Chapter XVIII: Book IX: The Natural History of Fishes (2)

Those fish, also, which are known by the name of sea-mice,[2443] as well as the polypi[2444] and the murænæ,[2445] are in the habit of coming ashore—besides which, there is in the rivers of India[2446] one kind that does this, and then leaps back again into the water—for they are found to pass over into standing waters and streams. Most fishes have an evident instinct, which teaches them where to spawn in safety; as in such places there are no enemies found to devour their young, while at the same time the waves are much less violent. It will be still more a matter of surprise, to find that they thus have an appreciation of cause and effect, and understand the regular recurrence of periods, when we reflect how few persons there are that know that the most favourable time for taking fish is while the sun is passing through the sign of Pisces.[2447]

CHAP. 36. (20.)—CLASSIFICATION OF FISHES, ACCORDING TO THE SHAPE OF THE BODY.

Some sea-fish are flat, such, for instance, as the rhombus,[2448] the sole,[2449] and the sea-sparrow;[2450] which last only differs from the rhombus in the lateral position of the body. The rhombus lies with the right side upwards,[2451] while in the sea-sparrow the left side is uppermost. Some sea-fish, again, are long, as the muræna and the conger.

CHAP. 37.—THE FINS OF FISH, AND THEIR MODE OF SWIMMING.

Hence it is that there is a difference,[2452] also, in the fins of fish, which have been given them to serve in place of feet, none having more than four,[2453] some two[2454] only, and others none.[2455] It is in Lake Fucinus[2456] only that there is a fish found that has eight fins[2457] for swimming. Those fishes which are long and slimy, have only two at most, such, for instance, as eels and congers: others, again, have none, such as the muræna, which is also without gills.[2458] All these fish[2459] make their way in the sea by an undulatory motion of the body, just as serpents do on land; on dry land, also, they are able to crawl along, and hence those of this nature are more long-lived than the others. Some of the flat-fish, also, have no fins, the pastinacæ,[2460] for instance—for these swim broad-wise—those, also, which are known as the “soft” fish, such as the polypi, for their feet[2461] serve them in stead of fins.

CHAP. 38. (21.)—EELS.

Eels live eight[2462] years; they are able to survive out of water as much as six days,[2463] when a north-east wind blows; but when the south wind prevails, not so many. In winter,[2464] they cannot live if they are in very shallow water, nor yet if the water is troubled. Hence it is that they are taken more especially about the rising of the Vergiliæ,[2465] when the rivers are mostly in a turbid state. These animals seek their food at night; they are the only fish the bodies of which, when dead, do not float[2466] upon the surface.

(22.) There is a lake called Benacus,[2467] in the territory of Verona, in Italy, through which the river Mincius flows.[2468] At the part of it whence this river issues, once a year, and mostly in the month of October, the lake is troubled, evidently by the constellations[2469] of autumn, and the eels are heaped together[2470] by the waves, and rolled on by them in such astonishing multitudes, that single masses of them, containing more than a thousand in number, are often taken in the chambers[2471] which are formed in the bed of the river for that purpose.

CHAP. 39. (23.)—THE MURÆNA.

The muræna brings forth every month, while all the other fishes spawn only at stated periods: the eggs of this fish increase with the greatest rapidity.[2472] It is a vulgar[2473] belief that the muræna comes on shore, and is there impregnated by intercourse with serpents. Aristotle[2474] calls the male, which impregnates the female, by the name of “zmyrus;” and says that there is a difference between them, the muræna being spotted[2475] and weakly, while the zmyrus is all of one colour and hardy, and has teeth which project beyond the mouth. In northern Gaul all the murænæ have on the right jaw seven spots,[2476] which bear a resemblance to the constellation of the Septentriones,[2477] and are of a gold colour, shining as long as the animal is alive, but disappearing as soon as it is dead. Vedius Pollio,[2478] a Roman of equestrian rank, and one of the friends of the late Emperor Augustus, found a method of exercising his cruelty by means of this animal, for he caused such slaves as had been condemned by him, to be thrown into preserves filled with murænæ; not that the land animals would not have fully sufficed for this purpose, but because he could not see a man so aptly torn to pieces all at once by any other kind of animal. It is said that these fish are driven to madness by the taste of vinegar. Their skin is exceedingly thin; while that of the eel, on the other hand, is much thicker. Verrius informs us that formerly the children of the Roman citizens, while wearing the prætexta,[2479] were flogged with eel-skins, and that, for this reason, no pecuniary penalty[2480] could by law be inflicted upon them.

