Chapter LXVI: Appendix: A. the Inquisition (1)

[b] PHILIPPUS VAN LIMBORCH, _Historia Inquisitionis_.

[c] GOSSELIN, _The Power of the Pope during the Middle Ages_.

[d] J. C. L. GIESELER, _Compendium of Ecclesiastical History_.

[e] J. L. VON MOSHEIM, _Institutes of Ecclesiastical History_.

[f] VON EIN, Editor of Mosheim.

[g] H. MILMAN, _History of Latin Christianity_.

[h] AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS, _History of Rome_.

[i] LUDORICUS A PARAMO, _De Origine et Progressie officii sanctæ Inquisitionis_.

[j] JOHN FOXE, _Actes and Monuments_.

[k] J. A. LLORENTE, _The History of the Inquisition_.

[l] SPRENGER, _Mallens Maleficarum_.

[m] W. H. PRESCOTT, _Ferdinand and Isabella_.

[n] HENRY C. LEA, _A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages_.

[o] REGINALDUS GONSALVIUS MONTANUS, _Sanctæ Inquisitionis Hispanicæ artes alujot detectæ_.

[p] NICHOLAUS EYMERICHUS, _Directorium Inquisitorum_.

[q] MICHAEL GEDDES, _Tracts against Popery_, 1714.

[r] ARISTOTLE, _Rhetoric_.

[s] BACON, _Novum Organum_.

[t] B. V. MACKENNA, _Francisco Moyen, or the Inquisition in South America_.

[u] JOANNES A ROYAS, _De hæreticis corumquli impia intentione et credulitate_.

[v] JULIUS CLARUS, _Practica Crimina Finalis, 1637_.

[w] WM. LITHGOW, _Travels_, 1632.

[x] PABLO GARCIA, _Orden de Processar en el Santo Oficio_, 1628.

[y] W. H. RULE, _History of the Inquisition_.

[z] CHR. G. NEUDECKE, article on “Inquisition” in Philip Schaff’s _Religious Encyclopædia_ based on Herzog’s _Real-Encyclopædia_.

[aa] MONTESQUIEU, _Esprit des Lois_.

[bb] L. MARINEO, _Cosas memorables_.

[cc] ANDRÉS BERNÁLDEZ, _Reyes Católicos_.

[dd] VOLTAIRE, _Essai sur les mœurs_.

[ee] PUIGBLANCH, _The Inquisition Unmasked_.

[ff] _Pragmaticas del Reyno._

[gg] GARIBAY, _Compendii_.

[hh] PULGAR, _Reyes Católicos_.

[ii] J. G. RODRIGO, _Historia verdadera de la Inquisicion_.

[jj] J. M. ORTI Y LARA, _La Inquisition_.

[ll] DEAN KITCHIN’S article on the Inquisition in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_.

[mm] LEOPOLD VON RANKE, _History of the Popes_.

[nn] F. GUIGOT, _Histoire de la Civilisation en Europe_.

[oo] CARL JOSEPH HEFELE, _Der Cardinal Ximenes und die kirchlichen Zustände Spaniens_.

[pp] P. B. GAMS, _Kirchengeschichte Spaniens_.

[qq] JAIME L. BALMES, _Protestantismus und Katholicismus_.

[rr] OSKAR PESCHEL, _Das Zeitalter der Entdeckung_.

[ss] HEINRICH BRÜCK in Wetzer und Welte’s _Kirchenlexikon_, begun by JOSEPH, CARDINAL HERGENRÖTHER, continued by DR. FRANZ KAULEN.

A BRIEF RÉSUMÉ OF SPANISH HISTORY (711-1902 A.D.)

THE KINGDOM OF ASTURIAS; AFTERWARDS CALLED OF OVIEDO, AND THEN OF LEON (711-1037 A.D.)

711 Battle of the Guadalete and downfall of the Visigothic
kingdom in Spain. The Moors spread over the peninsula.

718 =Pelayo (Pelagius)= elected king by Spanish fugitives
who had taken refuge in the mountains of Asturias. The Moors
invade the district but are defeated at the cave of Covadonga
and driven back. The Christians are left in peace to found the
kingdom of Asturias.

722 Leon taken by Pelayo.

737 =Favila=, son of Pelayo, succeeds him.

739 =Alfonso I=, the Catholic, son-in-law of Pelayo, greatly
extends his territory; acquires towns in Galicia, Lusitania,
Leon, and Castile, and rules over Biscay and Navarre.

757 =Fruela I= makes Oviedo his capital. The harshness of his
rule rouses his subjects to revolt and they put him to death.

768 =Aurelio= or =Aurelius=, nephew of Alfonso I, succeeds, and
is followed by

774 =Silo=, his brother, who removes his court to Pravia.

778 Battle of Roncesvalles, in which the Spaniards ascribe the
defeat of Charlemagne to Bernardo del Carpio, nephew of Alfonso
II.

784 =Mauregato the Usurper=, to whom was ascribed the promise
to pay the Moors a tribute of one hundred damsels.

788 =Bermudo (Veremundo) I the Deacon= is persuaded to accept
the crown, but after three years resigns it.

791 =Alfonso (II) the Chaste= establishes his court at Oviedo,
and firmly establishes his kingdom. The stories of the exploits
of his nephew, Bernardo del Carpio, are probably mere fables
with a slight foundation of truth.

842 =Ramiro I.= Revolts of the counts Nepotiano and Aldrete
suppressed. The Northmen land at Corunna and ravage the
district. Ramiro defeats them and burns seventy of their ships.

844 Supposed battle of Clavigo or Clavijo, in which Ramiro was
said to have defeated the Moors with great slaughter by the aid
of Santiago, who appeared in person on a white horse.

850 =Ordoño I= fortifies his frontier cities and defeats
the Moors in several conflicts, notably at Albelda, and
successfully asserts his authority over his own nobles.
Northmen defeated in Galicia.

866 =Alfonso (III) the Great.= The beginning of his reign is
disturbed by pretenders and other rebels.

873 Navarre, which had maintained towards Asturias a fitful
allegiance constantly disturbed by Frankish intrigue, is
conferred on Count Sancho Iñigo. Mohammedans frequently
defeated by Alfonso, who advances his borders to the Guadiana.
Leon becomes the capital. Battle of Zamora and defeat of the
Mohammedans.

907 Rebellion of Alfonso’s son Garcia Nuño Fernandez, count of
Castile, and other nobles. The prince is imprisoned. Revolt
in his favour. Alfonso abdicates and divides his territories
amongst his three sons, Ordoño receiving Galicia, Fruela
Oviedo, and

910 =Garcia= the kingdom of Asturias. Alfonso successfully
invades Mohammedan territory. He dies soon after. Garcia makes
Leon his capital and assumes the title of king of Leon.

914 =Ordoño II= reunites Galicia with Leon.

917 Alhange stormed and the garrison massacred by Ordoño.
Merida purchases peace. Further victories won by Ordoño over
the Mohammedans.

918 Abd ar-Rahman III defeated at San Pedro de Gormaz.

921 Battle of Val de Junquera. Ordoño and his Navarrese allies
are defeated by Abd ar-Rahman, owing to the defection of the
counts of Castile. They are seized and put to death. Ordoño
suppresses the rebellion to avenge them and defeats the Moors
at Rioja.

