastic habit, taking name of Matthew.
Joannes sole emperor. The empire is now reduced to the city
of Constantinople and vicinity, Thessalonica, and a part of
the Peloponnesus. The finances are exhausted through payment
of tribute to the Turks. The empire enters its final stage of
lethargy.

1430 Murad II conquers Thessalonica. The Genoese of Galata
attack Constantinople on account of trade dispute in Black Sea.

1431 Terrible epidemic in Constantinople.

1439 Joannes and the Greek patriarch attend council of
Florence and ratify union of the Greek and Roman church. The
pope promises to aid the empire, but forgets agreement to send
fleet to Constantinople.

1440 On return of the emperor, the bishop of Ephesus succeeds
in confining the union only to the palace. The emperor’s
brother Demetrius attempts to gain throne, but fails.

1447 Murad marches against the emperor’s brother Constantine,
who is ruling over the Peloponnesus. Corinth and Patras taken.
Treaty with Constantine, who pays tribute.

1448 Death of Joannes. His brother =Constantine (XIII)
Palæologus= or =Dragazes=, despot of Sparta, succeeds.

1449 Muhammed II succeeds Murad II. His chief ambition is the
conquest of Constantinople, and he at once prepares for it.
Builds a fort on the Bosporus.

1452 Joannes appeals to Pope Nicholas V for aid. Cardinal
Isidore and a small body of auxiliaries are sent.

1453 Siege and capture of Constantinople by Muhammed II. Death
of Constantine in battle. Muhammed enters his new capital. End
of the Eastern Empire.

THE EMPIRE OF TREBIZOND (1204-1461 A.D.)

Isaac Angelus, as soon as he is placed on the throne by the
exasperated mob that slew the tyrannical Andronicus I (1185),
has the eyes of Manuel Comnenus, the murdered emperor’s
eldest son, put out. Manuel dies under the operation,
leaving two sons, Alexius and David. They live in obscurity
in Constantinople until the crusaders besiege the capital
(1203), when they escape to the coast of Colchis. Alexius
gathers around him a small force and
1204 about the time of the fall of Constantinople enters Trebizond,
the ancient Trapezus, on the Black Sea, having been
proclaimed “emperor of the Romans.” He calls himself =Alexius
(I) Grand-Comnenus=, to distinguish himself from the family
of Alexius Angelus-Comnenus. The weakness of the expelled
house of Angelus permits Alexius to found his empire and
begin a career of conquest. In the course of a few months the
whole country from the Phasis to the Thermodon is his. David
Comnenus adds the coast from Sinope to Heraclea to the new
empire.

1206 Defeat of David on the Sangarius, by Theodore (I)
Lascaris. Alexius badly beaten at Amisus by the sultan of
Iconium or Rum in league with Theodore. David makes treaty
with the emperor Henry of Romania, in the interest of his
possessions.

1214 Theodore I attempts to reunite David’s territory to the
empire of Nicæa. Death of David in defence of Sinope, besieged
and captured by the Turks. Pontus assailed by the Turks.
Colchis by the Georgians.

1216 Alexius compelled to declare himself a vassal of the
sultan of Iconium.

1222 Death of Alexius. His son-in-law, =Andronicus (I)
Ghidus=, succeeds, Joannes the eldest son being passed over.

1224 Treaty with Ala ad-Din, sultan of Iconium. Hayton,
Turkish governor of Sinope, seizes a Trebizontine ship.
Andronicus attacks Sinope; Ala ad-Din breaks treaty and
attacks Trebizond. Andronicus drives him off and by a treaty
frees himself from vassalage.

1226 Andronicus acknowledges himself vassal of Gela ad-Din,
shah of Khwarizm.

1230 On defeat of Gela ad-Din by the Mongols, Andronicus
renews vassalage to Iconium. The Iberian provinces of
Trebizond unite with the new Iberian kingdom where King David
still retains his independence against the Turks.

1235 Death of Andronicus. His brother-in-law, =Joannes (I)
Auxuchus=, succeeds.

1238 Death of Joannes. His brother, =Manuel (I) the Great
Captain=, succeeds. There is little information about the
events of his reign, but he was a vassal of the Seljuks; and,
after their defeat, in 1244, at Kusadac of the Mongol khan,
Octar.

1263 =Andronicus II= succeeds his father.