CHAP. 40. (24.)—VARIOUS KINDS OF FLAT FISH.

There is another kind of flat fish, which, instead of bones, has cartilage, such, for instance, as the raia,[2481] the pastinaca,[2482] the squatina,[2483] the torpedo,[2484] and those which, under their respective Greek names, are known as the ox,[2485] the lamia,[2486] the eagle,[2487] and the frog.[2488] In this number, also, the squali[2489] ought to be included, although they are not flat fish. Aristotle was the first to call these fish by the one generic name of σελάχη,[2490] which he has given them: we, however, have no mode of distinguishing them, unless, indeed, we choose to call them the “cartilaginous” fishes. All these fish are carnivorous,[2491] and feed lying on their backs, just as dolphins do, as already[2492] noticed; while the other fishes,[2493] too, are oviparous, this one kind, with the exception of that known as the sea-frog, is viviparous, like the cetacea.[2494]

CHAP. 41. (25.)—THE ECHENEIS, AND ITS USES IN ENCHANTMENTS.

There is a very small fish[2495] that is in the habit of living among the rocks, and is known as the echeneis.[2496] It is believed that when this has attached itself to the keel of a ship its progress is impeded, and that it is from this circumstance that it takes its name.[2497] For this reason, also, it has a disgraceful repute, as being employed in love philtres,[2498] and for the purpose of retarding judgments and legal proceedings—evil properties, which are only compensated by a single merit that it possesses—it is good for staying fluxes of the womb in pregnant women, and preserves the fœtus up to birth: it is never used, however, for food.[2499] Aristotle[2500] is of opinion that this fish has feet, so strong is the resemblance, by reason of the form and position of the fins.

Mucianus speaks of a murex[2501] of larger size than the purple, with a head that is neither rough nor round; and the shell of which is single, and falls in folds on either side.[2502] He tells us, also, that some of these creatures once attached themselves to a ship freighted with children[2503] of noble birth, who were being sent by Periander for the purpose of being castrated, and that they stopped its course in full sail; and he further says, that the shell-fish which did this service are duly honoured in the temple of Venus,[2504] at Cnidos. Trebius Niger says that this fish is a foot in length, and that it can retard the course of vessels, five fingers in thickness; besides which, it has another peculiar property—when preserved in salt, and applied, it is able to draw up gold which has fallen into a well, however deep it may happen to be.[2505]

CHAP. 42. (26.)—FISHES WHICH CHANGE THEIR COLOUR.

The mæna changes[2506] its white colour, and in summer becomes swarthy. The phycis[2507] also changes its colour, and while at other times it is white, in spring it is parti-coloured. This last is the only fish that builds itself a nest; it makes it of sea-weed, and there deposits its eggs.

CHAP. 43.—FISHES WHICH FLY ABOVE THE WATER.—THE SEA-SWALLOW.—THE FISH THAT SHINES IN THE NIGHT.—THE HORNED FISH.—THE SEA-DRAGON.

The sea-swallow,[2508] being able to fly, bears a strong resemblance to the bird of that name; the sea-kite[2509] too, flies as well.

(27.) There is a fish that comes up to the surface of the sea, known, from the following circumstance, as the lantern-fish:[2510] thrusting from its mouth a tongue that shines like fire, it emits a most brilliant light on calm nights. Another fish, which, from its horns, has received its name,[2511] raises them nearly a foot and a half above the surface of the water. The sea-dragon,[2512] again, if caught and thrown on the sand, works out a hole for itself with its muzzle, with the most wonderful celerity.

CHAP. 44. (28.)—FISHES WHICH HAVE NO BLOOD.—FISHES KNOWN AS SOFT FISH.

The varieties of fish which we shall now mention are those which have no blood: they are of three kinds[2513]—first, those which are known as “soft;” next, those which have thin crusts; and, lastly, those which are enclosed in hard shells. The soft fish are the loligo,[2514] the sæpia,[2515] the polypus,[2516] and others of a similar nature. These last have the head between the feet and the belly, and have, all of them, eight feet: in the sæpia and the loligo two of these feet are very long[2517] and rough, and by means of these they lift the food to their mouth, and attach themselves to places in the sea, as though with an anchor; the others act as so many arms, by means of which they seize their prey.[2518]

CHAP. 45. (29.)—THE SÆPIA, THE LOLIGO, THE SCALLOP.