923 =Fruela II=, brother of Ordoño, elected to the throne.

925 =Alfonso IV.=

930 Abdication of Alfonso. He retires to a monastery.

931 Attempting soon after to recover the throne, he is taken
and blinded by his brother, =Ramiro II=.

939 Battle of Simancas. Ramiro defeats Abd ar-Rahman III.
Fernan Gonsalez and Diego Nuñez, counts of Castile, revolt.
They are subdued and imprisoned, but then restored to office.
Fernan’s daughter Urracais married to Ramiro’s son, who
succeeds his father as

950 =Ordoño III.= His brother Sancho and Fernan Gonsalez
revolt, and are aided by the Navarrese. Ordoño triumphs over
them and quells a Galician revolt.

955 =Ordoño IV= makes himself king by gaining over the troops of

956 =Sancho (I) the Fat=, who recovers his rights with the help
of Cordovan troops.

967 =Ramiro III.=

968 The Northmen under Gundered invade and waste Galicia and
great part of Leon during two years, till they are finally
overthrown and destroyed by the count of Galicia and their
vessels are burned.

979 Almansor, regent of Cordova, collects an army against Leon
and defeats

981 Ramiro at Zamora and Simancas.

982 Indecisive battle of Monterroso between Ramiro and the
pretender Bermudo who, on the death of Ramiro, succeeds as
=Bermudo= or =Veremundo (II) the Gouty=. His reign is occupied
by continuous rebellions under Rodrigo Velasquez, Conancio,
Gonzalo Bermudez, and others, while Almansor constantly
increases his territory, taking city after city, including
Coimbra, which he destroyed, Leon, whose fortifications he
razed, Compostella, whence he carried off the gates and bells
of the shrine of St. James.

999 =Alfonso V= (under the regency of Gonsalvo).

1002 Death of Almansor after his defeat at the perhaps fabulous
battle of Calatanazar. Order restored in the kingdom of Leon.
The capital is rebuilt. Beneficial laws proclaimed. Sancho
Garces, count of Castile, rebels.

1021 Garcia succeeds Sancho as count of Castile.

1026 Murder of Garcia at his marriage with the princess of
Leon. The northern part of Castile annexed to Navarre. Alfonso
invades Portugal and is killed at the siege of Viseu.

1027 =Bermudo III.= Sancho the Great of Navarre conquers part
of Leon. Bermudo wins several fortresses from the Mohammedans.

1037 Battle of Carrion. Bermudo slain in battle with =Ferdinand
I=, king of Castile, who is recognised as king of Leon,
Galicia, and Asturias, in right of his wife, Bermudo’s sister.

RISE OF CASTILE (739-1037 A.D.)

739-757 Alfonso I of Leon erects fortresses (_castella_) in the
ancient province of Cantabria, called in the eighth century
Bardulia, and then Castile.

860 =Rodrigo=, count of Castile.

866 =Diego Rodriguez, Porcellos=, count.

882 Burgos founded.

=Gonzalo Fernandez.=

=Nuño Fernandez.=

932 =Fernan Gonsalez= revolts against Ramiro II of Leon and is
defeated and captured by him, but is restored to office. His
daughter Urraca marries Ramiro’s son Ordoño (III).

950 Revolt of Fernan against Ordoño III with whose brother
Sancho he invades Leon, but is repulsed. Ordoño repudiates
Urraca. She marries the son of Alfonso IV of Leon, afterwards
Ordoño IV. Fernan Gonsalez is credited by the older writers
with great achievements in the struggle with the Moors.

970 =Garcia Fernandez=, count. His son Sancho Garces rebels
against him. The story of the infantes De Lara, their betrayal
to the Moors, their murder and the vengeance taken by their
half-brother Mudarra, belongs to this reign.

995 The Cordovans defeat and capture Garcia. He dies of his
wounds. =Sancho Garces=, count.

1021 =Garcia=, count.

1026 Birth of Ruy, or Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, called el Cid
Campeador (the Lord Champion). Garcia betrothed to the
daughter of Alfonso V of Leon with the promise of the title
of king. Garcia murdered at the wedding. Sancho the Great of
Navarre annexes the northern part of Castile and assumes the
sovereignty of the whole in right of his wife, Muña Elvira,
Garcia’s sister; and on his death his son

1035 =Ferdinand (I) the Great= becomes king of Castile with
the district between the Pisuerga and the Cea, which had been
conquered from Leon by Sancho the Great and which Bermudo III
attempts to recover, but is slain in the

1037 Battle of Carrion. Ferdinand, as the husband of Bermudo’s
sister, succeeds to the kingdom of Leon, after a slight
resistance from the population.

KINGDOMS OF CASTILE AND LEON (1037-1156 A.D.)

1037 =Ferdinand (I) the Great=, king of Leon and Castile. He
establishes his capital at Leon; confirms and adds to the laws
of Alfonso V; subdues the rebellious barons, and engages in a
war with his brother Garcia III of Navarre, who at the

1054 battle of Atapuerca is defeated and slain.

1055 Ferdinand takes Cea and other fortresses from the
Mohammedans. Viseu and Lamego taken (1057), and

1064 Coimbra. The king of Toledo becomes a vassal of Leon.
Valencia and Andalusia invaded by Ferdinand. On his death

1065 =Sancho II= becomes king of Castile. Alfonso VI king of
Leon and Garcia king of Galicia. Ferdinand’s daughters, Urraca
and Elvira, receive Zamora and Toro.

1068 Battle of Golpejara on the Pisuerga. Alfonso defeats
Sancho, but on the arrival of the Cid is in his turn defeated
by Sancho.

1071 At the battle of Valpellage Sancho defeats Alfonso VI and
imprisons him in a monastery, whence he escapes to Toledo.
Garcia then seizes the lands of Urraca,

1072 but is attacked at Santarem by Sancho, who is at first
defeated and taken prisoner, but afterwards released by the
Cid. The Castilians in their turn defeat and capture Garcia,
who is either held prisoner or made tributary. Sancho now
besieges his sister Urraca in Zamora, but is assassinated
before the walls.

1073 =Alfonso VI= returns, is elected at Burgos, and
acknowledged by Leonnese, Castilians, and Galicians, but an
oath is exacted of his innocence of Sancho’s death. The oath is
administered by the Cid, who incurs Alfonso’s lasting enmity.
Garcia kept prisoner.

1074 Expedition of Alfonso to aid the king of Toledo in
resisting the king of Cordova. Alfonso invades Portugal, and
makes several Mohammedan governors tributary. Marriage of the
Cid and Ximena.

1077 The Council of Burgos declines to accept the Roman ritual,
but the supremacy of Rome is acknowledged by Alfonso.

1081 The Cid banished for waging independent war against the
king of Granada. He takes service with the Mohammedan ruler of
Saragossa.

1084 Toledo is taken by Alfonso from Yahya ben Ismail after a
siege of two years, and becomes the capital of the kingdom.
Alfonso in return for its surrender promised to maintain Yahya
in possession of Valencia, but failed to do so.