1266 =George= succeeds his brother. The power of the Mongols
and Seljuks in Asia Minor declines, and George frees himself
from them. He attempts to conquer more territory but in
1280 is deserted by his nobles on an expedition and captured by
the Turkomans. =Joannes III= succeeds. He is invited by a
party in Constantinople, disgusted at Michael VIII’s union
with the Latin church, to place himself at the head of the
orthodox Christians and of the Greek Empire; but Joannes fears
to do this.

1281 Michael sends George Acropolita, the historian, on a
mission to Joannes to induce him to lay aside title of emperor
of the Romans or accept matrimonial alliance with his family.
It is unsuccessful. An insurrection at Trebizond deprives
Joannes of his power, but he soon recovers it.

1282 Joannes agrees to marry Michael’s daughter Eudocia. The
ceremony is performed at Constantinople, and Joannes gives
up title “emperor of the Romans,” taking that of “emperor of
all the East, Iberia, and Peratea.” David of Iberia makes
an unsuccessful attack on Trebizond. George released by
Turkomans, but fails in an attempt to regain throne.

1285 Joannes’ sister, =Theodora=, assembles an army and mounts
throne, but Joannes soon recovers it and drives her from it.
Pope Nicholas IV invites Joannes to assist in crusade to
recover Ptolemais, but affairs at home prevent his doing so.

1297 Death of Joannes. His son =Alexius II= succeeds at age of
fifteen. He soon frees himself from his guardian, Andronicus
II of Constantinople.

1302 Alexius repels a Turkoman invasion in a great battle near
Kerasunt.

1310 After many trade disputes with the Genoese establishments
on the Black Sea, Genoa demands a favourable treaty with
Alexius, which he refuses. The enraged Genoese burn a portion
of Trebizond, but fear of the Venetians compels them to agree
to trading on the old terms.

1314 Sinopian pirates set fire to Trebizond and much damage is
done.

1330 Death of Alexius. His eldest son, =Andronicus III=,
succeeds. A period of anarchy and civil war begins. Andronicus
supposed to have put two brothers to death. Another brother
and an uncle flee to Constantinople.

1332 Death of Andronicus. Accession of his young son, =Manuel
II=, with everyone in power attempting to gain the direction
of affairs. Taking advantage of the condition of affairs the
Turkomans invade the empire, which is in great danger, and
=Basil=, the fugitive son of Alexius II, is invited to become
emperor. Manuel deposed. Basil proves a profligate monarch,
and marries his mistress in spite of the fact that he has a
wife. The power becomes decentralised.

1340 Death of Basil. His lawful wife, =Irene Palæologina=,
daughter of the Byzantine emperor, is placed on the throne by
her adherents. Civil war breaks out.

1341 =Anna Anachoulu=, daughter of Alexius II, is placed by
the Comnenian party on the throne. Irene deposed. Michael,
second son of Joannes II, claims throne. He is imprisoned, but
a party forms around his son, Joannes.

1342 =Joannes III= gains throne from Anna. She is strangled.

1344 Disgusted with Joannes’ conduct the young nobles release
his father, =Michael=, from prison and make him emperor.
Michael confines Joannes in a monastery, and afterwards sends
him to Hadrianopolis. He tries to improve the condition of
affairs and decrease the power of the nobles, but is not
strong enough for the task.

1347 The Great Plague (Black Death) rages in Trebizond. The
Turkomans ravage the empire up to the walls of the capital.

1348 Turks capture Kerasunt. Genoese men of war attack
Trebizond. The Greeks massacre the Franks for revenge.

1349 Michael makes peace with Genoese, ceding them fortress
of Leontokastron. Civil riots break out. Michael dethroned
and =Alexius III=, son of Basil, and his mistress, Irene of
Trebizond, are brought from Constantinople to occupy the
throne. The rebellions of the aristocracy continue.

1355 The rebels headed by the grand duke Nicetas appear with
a fleet before Trebizond. Alexius drives them off. He begins
to consolidate his power, but the Turkomans gradually seize
territory from the empire until there is only a narrow strip
of sea-coast left.

1380 Alexius quarrels with Megollo Lescari, a Genoese
merchant, who fits out galleys to ravage the Black Sea.
Alexius submits and confirms trade privileges of the Genoese.

1390 Death of Alexius. His son =Manuel III= succeeds.

1400 Manuel sends troops to the army of Timur, but does not
himself take part in the battle of Angora (1402).

1405 After Timur’s death Manuel delivers empire from tribute
to the Mongols.

1417 Death of Manuel. His son =Alexius IV= succeeds. After the
retreat of the Mongols the empire is overrun by the two great
Turkoman hordes of the Black and White Sheep. Kara Yusuf,
chief of the Black Horde, compels Alexis to send a daughter to
marry his son, and exacts tribute.