The loligo is also able to dart above the surface of the water, and the scallop does the same, just like an arrow as it were. In the sæpia,[2519] the male is parti-coloured, blacker than the female, and more courageous. If the female is struck with a fish-spear, the male comes to her aid; but the female, the instant the male is struck, takes to flight. Both of them, as soon as ever they find themselves in danger of being caught. discharge[2520] a kind of ink, which with them is in place of blood,[2521] and thus darkening the water, take to flight.

CHAP. 46.—THE POLYPUS.

There are numerous kinds of polypi. The land[2522] polypus is larger than that of the sea; they all of them use their arms[2523] as feet and hands; and in coupling they employ the tail, which is forked[2524] and sharp. The polypus has a sort of passage in the back,[2525] by which it lets in and discharges the water, and which it shifts from side to side, sometimes carrying it on the right, and sometimes on the left. It swims obliquely,[2526] with the head on one side, which is of surprising hardness while the animal is alive, being puffed out with air.[2527] In addition to this, they have cavities[2528] dispersed throughout the claws, by means of which, through suction, they can adhere to objects; which they hold, with the head upwards, so tightly, that they cannot be torn away. They cannot attach themselves, however, to the bottom of the sea, and their retentive powers are weaker in the larger ones. These are the only[2529] soft fish that come on dry land, and then only where the surface is rugged: a smooth surface they will not come near. They feed upon the flesh of shell-fish, the shells of which they can easily break in the embrace of their arms: hence it is that their retreat may be easily detected by the pieces of shell which lie before it. Although, in other respects, this is looked upon as a remarkably stupid kind of animal, so much so, that it will swim towards the hand of a man, to a certain extent in its own domestic matters it manifests considerable intelligence. It carries its prey to its home, and after eating all the flesh, throws out the debris, and then pursues such small fish as may chance to swim towards them. It also changes its colour[2530] according to the aspect of the place where it is, and more especially when it is alarmed. The notion is entirely unfounded that it gnaws[2531] its own arms; for it is from the congers that this mischance befalls it; but it is no other than true that its arms shoot forth again, like the tail in the colotus[2532] and the lizard.[2533]

CHAP. 47.—THE NAUTILUS, OR SAILING POLYPUS.

Among the most remarkable curiosities is the animal which has the name[2534] of nautilus, or, as some people call it, the pompilos. Lying with the head upwards, it rises to the surface of the water, raising itself little by little, while, by means of a certain conduit in its body, it discharges all the water, and this being got rid of like so much bilge-water as it were, it finds no difficulty in sailing along. Then, extending backwards its two front arms, it stretches out between them a membrane[2535] of marvellous thinness, which acts as a sail spread out to the wind, while with the rest of its arms it paddles along below, steering itself with its tail in the middle, which acts as a rudder. Thus does it make its way along the deep, mimicking the appearance of a light Liburnian[2536] bark; while, if anything chances to cause it alarm, in an instant it draws in the water, and sinks to the bottom.[2537]

CHAP. 48. (30.)—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF POLYPI; THEIR SHREWDNESS.

Belonging to the genus of polypi is the animal known as the ozæna,[2538] being so called from the peculiarly strong smell exhaled by the head;[2539] in consequence of which, the murænæ[2540] pursue it with the greatest eagerness. The polypi keep themselves concealed for two months in the year; they do not live beyond two[2541] years, and always die of consumption, the females even sooner,[2542] and mostly after bringing forth. I must not omit here the observations which L. Lucullus, the proconsul of Bætica, made with reference to the polypus, and which Trebius Niger, one of his suite, has published. He says that it is remarkably fond of shell-fish, and that these, the moment that they feel themselves touched by it, close their valves, and cut off the feelers of the polypus, thus making a meal at the expense of the plunderer. Shell-fish are destitute of sight, and, indeed, all other sensations but those which warn them of hunger and the approach of danger. Hence it is, that the polypus lies in ambush[2543] till the fish opens its shell, immediately upon which, it places within it a small pebble, taking care, at the same time, to keep it from touching the body of the animal, lest, by making some movement, it should chance to eject it. Having made itself thus secure, it attacks its prey, and draws out the flesh, while the other tries to contract itself, but all in vain, in consequence of the separation of the shell, thus effected by the insertion of the wedge. So great is the instinctive shrewdness in animals that are otherwise quite remarkable for their lumpish stupidity.