1086 Battle of Zallaka. Yusuf, king of the Almoravids, comes
to the aid of the Spanish Moors, and defeats the forces of
Castile, Aragon, and Barcelona. Alfonso resumes the offensive.
The Cid is said to have been active in all these wars: after
being banished by Alfonso he carried on hostilities on his own
account, and after his restoration to favour was foremost in
the great siege of Toledo, after which he again waged war on
his own account, subduing many Moorish chiefs, including the
kings of Saragossa and Valencia. The latter being deposed and
slain by a rival,

1094 the Cid laid siege to the city and took it after a long
and famous siege. He was in

1100 his turn twice besieged there, and after his death (1099)
the Moors regained possession.

1108 Yusuf’s successor Ali inflicted a severe defeat on Alfonso
in the battle of Ucles or Urcesia.

1109 =Urraca=, daughter of Alfonso VI, succeeds to Castile and
Leon. Her second husband Alfonso I of Aragon, el Batallador, is
recognised as Alfonso VII of Castile and Leon, and assumes the
title of emperor of Spain. Alfonso Raymond, Urraca’s son by
her first marriage, inherits Galicia. Domestic quarrels and war
between Urraca and her husband. A party declares for Alfonso
Raymond, and after a long period of civil war and anarchy he is
recognised on Urraca’s death as

1126 =Alfonso (VII) Raymond= (also called Alfonso VIII). Peace
arranged between him and his stepfather.

1134 On the latter’s death at Fraga the king of Castile
protects Aragon from the Moors, and occupies several Aragonese
fortresses, which he only restores to Aragon as fiefs.

1135 The rulers of Navarre, Barcelona, and Toulouse do Alfonso
homage. He assumes the title of emperor of all Spain. War with
Navarre and the count of Portugal.

1140 Tourney of Valdevez. The Castilian knights defeated by the
Portuguese. Alfonso Henriques of Portugal assumes the title of
king. Alliance between Castile and Aragon for the partition of
Navarre fails.

1143 A formal treaty between Alfonso Raymond and Alfonso
Henriques of Portugal recognises the latter as king of Portugal.

1146 Castile and Aragon come to the aid of the Almoravids
against the Almohads and

1147 aided by the fleets of Pisa and Genoa take Almeria. The
Christian frontiers are advanced to the Sierra Morena.

1156 The knightly order of San Julian del Pereyro, afterwards
called of Alcantara, founded to resist the Moors.

TEMPORARY SEPARATION OF CASTILE AND LEON (1157-1230 A.D.)

1157 =Sancho III= inherits Castile, and =Ferdinand II= Leon.

1158 =Alfonso (VIII)= (III of Castile) =the Noble= succeeds
Sancho III at the age of three. His minority is occupied by
quarrels for the regency leading to civil war between the noble
houses of Lara and Castro. Ferdinand of Leon also claims the
chief power and invades the country, while the Navarrese seize
several border fortresses.

1169 Cortes of Burgos. The cities send representatives.

1170 Anarchy finally ended by Alfonso’s assuming the government
himself when he concludes an alliance with Raymond, regent of
Aragon, and marries Eleanor, daughter of Henry II of England.

1175 Order of the knights of Santiago founded.

1188 =Alfonso IX= of Leon succeeds Ferdinand II. Disputes and
hostilities between him and the king of Castile.

1195 The two Alfonsos make an alliance against the Moors, but
are severely defeated at Alarcon, whereupon they make war on
each other.

1197 Peace between Leon and Castile consolidated by the
marriage of Berengaria, daughter of Alfonso of Castile,
to Alfonso of Leon. Pope Innocent III, who had already
dissolved the king of Leon’s marriage with Teresa of Portugal,
excommunicates the sovereign of Leon, and lays the kingdom
under an interdict. After a struggle of six years the king
and queen separate, but their children are recognised as
legitimate. War between the two Alfonsos.

1212 Innocent III, aided by Alfonso of Castile, brings about
an alliance of the Christian states in the peninsula and,
in the great battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, they unite and
inflict a crushing defeat on the Mohammedans. On this occasion
the Spanish Christians were reinforced by large numbers of
crusaders from abroad.

1214 =Henry I=, a minor, succeeds Alfonso VIII of Castile.
Berengaria is appointed regent, but Alvaro Nuñez de Lara
contrives to supplant her, and rules in tyrannical fashion
till the death of Henry in 1217, when Berengaria succeeds, but
immediately abdicates in favour of her son, the heir of Leon.

1217 =Ferdinand (III) the Saint.= His father, Alfonso of Leon,
supported by Alvaro Nuñez, invades Castile. The nobles rally
round Ferdinand; Alvaro is taken, and peace made with Alfonso.

CASTILE AND LEON FROM THEIR PERMANENT REUNION TO THE ACCESSION OF FERDINAND THE CATHOLIC (1230-1479 A.D.)

1230 Murcia is invaded by Ferdinand, who is besieging Jaen
when he hears of his father’s death. Berengaria persuades his
half-sisters to waive their pretensions, and Ferdinand reunites
the kingdoms of Castile and Leon. He continues his victorious
career against the Moors, takes Cordova, occupies Murcia and
part of Andalusia (1235), and

1248 takes Seville.

1252 =Alfonso (X) el Sabio= (the Learned). Xeres de la
Frontera, Medina Sidonia, and Cadiz pass into his hands.

1254 Eleanor, the king’s daughter, marries Prince Edward
(Edward I) of England.

1257 The king claims the duchy of Swabia, and having wasted
large sums in fruitless endeavours to secure election to the
German Empire, he replenishes his coffers by debasing the
coinage, persecuting the Jews, and other arbitrary measures.

1263 The Castilian rights over Algarve ceded to Portugal on
the marriage of the Portuguese king with Beatrice, daughter of
Alfonso el Sabio. Certain Castilian nobles make this an excuse
to revolt, and demand redress of grievances and extraordinary
privileges, which Alfonso weakly concedes.

1275 Death of the king’s eldest son, the infante Ferdinand de
la Cerda. The cortes declare Ferdinand’s brother Sancho the
next heir, to the exclusion of Ferdinand’s sons, the infantes
de la Cerda, whose cause is espoused by their uncle, the king
of France.

1281 War between Alfonso and Sancho. The nobles rally round
Sancho, who makes alliance with the kings of Aragon and
Portugal, and declares himself king. The war is only concluded
by the defeat of Sancho a few months before Alfonso’s death.
Alfonso is best known for the encouragement he gave to
learning, and the important literary productions which bear his
name--some of his own work, and others compiled by his order.
They include the code of laws called _Las Siete Partidas_
(promulgated in 1258); the astronomical work called the
_Alfonsine Tables_ (drawn up in 1253); the _Crónica General de
España_, a translation of the Holy Bible, and some poems.

1284 =Sancho the Great and the Brave= (or =Bravo=). The reign
is disturbed by the constant rebellions of the Laras and the
king’s brother Don Juan, and the infantes de la Cerda, aided by
Aragon, and supported by France.

1292 Alonzo Perez de Guzman the Good takes Tarifa from the
Moors, and maintains it against the emperor of Morocco and Don
Juan, refusing to surrender even to save his son whom Juan
murders before the walls.