1420 Death of Kara Yusuf--the emperor ceases to pay tribute to
the Black Horde.

1426 Rebellion of Alexius’ son Calo-Joannes, who has been
raised to imperial dignity. The nobles rescue the emperor.
Alexius confers rights of heir apparent and imperial dignity
on his second son Alexander, who dies soon afterwards.

1442 First attack of Ottoman Turks on Trebizond is repulsed.

1446 Second rebellion of Calo-Joannes. He murders Alexius and
succeeds as =Joannes IV=. He is hated for his crimes.

1449 The sheikh of Ertebil fails in an attempt to capture
Trebizond. Joannes forms plan to expel Ottomans from Asia
Minor and Muhammed II forced to invade the empire. Joannes
compelled to become vassal of Muhammed and pay tribute.

1458 Death of Joannes as he is forming a great league against
the Ottomans. A four-year-old son is set aside in favour of
his brother =David= who continues Joannes’ work on the league.

1461 Siege and capture of Trebizond by Muhammed II. End of
the empire of Trebizond. David retires to Mavronaros which he
receives in exchange for his empire, and a few years later is
put to death at Constantinople for refusing to join the Moslem
faith.

THE KINGDOM OF SALONICA (1204-1222 A.D.)

1204 In the division of the Byzantine Empire among
the crusaders, =Boniface=, marquis of Montferrat,
commander-in-chief, receives a feudatory kingdom in Asia, but
not liking to be so far from his Italian domains, he exchanges
it for the province of Macedonia with Thessalonica for his
capital. He calls it the kingdom of Salonica. He also believes
himself entitled to Crete, and exchanges it with the Venetians
for portions of Thessaly. Boniface would like to maintain an
independent realm, but Baldwin I of Romania promptly compels
him to do homage.

1204-1207 Boniface defeats attempts of the Greeks to recover
his kingdom. He marches into the Peloponnesus and lays siege
to Corinth and Argos, but is recalled by a rebellion in
Thessalonica.

1207 Death of Boniface in a skirmish with the Bulgarians.
=Demetrius= his son two years old succeeds with the queen,
Margaret, as regent.

The kingdom is protected against the prince of Epirus and the
king of Bulgaria by the Romanian emperor, until after the
death of Pierre de Courtenai.

1222 While Demetrius is still completing his education in
Italy, Theodore, prince of Epirus, conquers the kingdom and is
crowned emperor of Thessalonica. Demetrius makes unsuccessful
attempts to recover his kingdom. The title is held by the
descendants of Demetrius until William marquis of Montferrat
cedes it to the Byzantine emperor in 1284.

1266 Baldwin II, then titular emperor of Romania, granted
the kingdom of Salonica to the house of Burgundy, where it
remained until Eudes IV sold it to Philip of Tarentum, titular
emperor of Romania in 1320.

THE DESPOTAT OF EPIRUS AND EMPIRE OF THESSALONICA (1204-1469 A.D.)

1204 After the conquest of Constantinople, =Michael I=,
a natural son of Constantine Angelus and uncle of Isaac
II and Alexius III, escapes into Epirus, marries a native
lady, and establishes a government in the territory west of
the Pindus Mountains. His capital is at Joannina. It is a
typical Byzantine state, totally different from the Frankish
feudatory governments. Michael and his descendants all take
name of Angelus Comnenus Ducas. He is an able military leader,
and extends his principality over all Epirus, Acarnania,
Ætolia, and a part of Macedonia and Thessaly. He is virtually
independent, but acknowledges Theodore Lascaris I as the
lawful emperor of the East.

1214 Assassination of Michael by one of his slaves. His
brother =Theodore= succeeds, having sworn fidelity to the
throne of Nicæa. He at once begins to extend his dominions.

1217 Theodore captures the Latin emperor, Pierre de Courtenai,
who is on his way to Constantinople.

1222 Theodore drives the Lombards out of Salonica, and is
crowned emperor of Thessalonica.

_The Empire of Thessalonica_

1224 Theodore takes Hadrianopolis. His empire now extends
from the Adriatic to the Black Sea. He plans attack on
Constantinople, but becomes involved in war with John Asan of
Bulgaria.