In addition to the above, the same author states, that there is not an animal in existence, that is more dangerous for its powers of destroying a human being[2544] when in the water. Embracing his body, it counteracts his struggles, and draws him under with its feelers and its numerous suckers, when, as often is the case, it happens to make an attack upon a shipwrecked mariner or a child. If, however, the animal is turned over, it loses all its power; for when it is thrown upon the back, the arms open of themselves.

The other particulars, which the same author has given, appear still more closely to border upon the marvellous. At Carteia,[2545] in the preserves there, a polypus was in the habit of coming from the sea to the[2546] pickling-tubs that were left open, and devouring the fish laid in salt there—for it is quite astonishing how eagerly all sea-animals follow even the very smell of salted condiments, so much so, that it is for this reason, that the fishermen take care to rub the inside of the wicker fish-kipes[2547] with them.—At last, by its repeated thefts and immoderate depredations, it drew down upon itself the wrath of the keepers of the works. Palisades were placed before them, but these the polypus managed to get over by the aid of a tree,[2548] and it was only caught at last by calling in the assistance of trained dogs, which surrounded it at night, as it was returning to its prey; upon which, the keepers, awakened by the noise, were struck with alarm at the novelty of the sight presented. First of all, the size of the polypus was enormous beyond all conception; and then it was covered all over with dried brine, and exhaled a most dreadful stench. Who could have expected to find a polypus there, or could have recognized it as such under these circumstances? They really thought that they were joining battle with some monster, for at one instant, it would drive off the dogs by its horrible fumes,[2549] and lash at them with the extremities of its feelers; while at another, it would strike them with its stronger arms, giving blows with so many clubs, as it were; and it was only with the greatest difficulty that it could be dispatched with the aid of a considerable number of three-pronged fish-spears. The head of this animal was shewn to Lucullus; it was in size as large as a cask of fifteen amphoræ, and had a beard,[2550] to use the expressions of Trebius himself, which could hardly be encircled with both arms, full of knots, like those upon a club, and thirty feet in length; the suckers or calicules,[2551] as large as an urn, resembled a basin in shape, while the teeth again were of a corresponding largeness: its remains, which were carefully preserved as a curiosity, weighed seven hundred pounds. The same author also informs us, that specimens of the sæpia and the loligo have been thrown up on the same shores of a size fully as large: in our own seas[2552] the loligo is sometimes found five cubits in length, and the sæpia, two. These animals do not live beyond two years.

CHAP. 49.—THE SAILING NAUPLIUS.

Mucianus also relates that he had seen, in the Propontis, another curious resemblance to a ship in full sail.[2553] There is a shell-fish, he says, with a keel, just like that of the vessel which we know by the name of acatium,[2554] with the poop curving inwards, and a prow with the beak[2555] attached. In this shell-fish there lies concealed also an animal known as the nauplius, which bears a strong resemblance to the sæpia, and only adopts the shell-fish as the companion of its pastimes. There are two modes, he says, which it adopts in sailing; when the sea is calm, the voyager hangs down its arms,[2556] and strikes the water with a pair of oars as it were; but if, on the other hand, the wind invites, it extends them, employing them by way of a helm, and turning the mouth of the shell to the wind. The pleasure experienced by the shell-fish is that of carrying the other, while the amusement of the nauplius consists in steering; and thus, at the same moment, is an instinctive joy felt by these two creatures, devoid as they are of all sense, unless, indeed, a natural antipathy to man—for it is a well-known fact, that to see them thus sailing along, is a bad omen, and that it is portentous of misfortune to those who witness it.

CHAP. 50.—SEA-ANIMALS, WHICH ARE ENCLOSED WITH A CRUST; THE CRAY-FISH.