1295 The accession of =Ferdinand (IV) el Emplazado= (the
Summoned) at the age of nine, gives fresh impulse to anarchy.
The Hermandad or brotherhood of citizens is formed to resist
the lawless depredations of the nobles. The queen-mother, Maria
de Molina, recognizes it, and opposes a bold resistance to
rival pretenders and domestic and foreign enemies.

1301 She obtains the papal recognition of her marriage, and of
the legitimacy of Ferdinand IV, but nevertheless the struggles
with turbulent barons continue during the remainder of the
reign.

1305 Treaty of Campillo puts an end to the struggle for the
succession. Ferdinand begins to reign in his own name.

1310 Trial of the Templars at Salamanca. Their solemn acquittal
does not prevent the suppression of their order in Castile as
elsewhere.

1312 Mysterious death of Ferdinand, as was said, by the
judgment of God. =Alfonso XI=, an infant, succeeds. Return of
anarchy in the struggle for the regency.

1315 The regency divided between the infantes Pedro and Juan,
the king’s uncles.

1319 Both regents slain in battle with the Moors.

1320 Don Juan Manuel assumes the regency. Civil wars with rival
claimants.

1324 The king assumes the government, but fails to restore
order. He murders his cousin, Juan el Tuerto, and by
repudiating his own wife, daughter of Don Juan Manuel, provokes
the latter to rebellion.

1328 Right of the cortes to a voice in important affairs of
state recognised by the king. He undertakes for himself and
successors to impose no tax without the consent of the cortes.

1339 Abul Hakam, emir of Fez, arrives in Spain with a large
army. Alfonso aided by troops from Aragon and Portugal defeats
him in the great

1340 Battle of Salado. Abul Hakam flees to Africa.

1344 Algeciras taken by Alfonso after a long siege.

1350 Death of Alfonso by the Black Death at the siege of
Gibraltar. It was to pay for this war that the _alcavala_,
a tax of one-twentieth on all sales of real property, was
first granted. Alfonso XI patronised letters, and ordered the
continuation of the _Crónica_ of Alfonso X which was intrusted
to a royal chronicler. The code of Alfonso X was also brought
into use in this reign. =Pedro the Cruel.= Leonora de Guzman,
the late king’s mistress, imprisoned and her sons driven into
exile.

1351 Murder of Leonora de Guzman and of Garcilasso de la Vega,
adelantado of Castile.

1352 Henry of Trastamara and Don Tello, Leonora’s sons, revolt
and form a league against

1353 Pedro. The king marries Blanche de Bourbon, a French
princess, but immediately forsakes her for Maria de Padilla,
retaining Blanche a prisoner.

1354 Ferdinand Perez de Castro revolts in revenge for the
king’s false marriage with his sister Juana. The citizens of
Toledo take arms for Blanche. Meeting at Toro between Pedro and
his barons. Pedro consents to reinstate Blanche.

1355 Pedro takes Toledo, imprisons Blanche at Siguenza,
executes several rebels, and massacres the Jewish merchants.
The kingdom laid under an interdict.

1356 Toro taken by Pedro from his mother. He massacres her
partisans before her eyes. Pedro engages in a war with
Portugal, in which many Castilian nobles join the foreigner.

1358 Don Fadrique, grand-master of Santiago and son of Leonora
de Guzman, slain by Pedro’s own hand and his partisans
murdered. Murder of Don Juan, infante of Aragon.

1361 Portuguese refugees delivered up to Pedro I of Portugal in
exchange for Castilians who had fled to Portugal, and execution
of the persons surrendered. Blanche de Bourbon poisoned.

1362 Maria de Padilla dies. Pedro declares her son his
lawful heir. Abu Saïd, king of Granada, comes to ask Pedro’s
assistance and is robbed and murdered by him.

1363 The Black Prince (of Wales) concludes an alliance with
Pedro the Cruel to meet a threatened invasion of Castile from
France. The French, under Du Guesclin, unite with the party of
Henry of Trastamara, who, supported by Aragon, claims Pedro’s
throne.

1366 Battle of Borja. Sir Hugh Calverley, commanding the
English Free Company under Du Guesclin, defeats the Castilians,
and Henry is proclaimed at Calahorra. Flight of Pedro. Henry
takes peaceful possession of Burgos and is crowned. Edward the
Black Prince receives Pedro at Bordeaux and makes a treaty
with him which includes Charles the Bad of Navarre. Edward
engages to restore Pedro in return for the surrender of certain
seaports. Charles promises the army a free passage through
Navarre. The English advance guard cut to pieces at Ariñez.

1367 Battle of Navarrete, or Najera, and complete triumph of
the English. Henry escapes to Aragon. Pedro celebrates his
restoration by a series of murders. He evades his engagements
with the Black Prince, and the latter withdraws his troops much
reduced by famine and disease.

1369 Henry returns, is welcomed by some cities and reduces
others. Pedro makes alliance with Muhammed V of Granada. The
united troops fail to retake Cordova, and Muhammed retreats.
Pedro on his way to relieve Toledo is invested in Montiel by
Henry. In an interview between the brothers, a struggle ensues
in which Henry stabs Pedro to death. =Henry II.= The king of
Portugal claims the throne of Castile, which is also threatened
by Navarre, Aragon, and Granada.

1371 A new _Ordinance concerning the Administration of Justice_
regulates criminal procedure. John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster,
claims the throne in right of his wife, Constanza, daughter of
Pedro the Cruel.

1372 Battle off La Rochelle. Henry wins a naval victory over
the English.

1373 Lisbon besieged by Henry, and the king of Portugal forced
to make peace.

1379 =Juan I= makes alliance with France.

1380 The Castilians sail up the Thames and destroy the English
shipping. Ferdinand of Portugal offers John of Gaunt his
alliance.

1381 The earl of Cambridge arrives in Portugal with a few
followers, but after some fighting in Castile returns to
England.

1382 Beatrice, heiress of Portugal, marries Juan of Castile,
but on the death of her father Ferdinand, her uncle João I
usurps the Portuguese throne

1385 and defeats Juan of Castile in a great battle at
Aljubarrota, where the Castilians lose ten thousand men.

1386 John of Gaunt lands in Galicia, is proclaimed king at
Santiago, and with the

1387 help of the king of Portugal takes several fortresses,
but is driven to retreat by an outbreak of plague in his army.
John of Gaunt resigns his claims in return for fiefs and money
and the marriage of his daughter with Juan’s eldest son, who
receives the title of prince of Asturias, now first assigned to
the heir of Castile.

1390 =Henry (III) the Sickly= succeeds at the age of eleven.
Disputes for the regency.

1392 Persecution of the Jews.

1393 Henry assumes the government himself. He has some success
in restoring order, and ranges himself on the side of the
people against the nobles.

1401 The cortes of Tordesillas passes measures for reform of
the judicial system. Embassy to Tamerlane or Timur.

1404 Conquest of the Canaries by Jean de Bethencourt, a Norman
adventurer, with assistance from Henry, who grants him the
title of king.

1406 =Juan II=, one year old, succeeds under the guardianship
of his uncle Ferdinand the Just. Ferdinand restrains the
turbulence of the nobles.