1230 John Asan takes Theodore prisoner and puts out his eyes.
Theodore’s brother =Manuel= assumes imperial title.

1232 John Asan marries Theodore’s daughter and releases him.
Theodore returns to Thessalonica and forms party strong enough
to drive Manuel out. Theodore’s blindness prevents him from
reigning, so his son =Joannes= takes the title. Manuel escapes
to Nicæa and returns with aid from Joannes Vatatzes, but
Theodore persuades him and his brother Constantine to aid in
defending the empire against Nicæa.

1234 Vatatzes takes Thessalonica. Joannes compelled to give up
imperial dignity and assume rank of despot.

_The Despotat of Epirus_

1244 =Demetrius= succeeds his brother Joannes.

1246 Joannes Vatatzes, owing to disputes, drives Demetrius
from office and unites Thessalonica to the Greek Empire. A
natural son of Michael I, Michael is, however, in possession
of a portion of the despotat and the blind Theodore of
another. Joannes Vatatzes makes =Michael II= despot under
promise of absolute fidelity, but Theodore,
1251-1255 by his intrigues, involves Michael in war with Vatatzes.

1255 Michael delivers up Theodore and makes peace with
Vatatzes. Michael is expelled from his dominions, but recovers
the southern portion and rules there.

1267 Death of Michael. =Nicephorus=, his son, receives title
and marries daughter of Theodore Lascaris II. He extends his
territory in Acarnania and Ætolia.

1290 Nicephorus attacked by Andronicus II and the Genoese, but
he repels them with help of the prince of Achaia and the count
of Cephalonia.

1293 Death of Nicephorus. His son =Thomas= succeeds.

1318 Murder of Thomas by his nephew, =Thomas II=, the count
of Cephalonia, who is murdered by his wife =Anne=, who is
guardian of her son, Nicephorus II, twelve years old, when in
1337 Andronicus III invades the country. Anne turns the despotat
over to him. Nicephorus killed, 1358, in a battle with the
Albanians while attempting to recover the despotat.

_The Wallachian Princes of Thessaly_

1259 =Joannes Ducas I=, natural son of the despot Michael
II, marries daughter of the Wallachian chief in Thessaly. He
founds an independent government, fighting with or against
Epirus or Constantinople, as suits his interests.

1290 Succeeded by his son, name not known.

1300 =Joannes Ducas (II)= succeeds under guardianship of Guy
II, duke of Athens, his cousin.

1308 On death of Joannes, his possessions are divided among
the frontier states.

_The Servian Despots of Epirus_

1367 =Thomas Prelubos= recognised by Stephen Dushan as prince
of Joannina or Arta.

1385 Assassination of Prelubos on account of his cruelties.
His widow marries =Esau Buondelmonte=, who wars with the
Albanians until captured in 1399.

_The Tocco Family in Epirus (Despotat of Romania)_

1400 =Charles Tocco=, grandson of Leonardo Tocco, who was
invested with Cephalonia by Robert of Tarentum, titular
emperor of Romania, invades Epirus about 1390, and finally
conquers enough territory to declare himself despot of Romania.

1429 =Charles II= succeeds his uncle.

1431 The Turks capture Joannina and Ætolia.

1433 Charles becomes a citizen of Venice in order to obtain
the protection of that republic.

1452 =Leonard= succeeds his father.

1469 The Turks drive Leonard from the throne.

THE DUCHY OF ATHENS (1205-1456 A.D.)

_The House of de la Roche_

Between the kingdom of Salonica and the Peloponnesus lie
several feudal states apportioned among the crusaders. Of
these the duchy of Athens is the most important.

1205 =Otto de la Roche=, a Burgundian noble, takes possession
of Athens. He is master of all Attica and Bœotia, but does
homage to Boniface of Salonica.

1207 On death of Boniface Thebes is taken from Otto and added
to Salonica, but is returned later by Henry of Romania.

1225 Otto prefers to return to his fief in France and resigns
in favour of his nephew, =Guy I=.

1264 =John= succeeds his father. He assists Joannes Ducas
against the Byzantine army and forms a close alliance with him
later on. John captured in the battle of Oreus by the forces
of Michael VIII and is released without payment of ransom.

1275 John succeeded by his brother, =William I=.

1280 William assumes the government of Achaia during minority
of Isabella Villehardouin.

1290 Death of William. His son, =Guy II=, succeeds.

1293 Guy is invited to administer the dominions of the despot
of Wallachia, his ward. Anna, widow of Nicephorus of Epirus,
prepares to attack him, but withdraws through fear.