The cray-fish,[2557] which belongs to that class of animals which is destitute of blood, is protected by a brittle crust. This creature keeps itself concealed for five months, and the same is the case with crabs, which disappear for the same period. At the beginning of spring, however, they both[2558] of them, after the manner of snakes, throw off old age, and renew their coverings. While other animals swim on the water, cray-fish float with a kind of action like creeping. They move onwards, if there is nothing to alarm[2559] them, in a straight line, extending on each side their horns, which are rounded at the point by a ball peculiar to them; but, on the other hand, the moment they are alarmed, they straighten these horns, and proceed with a sidelong motion. They also use[2560] these horns when fighting with each other. The cray-fish is the only animal that has the flesh in a pulpy state, and not firm and solid, unless it is cooked alive in boiling water.

(31.) The cray-fish frequents rocky places, the crab[2561] spots which present a soft surface. In winter they both choose such parts of the shore as are exposed to the heat of the sun, and in summer they withdraw to the shady recesses of deep inlets of the sea. All fish of this kind suffer from the cold of winter, but become fat during autumn and spring, and more particularly during the full moon; for the warmth of that luminary, as it shines in the night, renders[2562] the temperature of the weather more moderate.

CHAP. 51.—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF CRABS; THE PINNOTHERES, THE SEA URCHIN, COCKLES, AND SCALLOPS.

There are various kinds of crabs,[2563] known as carabi,[2564] astaci,[2565] maiæ,[2566] paguri,[2567] heracleotici,[2568] lions,[2569] and others of less note. The carabus differs[2570] from other crabs, in having a tail: in Phœnicia they are called hippoi,[2571] or horses, being of such extraordinary swiftness, that it is impossible to overtake them. Crabs are long-lived, and have eight feet, all of which are bent obliquely. In the female[2572] the first foot is double, in the male single; besides which, the animal has two claws with indented pincers. The upper part only of these fore-feet is moveable, the lower being immoveable: the right claw is the largest in them all.[2573] Sometimes they assemble together in large bodies;[2574] but as they are unable to cross the mouth of the Euxine, they turn back again and go round by land, and the road by which they travel is to be seen all beaten down with their foot-marks.

The smallest crab of any is that known as the pinnotheres,[2575] and hence it is peculiarly exposed to danger; its shrewdness, however, is evinced by its concealing itself in the shell of the oyster; and as it grows larger, it removes to those of a larger size.

Crabs, when alarmed, go backwards as swiftly as when moving forwards. They fight with one another like rams, butting at each other with their horns. They have[2576] a mode of curing themselves of the bites of serpents. It is said,[2577] that while the sun is passing through the sign of Cancer, the dead bodies of the crabs, which are lying thrown up on the shore, are transformed into serpents.

To the same class[2578] also belongs the sea-urchin,[2579] which has spines in place of feet;[2580] its mode of moving along is to roll like a ball, hence it is that these animals are often found with their prickles rubbed off. Those among them which have the longest spines of all, are known by the name of echinometræ,[2581] while at the same time their body is the very smallest. They are not all of them of the same glassy colour; in the vicinity of Torone[2582] they are white,[2583] with very short spines. The eggs[2584] of all of them are bitter, and are five in number; the mouth is situate in the middle of the body, and faces the earth.[2585] It is said[2586] that these creatures foreknow the approach of a storm at sea, and that they take up little stones with which they cover[2587] themselves, and so provide a sort of ballast against their volubility, for they are very unwilling by rolling along to wear away their prickles. As soon as seafaring persons observe this, they at once moor their ship with several anchors.

(32.) To the same genus[2588] also belong both land and water[2589] snails, which thrust the body forth from their abode, and extend or contract two horns, as it were. They are without eyes,[2590] and have, therefore, to feel their way, by means of these horns.

(33.) Sea-scallops[2591] are considered to belong to the same class, which also conceal themselves during severe frosts and great heats; the onyches,[2592] too, which shine in the dark like fire, and in the mouth even while being eaten.

CHAP. 52.—VARIOUS KINDS OF SHELL-FISH.