1408 Alvaro de Luna comes to court as a page and begins to
exercise his influence over Juan.

1412 Ferdinand accepts the crown of Aragon, but maintains his
influence in Castile till his death (1416).

1420 Henry, brother of Alfonso V of Aragon and Juan II of
Navarre, desiring to marry Juan’s sister Catalina, seizes the
king and keeps him prisoner till he consents to the marriage.

1425 Alvaro de Luna, the king’s favourite, made constable of
Castile.

1427 The nobles, jealous of his unbounded influence, league
against him. He is exiled, but soon recalled.

1429 New league against Alvaro. The kings of Navarre and Aragon
invade Castile.

1431 Battle of Higueruela and the defeat of the Moors by De
Luna. His vigorous rule brings prosperity to Castile.

1439 New league against De Luna, and civil war in which the
kings of Aragon and Navarre join,

1445 but are defeated by Juan in the battle of Olmedo.

1453 The king, prompted by his second wife Isabella of
Portugal, resolves on De Luna’s death. He is seized, tried, and
executed.

1454 =Henry (IV) the Impotent.= His extravagance and neglect
provoke the barons to unite against him and, after several
unsuccessful attempts, compel him to set aside the infanta
Juana, called La Beltraneja, and recognise his brother Alfonso
as his heir.

1465 Not content with this, at a solemn ceremony on the plain
of Avila, they declare Henry deposed and set up Alfonso as king.

1468 A destructive civil war continues till Alfonso’s death
(1468), when his sister Isabella (the Catholic) refuses to take
his place, and contents herself with recognition as Henry’s
heiress.

1469 Isabella refuses to marry the heir of Portugal, and
marries Ferdinand prince of Aragon. Henry’s endeavours to
secure Juana’s succession produce further bloodshed. He
bequeaths Castile to her in his will.

1474 Henry IV dies, and =Isabella (I) the Catholic= has herself
proclaimed queen of Castile. Ferdinand endeavours to assert his
own claims as representative of the male line, but is induced
to accept a carefully defined share in the government. The
cause of Juana la Beltraneja is espoused by many Castilian
nobles and by her uncle Alfonso V of Portugal, who proposes to
marry her and invades Castile.

1476 Battle of Toro and complete victory of Ferdinand and
Isabella. The rebels submit.

1479 Treaty with Portugal. Alfonso renounces Juana and she
retires to a convent. Death of Juan II of Aragon. Ferdinand
succeeds him as Ferdinand II.

THE KINGDOM OF NAVARRE (711-1515 A.D.)

=Garcia Ximenes=, first legendary king. Elected after the
battle of Guadalete (711) to defend the country against the
Moors, from whom he recovers considerable territory. From him
the Navarrese writers derive a series of kings who reigned
during the eighth and ninth centuries, but they seem, like
Garcia Ximenes himself, to be purely fictitious personages.
During this period the district seems to have been subjected
either to Asturias or the Frankish empire, probably the latter.

778 Charlemagne invades Navarre and seizes Pamplona. On his
return to France, after failing before Saragossa, his rearguard
under Roland is attacked by troops from Spanish Gascony,
including Navarre and other Spanish states, both Christian and
Moor, and totally destroyed in the pass of Roncesvalles.

806 Pepin, son of Charlemagne, receives the submission of the
Navarrese and organises the government of the country.

836 =Sancho Iñigo=, count (called by some, king) of Navarre.

885 =Garcia I.=

891 Moorish invasion. Garcia I is slain. =Fortuño Garces= rules
during the minority of Garcia’s son, Sancho Garces Abarca.

905 =Sancho (I) Garces Abarca.=

907 Pamplona besieged by the Moors during Sancho’s absence in
Gascony. Sancho relieves it after a rapid winter march across
the Pyrenees and wins a great victory. Many victories won by
Sancho over the Moors and the kingdom extended southwards.

920 Sancho retires to a monastery.

921 Abd ar-Rahman III invades Navarre and routs the combined
forces of Navarre and Leon at the Val-de-Junquera. The
Navarrese under Sancho defeat Abd ar-Rahman’s forces on their
return from a raid into Gascony.

925 =Garcia (II), El Tembloso= (the Trembler).

951 The king of Navarre in alliance with Fernan Gonsalez, count
of Castile, unsuccessfully supports Sancho, prince of Leon,
against the latter’s brother, Ordoño III of Leon.

956 Castile invaded by Garcia, and Fernan taken prisoner.

970 =Sancho (II), El Mayor= (The Great). This king was the most
powerful sovereign of Christian Spain at this period. Besides
being master of Navarre, Sobrarbe, and

1026 Aragon he conquered Castile after the murder of his
brother-in-law, the Count Garcia

1034 and won the eastern portion of Leon as far as the river
Cea from Bermudo III. His second son Ferdinand married
Bermudo’s sister and heiress, and eventually became sovereign
of Leon and Castile (1037). The lordship of Ribagorza was also
among Sancho’s acquisitions.

1035 =Garcia III= inherits Navarre and a small district on the
south bank of the Ebro, while the rest of the dominions of
Sancho the Great are divided among the latter’s other sons.
Ramiro, to whom Aragon had fallen, invades Navarre as Garcia is
on a pilgrimage to Rome, but is driven back. Garcia then aids
Ferdinand, who has succeeded

1037 to Castile, to triumph over Bermudo III of Leon. But when
the latter’s defeat and death give Ferdinand the kingdom of
Leon, Garcia turns against his brother and allies himself with
the emirs of Saragossa and Tudela.

1054 Battle of Atapuerca. Garcia and his allies defeated
and Garcia slain by Ferdinand, who annexes the Navarrese
possessions south of the Ebro. =Sancho III.=

1076 Murder of Sancho by his brother Raymond and his sister
Ermesinda. The murderers expelled from the kingdom. The kings
of Aragon and Leon dispute for the crown of Navarre. The king
of Leon annexes Rioja. The king of Aragon becomes king of
Navarre under the name of =Sancho (IV) Ramirez=.

1094 =Pedro= (Pedro I of Aragon).

1104 =Alfonso= (Alfonso I of Aragon). On his death without
issue the Navarrese refuse to recognise his will bequeathing
his kingdom to the knightly orders of St. John and the Temple,
and elect

1134 =Garcia (IV) Ramirez=, a member of the old royal house of
Navarre, while the Aragonese prefer Alfonso’s brother, Ramiro
(I) the Monk. Alfonso (VII) Raymond of Castile and Leon, who
assumes the title of emperor of all Spain, receives the homage
of Garcia and Ramiro. Garcia becomes a feudatory of Ramiro.
Alliance between Garcia and Alfonso, count of Portugal, against
Alfonso Raymond. Alfonso Raymond invades Navarre. Garcia
acknowledges his supremacy.

1140 Alfonso Raymond makes alliance with Aragon for the
partition of Navarre and again invades it, while Garcia invades
Aragon. After both have won successes, Alfonso and Garcia make
peace.

1150 =Sancho (V) the Wise.= This king’s reign is occupied with
obscure and frequent hostilities with the neighbouring states
of Aragon, Barcelona, and Castile.