1304 Guy on his marriage to Maud of Hainault receives a fief
in the Morea, but claims the whole principality of Achaia.

1308 Death of Guy before he can force his claim. His cousin,
=Walter de Brienne=, succeeds.

_The House of Brienne_

The despots of Epirus and Wallachia threaten invasion. Walter
makes alliance with Catalan Grand Company for defence and
1310 Walter defeats his enemies, but the Catalans refuse to quit
the land.

1311 The Catalans defeat Walter at the battle of Cephisus. The
Frankish power falls in northern Greece; the house of Brienne
still holds fiefs in Nauplia and Argos.

_The Catalan Grand Company_

=Roger Deslau= appointed duke of Athens. His dominions are
extended north and west.

_The House of Aragon, Duke of Athens and Neopatras_

1326 On death of Roger, =Manfred=, son of Frederick II of
Sicily, is invested with the duchy, which becomes an appanage
of the house of Aragon.

1330 =William=, Manfred’s brother, succeeds.

1331 The son of Walter de Brienne makes unsuccessful attempt
to regain duchy.

1338 =John=, brother of William and Manfred, succeeds.

1348 =Frederick=, marquis of Randazzo, son of John, succeeds.
He never visits Athens.

1355 =Frederick III=, king of Sicily, succeeds the marquis of
Randazzo.

1377 =Maria=, daughter of Frederick III, succeeds to the duchy.

1386 Conquest of Athens by Nerio Acciajuoli, governor of
Corinth, in a war concerning the countess of Salona and her
heritage.

_The House of Acciajuoli_

1394 =Nerio I= confirmed in the duchy by King Ladislaus of
Naples. Nerio taken prisoner by Navarrese troops and purchases
his liberty. Death of Nerio; his natural son, =Antonio=,
succeeds. Bajazet recognises his authority. Athens enjoys a
tranquil rule of forty years.

1435 =Nerio II=, grand-nephew of Nerio I, succeeds on death of
Antonio. The administration comes into hands of his brother,
Antonio, while Nerio is in western Europe.

1443 Nerio pays tribute to the despot of Morea.

1450 Nerio joins forces with Muhammed II and becomes Ottoman
vassal.

1453 Infant son of Nerio succeeds on his father’s death with
his mother as regent.

1455 Muhammed orders duchy conferred on =Franco=, nephew of
Nerio II.

1456 Muhammed finding the Athenians disgusted with Franco
annexes duchy to the Ottoman Empire.

There are other feudal states north of the isthmus of Corinth,
ruled by the lords of Budonitza, Salona, and Negropont, but
details of their history are lacking. Like Athens they are
finally merged in the Ottoman Empire.

THE PRINCIPALITY OF ACHAIA (1205-1460 A.D.)

1205-1208 =Guillaume de Champlitte=, receiving territory in
the Peloponnesus as his share of the Byzantine Empire, is
joined by Geoffrey Villehardouin, nephew of the chronicler,
and conquering about half the peninsula within three years
organises a strong feudal government. Geoffrey is his most
important feudal vassal, and receives the fief of Kalamata.

1210 Guillaume returns to France leaving his relative Hugh
in charge, but the latter dying, Geoffrey is elected in his
place. =Geoffrey= possesses himself of the principality. He
strengthens it in every possible way.

1218 =Geoffrey II= succeeds his father.

1219-1222 Serious quarrel of Geoffrey with the pope. The ban
of excommunication is finally removed.

1246 Death of Geoffrey. His brother =Guillaume Villehardouin=
succeeds. He proposes to complete conquest of Peloponnesus.

1247 Conquest of Nauplia with help of Venetians of Modon.

1248 Conquest of Monemvasia. Before the end of the year the
entire Peloponnesus is under Frankish domination.

1259 Guillaume assists his father-in-law Michael II of Epirus
in his war against Michael VIII of Constantinople. Battle of
Pelagonia, and capture of Guillaume, by Michael VIII.

1261 Guillaume released by ceding Monemvasia, Misithra, and
Maina, three strong cities, to Michael VIII.

Pope Urban IV releases Guillaume from promise not to wage war
on Michael. Warfare results in the Morea.

1263 Urban IV mediates between Michael and Guillaume.

1267 The principality becomes a dependency of the kingdom of
Naples, having been that of the Romanian emperors.

1277 Death of Guillaume. His daughter =Isabella= succeeds.

1278 Death of Isabella’s husband Philip of Anjou. =Guillaume
de la Roche=, duke of Athens, governs for ten years.

1291 Isabella marries Florenz of Hainault.

1297 Death of Florenz and end of last prosperous period of the
principality. The suzerainty of Achaia has been transferred to
Philip of Tarentum.