Let us now pass on to the murex[2593] and various kinds of shell-fish, which have a stronger shell, and in which Nature, in her sportive mood, has displayed a great variety—so many are the various hues of their tints, so numerous are their shapes, flat,[2594] concave,[2595] long,[2596] crescent-shaped,[2597] rounded into a globe, cut[2598] through into a semi-globe, arched in the back, smooth, rough, indented, streaked, the upper part spirally wreathed, the edge projecting in a sharp point, the edge wreathed outwards,[2599] or else folding inwards.[2600] And then, too, there are the various distinctions[2601] of rayed shells, long-haired[2602] shells, wavy-haired shells, channelled shells, pectinated shells, imbricated shells, reticulated shells, shells with lines oblique or rectilinear, thick-set shells, expanded shells, tortuous shells, shells the valves of which are united by one small knot, shells which are held together all along one side, shells which are open as if in the very act of applauding,[2603] and shells which wind,[2604] resembling a conch. The fish of this class, known as the shells of Venus,[2605] are able to navigate the surface of the deep, and, presenting to the wind their concave side, catch the breeze, and sail along on the surface of the sea. Scallops are also able to leap[2606] and fly above the surface of the water, and they sometimes employ their shell by way of a bark.

CHAP. 53. (34.)—WHAT NUMEROUS APPLIANCES OF LUXURY ARE FOUND IN THE SEA.

But why mention such trifles as these, when I am sensible that no greater inroads have been made upon our morals, and no more rapid advances have been made by luxury, than those effected through the medium of shell-fish? Of all the elements that exist, the sea is the one that costs the dearest to the belly; seeing that it provides so many kinds of meats, so many dishes, so many exquisite flavours derived from fish, all of which are valued in proportion to the danger undergone by those who have caught them.

(35.) But still, how insignificant is all this when we come to think of our purple, our azure,[2607] and our pearls; it was not enough, forsooth, for the spoils of the sea to be thrust down the gullet—but they must be employed as well to adorn the hands, the ears, the head, the whole body, in fact, and that of the men pretty nearly as much as the women. What has the sea to do with our clothes?[2608] What is there in common between waves and billows and a sheep’s fleece? This one element ought not to receive us, according to ordinary notions, except in a state of nakedness. Let there be ever so strong an alliance between it and the belly, on the score of gluttony, still, what can it possibly have to do with the back? It is not enough, forsooth, that we are fed upon what is acquired by perils, but we must be clothed, too, in a similar way; so true it is, that for all the wants of the body, that which is sought at the expense of human life, is sure to please us the most.

CHAP. 54.—PEARLS; HOW THEY ARE PRODUCED, AND WHERE.

The first rank then, and the very highest position among all valuables, belongs to the pearl. It is the Indian Ocean that principally sends them to us: and thus have they, amid those monsters so frightful and so huge which we have already described,[2609] to cross so many seas, and to traverse such lengthened tracts of land, scorched by the ardent rays of a burning sun: and then, too, by the Indians themselves they have to be sought in certain islands, and those but very few in number. The most productive of pearls is the island of Taprobane, and that of Stoïdis, as already mentioned[2610] in the description of the world; Perimula,[2611] also, a promontory of India. But those are most highly valued which are found in the vicinity of Arabia,[2612] in the Persian Gulf, which forms a part of the Red Sea.

The origin[2613] and production of the shell-fish is not very different from that of the shell of the oyster. When the genial season of the year[2614] exercises its influence on the animal, it is said that, yawning, as it were, it opens its shell, and so receives a kind of dew, by means of which it becomes impregnated; and that at length it gives birth, after many struggles, to the burden of its shell, in the shape of pearls, which vary according to the quality of the dew. If this has been in a perfectly pure state when it flowed into the shell, then the pearl produced is white and brilliant, but if it was turbid, then the pearl is of a clouded colour also; if the sky should happen to have been lowering when it was generated, the pearl will be of a pallid colour; from all which it is quite evident that the quality of the pearl depends much more upon a calm state of the heavens than of the sea, and hence it is that it contracts a cloudy hue, or a limpid appearance, according to the degree of serenity of the sky in the morning.