1176 The kings of Castile and Navarre refer their differences
to Henry II of England. His

1179 decision is not acted upon, but a later peace between them
embraces the same terms.

1191 Berengaria, daughter of Sancho V, marries Richard I of
England.

1194 =Sancho (VI) the Infirm.= He makes alliance with Castile
and Leon against the Moors.

1195 Battle of Alarcon. Alfonso VIII of Castile defeated by
Yakub Al-mansur. Quarrels amongst the allies. Sancho concludes
an alliance with the Almohads. Alfonso of Leon takes Guipuzcoa,
Alava, and Biscay. Alliance of Navarre, Leon, Aragon, Castile,
and Portugal against the Moors, which leads to the defeat of a
Moorish army under Muhammed an-Nasir in the

1212 Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa.

1234 =Thibaut I= (Theobald or Teobaldo), count of Champagne,
elected king.

1239 Seventh Crusade led by Thibaut to Syria. On the defeat of
a portion of the army he and the other French princes desert
their comrades and return to Spain.

1253 =Thibaut II.=

1270 Eighth Crusade. Thibaut accompanies St. Louis to the Holy
Land and dies on his way home. =Henry Crassus.=

1274 =Joan= or =Jeanne I= succeeds at the age of four. The
country reduced to anarchy by disputes between native factions
and foreign princes respecting the disposal of her hand.

1284 Joan marries Philip IV of France.

1305 =Louis Hutin= (Louis X of France) succeeds Joan.

1316 =Philip I= (V of France) succeeds, to the prejudice of the
daughter of Louis Hutin.

1322 =Charles I= (IV of France), brother of Philip I. The
Navarrese protest against this reassertion of the Salic law and
on Charles’ death the crown passes to Louis Hutin’s daughter,

1328 =Joan II=, with her husband, =Philip II= (count of
Évreux), who at their coronation sign a convention securing the
independence of Navarre. Massacre of the Jews.

1334 War with Castile.

1343 Philip joins Alfonso XI of Castile in besieging Algeciras
and dies during the siege.

1349 =Charles (II) the Bad.= His endeavours to recover the
lordships of Brie and Champagne and his murder of the constable
of France lead to his imprisonment by the French king. He
escapes and is subsequently pardoned.

1361 Return of Charles to Navarre. He promises to aid Pedro the
Cruel of Castile against Aragon.

1366 Alliance of Charles with Edward the Black Prince of Wales
to restore Pedro the Cruel. Charles plays fast and loose with
the rival kings of Castile and seizes Salvatierra and Logroño
for himself.

1370 On the accession of Henry II Charles invades Castile.

1371 Claims of Navarre to Champagne, Brie, etc., ceded to
France in exchange for Montpellier. Charles makes peace with
Henry II.

1377 Charles accused of plotting to acquire domains in Gascony.
His French possessions declared forfeited. The Castilians
invade Navarre and besiege Pamplona. Charles makes alliance
with the English and on their approach the Castilians retreat.

1385 Charles accused of plotting to poison the French royal
family. The last remains of his French possessions are seized.

1387 =Charles (III) the Noble.=

1403 Dukedom of Nemours granted to the king of Navarre.

1425 =Blanche=, daughter of Charles the Noble, succeeds with
her husband =Juan of Aragon=. He interferes constantly in the
internal troubles of Castile, while Blanche governs peaceably
during his absence.

1432 Juan appointed regent of Aragon in the absence of Alfonso
V.

1442 =Charles of Viana= succeeds to Navarre as regent on the
death of his mother Blanche. The kingdom is distracted by
two parties, the Beaumonts, partisans of Charles, and the
Agramonts, partisans of his father Juan.

1447 Juan marries Juana Henriquez and appoints his wife
co-regent of Navarre. She quarrels with Charles.

1452 Revolt of Charles. Birth of his half-brother Ferdinand
(the Catholic). Battle of Aybar. Juan defeats and captures
Charles. Charles is released and returns to Navarre, but
finding his enemies too strong for him he withdraws to Naples.

1458 Juan succeeds to the throne of Aragon as Juan II.
Misunderstanding between father and son continues till

1460 Charles negotiates for the hand of Isabella of Castile
which was desired for his half-brother Ferdinand of Aragon.
Charles is arrested by his father when Catalonia revolts in his
favour, and Juan is obliged to

1461 recognise him as his heir. The prince dies immediately
afterwards.

1464 Blanche, Charles’ eldest sister, dies, probably poisoned
at the instigation of her father by her sister Eleanor,
countess of Foix. The country continues to be distracted by the
wars of the Beaumonts and Agramonts.

1479 =Eleanor de Foix= becomes queen on the death of Juan and
dying immediately afterwards is succeeded by her grandson,
=Francis Phœbus de Foix=.

1483 =Catherine de Foix.= Ferdinand and Isabella endeavour
to secure her hand and kingdom for their eldest son, but she
marries =Jean d’Albret=.

1512 Ferdinand the Catholic demands the cession of six
Navarrese fortresses and a free passage through Navarre to
facilitate his invasion of Guienne. Treaty of alliance between
France and Navarre signed at Blois. Ferdinand’s general, the
duke of Alva, takes Pamplona and occupies the whole of upper
Navarre. Ferdinand’s English allies refuse to co-operate with
him for the reduction of the rest of the country, and on their
withdrawal Jean d’Albret with a French army besieges Alva in
Pamplona, but for lack of provisions is compelled to retreat.

1513 Treaty between Ferdinand and Louis XII of France by which
the latter abandons Navarre. Ferdinand restores order and
conciliates the Navarrese towns by confirming their privileges.

1515 The cortes of Burgos formally incorporates Navarre into
the kingdom of Castile.

CATALONIA (470-1150 A.D.)

470 Gothalania (Catalonia) was the name bestowed on the
northeastern section of Hispania Tarraconensis in consequence
of its occupation by the Goths and Alans (470).

712 Berbers take possession of the whole Catalonian territory.
At the end of the eighth century Charlemagne’s troops, under
command of Louis le Débonnaire, invade Catalonia, and conquer
a district including Barcelona, Lerida, Tarragona, and Tortosa
which they call the Marca Hispanica or Spanish Mark. =Bera=,
a native of Gothic Gaul, becomes count of Barcelona and the
Mark, and tyrannises over the country. Counts of Rosello,
Ampurias, Besalu, Cerdagne, Pallars, and Urgel appointed.
Frequent conflicts with the Moors in which the Frankish armies
join and waste the southern districts.

814 Death of Charlemagne. Septimania becomes united with the
Spanish Mark.

826 Bera, being deposed for treasonable dealings with Al Hakim
of Cordova, is succeeded as duke of Septimania, by =Bernhard=,
son of William of Toulouse, who plays an important rôle in
Frankish history.

832 Bernhard aids Pepin, king of Aquitaine, in rebellion
against Louis le Débonnaire and is deprived of his dignities.

836 Bernhard reinstated in his duchy.

840 Charles the Bald succeeds to Catalonia on the death of
Louis le Débonnaire. Bernhard at first refuses and then offers
his allegiance; but afterwards aiming at independence is
murdered by Charles. William, Bernhard’s son, seeks refuge with
Abd ar-Rahman.