1301 Isabella marries Philip of Savoy.

1304 Isabella and Philip leave Greece in consequence of
disputes with their vassals and with Philip of Tarentum.

1311 Death of Isabella in Italy. Her daughter =Maud of
Hainault=, widow of Guy II of Athens, succeeds.

1313 Maud marries Louis of Burgundy.

1315 Maud and Louis leave for Greece. Ferdinand of Majorca
claims principality and sets out to take it.

1316 Death of Ferdinand in battle with Louis.

1317 Death of Louis. The house of Anjou try to marry Maud to
Count John of Gravina, but finds she has already married Hugh
de la Pallisse. King of Naples declares this marriage null,
and Maud is compelled to go through ceremony with John. She
is then imprisoned and dies about 1324. =Philip of Tarentum=
takes title of prince.

1332 =Robert=, titular emperor of Romania, succeeds his father
Philip as prince, while his mother Catherine of Valois becomes
suzerain. John of Gravina still disputes the principality.
The Achæan barons fail in attempt to transfer their fealty to
Constantinople and to Don Jayme II of Majorca.

1346 At death of Catherine de Valois, Robert becomes suzerain
of Achaia as well as prince.

1364 Death of Robert, leaving principality to his widow =Mary=
of Bourbon, the suzerainty devolving on Philip III titular
emperor of Romania. Mary establishes herself in Greece, but is
unable to hold the position.

1373 James de Baux becomes suzerain.

1387 Mary retires to Italy. She is last sovereign to rule
over the whole of the principality. Achaia falls into a state
of anarchy. The country is ravaged by the Seljuk and Ottoman
Turks; the strategi and despots of the Palæologus family
established by the emperor of Constantinople in the Morean
territory that was the price of William Villehardouin’s
ransom, gradually reconquer the Peloponnesus from the French
feudal lords. About 1425, Murad II sets about ruining the
Byzantine possessions in the Peloponnesus. After this the
Ottoman power in the land steadily increases. In 1458 Muhammed
II visits the Peloponnesus, and it is finally conquered by
him in 1460, except some cities still in the hands of the
Venetians. For world-historic interest, perhaps the most
important feature of the feudal states in Greece is thus
stated by Finlay: “The Franks ruled the greater part of the
Peloponnesus for two centuries, and the feudal system which
they introduced was maintained in full vigour for sufficient
time to admit of its effects on civilised communities living
under the simpler system of personal rights, traced out in
the Roman law, being fully developed. The result was that the
Franks were demoralised, the Greeks impoverished, and Greece
ruined.”

THE VENETIAN ACQUISITIONS (1207-1566 A.D.)

In the partition of the Byzantine Empire, the republic of
Venice receives about three-eighths of the whole empire of
Romania; but her resources not being adequate to conquer
this amount of territory, she makes no effort to take a
considerable portion of her share. We have seen how a portion
of Thessaly was exchanged with Boniface of Montferrat, and
a considerable amount of land falls into the hands of the
other adventurers. Venice pursues the policy, allowing her
barons personally to conquer certain territories, on condition
that they be held as fiefs of the republic. Thus the Dandolo
and Viaro families take Gallipoli and the island of Andros;
the Ghisi seize Tinos, Scyros, Mycone, and other islands.
Ceos falls to the Justiniani and Michicle, Lemnos to the
Navigajosa, Astypalia to the Quirini. The twelve islands of
the Archipelago forming the Byzantine theme of the Ægean Sea
are taken by Mark Sanduno. He invades Naxos about 1207. The
Sanduno and Della Carceri rule the islands, vassals of Romania
and Venice--uneventful rules in which a fierce Seljuk invasion
of Naxos in 1330 is perhaps the most important event--until
1381 when through conspiracy the Crispo family seizes the
duchy. In the treaty between Muhammed II and Venice after
the capture of Constantinople, the dukes of the Archipelago
act as subjects of Venice. When the republic and the Ottoman
Empire engage in hostilities, the duke of the Archipelago is
compelled to become a vassal of the Sublime Porte, 1537. In
1566, on complaint of the Greek residents, the sultan Selim II
seizes the duchy and adds it to his empire, and the last fief
of the Romanian Empire is extinguished.