846 =Aledran= made count of Barcelona by Charles. William wages
successful war against him, but is finally murdered. Frankish
dominion restored. Narbonensian Gaul is taken from the Spanish
Mark and added to Toulouse.

852 Barcelona retaken by the Moors. They retain possession
during twelve years.

858 =Wilfrid I= (Wilfredo or Hunfrido I) count of Barcelona.
He takes possession of Toulouse, etc. Summoned to Narbonne
to justify himself, he is there slain in a petty fray and is
succeeded by

872 =Salomon=, who is murdered in revenge for Wilfrid’s death
by the latter’s son.

874 =Wilfred (II) the Hairy=, who successfully repels the
Moors, makes himself independent of France and leaves his
territory to his son

907 =Miro=, who bequeaths it to his three sons, =Seniofredo=,
=Oliva=, and =Miro=, under the regency of their uncle Suniario,
count of Urgel.

950 =Seniofredo.=

967 =Borello=, son of Suniario.

984 Almansor takes Barcelona, slaughters the inhabitants, and
burns a great part of the city. Borello recovers Barcelona and
expels the invaders.

993 =Raymond I= repels a Moorish invasion and wins a battle
against Suleiman of Cordova

1009 which places the usurper Muhammed I on the throne. The
Catalans take the lead in an unsuccessful crusade against the
Moorish pirates of the Balearic Islands.

1017 =Berengar I= organises the country and grants privileges
to Barcelona and other towns.

1035 =Raymond II= wins victories over the Moors of Saragossa
and becomes sovereign of all Catalonia. He abolishes the old
Gothic laws, substituting the

1068 _Usages of Catalonia_, and institutes the Peace of God in
an assembly of the Estates which is the earliest occasion in
European history on which deputies are summoned from the towns.
By marriage and purchase he acquires Conflans, Carcassonne,
Narbonne, Toulouse, and other French possessions. Bequeaths his
dominions to his two sons as joint rulers.

1076 =Raymond (III) the Hairy= quarrels with his brother
=Berengar=. The nobles effect a settlement whereby each is to
reign alternately for six months. Raymond is murdered, probably
at Berengar’s instigation. Berengar governs alone as guardian
for Raymond III’s son.

1082 =Raymond IV.= Bernard Atto, vicomte de Béziers, usurps
the lordship of Carcassonne. The people appeal to Raymond from
his oppressions. He becomes a vassal of Raymond. By marriage
and inheritance Raymond acquires Besalu (1111), Provence, and
Cerdagne (1117), and conquers Majorca. Provence passes on his
death to his son Berengar.

1131 =Raymond V.=

1137 On Raymond’s betrothal to Petronilla, daughter of Ramiro
the Monk, king of Aragon, he is declared heir to the throne of
Aragon and assumes the administration of that kingdom.

1150 Marriage of Raymond and Petronilla confirms union of
Catalonia and Aragon.

KINGDOM OF ARAGON FROM ITS RISE TILL ITS UNION WITH CASTILE (1035-1479 A.D.)

1035 On the death of Sancho el Mayor of Navarre his territories
are divided among his sons, and =Ramiro I= succeeds to a small
Pyrenean district called Aragon in the northwestern corner of
the modern province in the territory of the ancient Vascones.
Ramiro by his wars with the Moors extends his borders,
absorbing Sobrarbe and Ribagorza, and reducing several Moorish
governors to the condition of tributaries. He consents to adopt
the Roman ritual and to send tribute to the pope.

1067 =Sancho Ramirez.=

1076 On the murder of Sancho III of Navarre, Sancho Ramirez and
Alfonso VI of Castile invade Navarre, and Sancho becomes king
of Navarre as Sancho IV. He conquers several cities from the
Moors, commences a war with the emir of Saragossa, and dies
while besieging Huesca.

1094 =Pedro I.=

1096 Battle of Alcoraz. Pedro wins a decisive victory over the
Moors of Saragossa and their Castilian allies, and takes Huesca.

1104 =Alfonso (I), el Batallador= (the Fighter), and =the
Emperor=.

1109 Death of Alfonso VI of Castile. His daughter Urraca, the
wife of Alfonso I, el Batallador, succeeds, and her husband is
acknowledged as Alfonso VII of Leon and Castile. He quarrels
with his wife, and constant civil war is the result to Castile.

1118 Saragossa taken by el Batallador after a five years’
siege. It becomes the capital of Aragon.

1120 Battle of Daroca. El Batallador defeats an Almoravid army,
takes Tarragona and Calatayud, and invades Andalusia.

1126 Death of Urraca. Castile is definitely separated from
Aragon under Alfonso VII (Raymond) of Castile and Leon,
Urraca’s son by her first husband.

1130 Bordeaux besieged and taken by Alfonso I. He resumes his
war against the Moors.

1133 Representatives of the cities summoned to the cortes.

1134 Alfonso is defeated at Fraga and dies soon after,
bequeathing his dominions to the knights of the Temple and
St. John. His subjects refuse to recognise his will and his
brother, =Ramiro (II) the Monk=, is persuaded to leave his
monastery and accept the crown of Aragon, while the Navarrese
choose Garcia (IV) Ramirez as king.

1137 =Petronilla=, Ramiro’s infant daughter, betrothed to
=Raymond=, count of Catalonia, who is appointed regent of
Aragon. Catalonia thus becomes absorbed in Aragon, and Ramiro
retires to a cloister.

1140 Navarre invaded by Raymond in conjunction with Alfonso
VII of Castile, but without success, and on the conclusion of
peace the three sovereigns make alliance against the Moors and
capture various cities, Raymond acquiring Fraga, Lerida, and
Tortosa.

1150 Marriage of Raymond and Petronilla.

1162 Death of Raymond. Petronilla abdicates in favour of her
son =Alfonso II=, who acquires Roussillon by inheritance and
wins Teruel and other fortresses from the Moors. In this reign
cortes were held and attended by the four estates of the realm
(1163, 1164).

1196 =Pedro II.=

1203 Coronation of Pedro by the pope. Aragon is constituted a
papal fief, and Pedro promises to pay tribute to the holy see,
but

1205 the estates of Saragossa repudiate the transaction.

1208 The Albigensian crusade. Pedro refuses to declare for
either party, but turns his arms against the Moors and shares
the glory at the great Christian victory of

1212 Las Navas de Tolosa.

1213 He endeavours to mediate between the Albigensians and the
crusaders, but fails and lays siege to the latter’s city of
Muret, when he is slain in a battle with Simon de Montfort.
=James (I) the Conqueror=, known as Don Jayme of Aragon (in
Catalonian En Jacme, lo Conqueridor), succeeds at the age of
six. The usual civil wars occupy his minority, but finally he
triumphs over all rebels.

1228 Balearic Islands, the haunt of Moorish pirates, attacked
and subdued after a four years’ war.

1232 Valencia invaded.

1238 Conquest of Valencia completed. The Moors are guaranteed
security and religious liberty.

1264-1266 Murcia reconquered by James for his son-in-law,
Alfonso X of Castile.

1268 By the execution of Conradin, the last of the
Hohenstaufen, Constanza, wife of James’ son, Pedro (III), and
daughter of Manfred, king of Sicily, becomes heiress of Sicily,
now in the hands of the usurper, Charles of Anjou.

1269 Preparations for a crusade to the Holy Land headed by
James. The king is turned back by a storm, but his son,
Fernan Sanchez, proceeds to Acre. Like Alfonso X of Castile,
James left a chronicle or commentary of his reign (afterwards
continued by Raymond Muntaner), as well as a book of aphorisms
called the _Libre de Saviesa_, both written in the Catalan
language.

1276 =Pedro (III) the Great.= The Balearic Islands with
Roussillon. Montpellier, etc., are converted by the will of
James I into a separate kingdom of Majorca for his younger son,
James I of Majorca. Pedro prepares to invade Sicily.

1282 The Sicilian Vespers, in which the native population
massacre twenty-eight thousand Frenchmen. Charles of Anjou lays
siege to Messina. Pedro of Aragon comes to its relief and is
proclaimed king of Sicily. Roger de Lauria, Pedro’s admiral,
with a few ships destroys the French fleet.

1283 The Aragonese cortes protest against the king’s wars and
exact the _General Privilege_, the Magna Charta of Aragon,
confirming their liberties. The pope excommunicates

1284 Pedro. De Lauria takes Malta and destroys the fleet in the
Bay of Naples. The pope, Martin IV, proclaims a crusade against
Aragon and bestows the kingdom on the French prince, Charles of
Valois. The Aragonese are reluctant to oppose Rome.

1285 The crusaders invade the kingdom, but after taking and
sacking several cities the army breaks up. Charles of Anjou
dies, leaving his claims to his son Charles II. Pedro dies,
leaving Sicily to his younger son James and Aragon to =Alfonso
III=. Majorca subdued by Alfonso.

1287 The “Privilege of Union” granted, authorising armed
rebellion against the sovereign who shall infringe his
subjects’ liberties.

1291 As a result of negotiations conducted by Edward I of
England, Alfonso is reconciled to the pope and Sicily is
abandoned by James, who immediately after, on the death of
Alfonso, succeeds to Aragon as =James II=. He makes his brother
Frederick (Fadrique) his lieutenant in Sicily.

1295 Alliance between James and Charles of Anjou.

1296 The pope invests James with Sardinia and Corsica, occupied
at the time by the Genoese and Pisans. The deserted Sicilians
give the crown to Frederick. The king of Aragon assists Charles
in his attempts to recover Sicily, but abandons the enterprise
after several successes.

1302 Peace between Frederick and Charles by which the former
retains Sicily, the latter Naples.

1303 The Catalan Grand Company is formed by Roger di Flor from
the disbanded mercenaries (chiefly Aragonese and Catalan) of
Frederick and takes service with the Greek emperor Andronicus
II.

1319 Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia declared inseparable.

1324 Sardinia invaded by James. With the aid of the grand
justice of Arborea, Marian IV, the Pisans are expelled. The
grand justice turns his arms against the Aragonese and the war
is continued under

1327 =Alfonso IV=, when the Genoese assist the islanders and
ravage the coasts of Catalonia.

1336 =Pedro IV= refuses to recognise the claims of his
stepmother, Leonora of Castile, and her sons, Juan and
Ferdinand, to the appanages assigned them under Alfonso’s will,
and thus involves himself in civil disputes and a war with
Castile. He offends the clergy by crowning himself instead of
being crowned by the archbishop of Saragossa.

1343 Invasion of Majorca by Pedro. The islanders welcome him,
deserting James II of Majorca. Pedro conquers James’ French
possessions.

1344 Balearic Islands formally annexed to Aragon.

1347 Attempt of Pedro to secure the succession to his daughter
Constanza in preference to his brother James, in defiance of
the Salic law as established by James I. League of nobles and
cities in a union in favor of James. The Sardinians backed by
the Genoese and Pisans seize the occasion to revolt. A second
union formed in Valencia under the infante Ferdinand. At the
cortes of Saragossa Pedro is compelled to promise to hold
annual meetings of the estates, to select his advisers with
their approval, and to recognise James as his heir. Death of
James. Pedro wins over the Catalans and at the

1348 battle of Epila defeats the union. He annuls the
“Privilege of Union” of 1287, but enlarges the powers of the
justiciar. Leonora and her son Juan take refuge in Castile,
where both are subsequently murdered by Pedro the Cruel.

1349 James of Majorca attempts to recover the Balearic Islands,
but fails and dies soon after. Pedro defeats the Sardinian
rebels, and allies himself with Venice against Genoa.

1350 The era of Spain ceases to be used in Aragon.

1352 The Venetian and Catalonian fleets defeated by the
Genoese, who renew their encouragement of the Sardinians. The
Genoese fleet defeated in the Thracian Bosphorus by the fleets
of Catalonia and Venice.

1354 The Sardinian estates are convoked by Pedro at Cagliari,
but fail to pacify the belligerents.

1356 War with Castile. The king of Aragon supports Henry of
Trastamara and the other Castilian rebels.

1363 A peace concluded with Castile in accordance with which
Pedro of Aragon murders his own brother Ferdinand. War with
Castile renewed.

1368 The justice of Arborea defeats the Aragonese in Sardinia
and maintains himself till the Genoese come to his aid (1373).
After his death the struggle is continued with less vigour by
his son, and when the latter is put to death by his own people
the war is prosecuted by his sister Leonora with whom Pedro
effects an agreement in 1386.

1377 Death of Frederick king of Sicily. Pedro claims the
throne, but is eventually satisfied with the marriage of the
heiress Maria with his grandson Martin.

1387 =Juan I.= Trial of the king’s stepmother Sybilla for
witchcraft. Some of her friends executed.

1392 Aragonese troops under the king’s brother Martin sent to
Sicily to quell a revolt against Queen Maria and her husband,
Martin’s son, the younger Martin.

1395 =Martin= succeeds to Aragon. The count de Foix, husband of
the late king’s eldest daughter, invades the kingdom to assert
her rights, but finds no supporters. Martin, having pacified
Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, returns to Spain. Pope Boniface
IX,

1397 in revenge for the recognition by Aragon of the anti-pope
Benedict XIII (Pedro de Luna), confers Sardinia and Sicily on
the count de Molinets.

1401 Death of Maria of Sicily. She is succeeded by her husband,
the younger Martin, who,

1402 the following year, marries Blanche, heiress of Navarre.

1409 Martin of Sicily suppresses the rebellion in Sardinia. He
dies without issue. Blanche becomes regent of Sicily.

1410 =Interregnum=, consequent on the death of Martin of
Aragon without direct heirs. During two years the country is
distracted by the conflicts of rival claimants to the throne
till, at the instance of the justiciar Juan de Cerda, a
commission is selected from the cortes of the three provinces
of Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia which names the infante
Ferdinand, regent of Castile, and he receives the crowns of
Aragon and Sicily as

1412 =Ferdinand (I) the Just.= He subdues a rebellion of the
count of Urgel and maintains tranquillity in the kingdom till
his death in

1416 when he is succeeded by his son =Alfonso (V) the
Magnanimous=.

1417 Reduction of Corsica attempted by Alfonso without much
success.