If, again, the fish is satiated in a reasonable time, then the pearl produced increases rapidly in size. If it should happen to lighten at the time, the animal shuts its shell, and the pearl is diminished in size in proportion to the fast that the animal has to endure: but if, in addition to this, it should thunder[2615] as well, then it becomes alarmed, and closing the shell in an instant, produces what is known as a physema,[2616] or pearl-bubble, filled with air, and bearing a resemblance to a pearl, but in appearance only, as it is quite empty, and devoid of body; these bubbles are formed by the abortion of the shell-fish. Those which are produced in a perfectly healthy state consist of numerous layers, so that they may be looked upon, not inappropriately, as similar in conformation to the callosities on the body of an animal; and they should therefore be cleaned by experienced hands. It is wonderful, however, that they should be influenced thus pleasurably by the state of the heavens, seeing that by the action of the sun the pearls are turned of a red colour, and lose all their whiteness, just like the human body. Hence it is that those which keep their whiteness the best are the pelagiæ, or main-sea pearls, which lie at too great a depth to be reached by the sun’s rays; and yet these even turn yellow with age, grow dull and wrinkled, and it is only in their youth that they possess that brilliancy which is so highly esteemed in them. When old, too, the coat grows thick, and they adhere to the shell,[2617] from which they can only be separated with the assistance of a file.[2618] Those pearls which have one surface flat and the other spherical, opposite to the plane side, are for that reason called tympania,[2619] or tambour-pearls. I have seen pearls still adhering to the shell; for which reason the shells were used as boxes for unguents. In addition to these facts, we may remark that the pearl is soft[2620] in the water, but that it grows hard the instant it is taken out.

CHAP. 55.—HOW PEARLS ARE FOUND.

The fish, as soon as ever it perceives the hand,[2621] shuts its shell and covers up its treasures, being well aware that it is for them that it is sought; and if it happens to catch the hand,[2622] it cuts it off with the sharp edge of the shell. And no punishment is there that could be more justly inflicted. There are other penalties added as well, seeing that the greater part of these pearls are only to be found among rocks and crags, while on the other hand, those which lie out in the main sea are generally accompanied by sea-dogs.[2623] And yet, for all this, the women will not banish these gems from their ears! Some writers say,[2624] that these animals live in communities, just like swarms of bees, each of them being governed by one remarkable for its size and its venerable old age;[2625] while at the same time it is possessed of marvellous skill in taking all due precautions against danger; the divers, they say, take especial care to find these, and when once they are taken, the others stray to and fro, and are easily caught in their nets. We learn also that as soon as they are taken they are placed under a thick layer of salt in earthen-ware vessels; as the flesh is gradually consumed, certain knots,[2626] which form the pearls, are disengaged[2627] from their bodies, and fall to the bottom of the vessel.

CHAP. 56.—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF PEARLS.

There is no doubt that pearls wear with use, and will change their colour, if neglected. All their merit consists in their whiteness, large size, roundness, polish, and weight; qualities which are not easily to be found united in the same; so much so, indeed, that no two pearls are ever found perfectly alike; and it was from this circumstance, no doubt, that our Roman luxury first gave them the name of “unio,”[2628] or the unique gem: for a similar name is not given them by the Greeks; nor, indeed, among the barbarians by whom they are found are they called anything else but “margaritæ.”[2629] Even in the very whiteness of the pearl there is a great difference to be observed. Those are of a much clearer water that are found in the Red Sea,[2630] while the Indian pearl resembles in tint the scales[2631] of the mirror-stone, but exceeds all the others in size. The colour that is most highly prized of all, is that of those which are thence called alum-coloured[2632] pearls. Long pearls also have their peculiar value; those are called “elenchi,” which are of a long tapering shape, resembling our alabaster[2633] boxes in form, and ending in a full bulb.[2634] Our ladies quite glory in having these suspended from their fingers, or two or three of them dangling from their ears. For the purpose of ministering to these luxurious tastes, there are various names and wearisome refinements which have been devised by profuseness and prodigality; for after inventing these ear-rings, they have given them the name of “crotalia,”[2635] or castanet pendants, as though quite delighted even with the rattling of the pearls as they knock against each other; and now, at the present day, the poorer classes are even affecting them, as people are in the habit of saying, that “a pearl worn by a woman in public, is as good as a lictor[2636] walking before her.” Nay, even more than this, they put them on their feet, and that, not only on the laces of their sandals, but all over the shoes;[2637] it is not enough to wear pearls, but they must tread upon them, and walk with them under foot as well.

Pearls used formerly to be found in our sea, but more frequently about the Thracian Bosporus;[2638] they were of a red colour, and small,[2639] and enclosed in a shell-fish known by the name of “myes.” In Acarnania there is a shell-fish called “pina,”[2640] which produces pearls; and from this it is quite evident that it is not one kind of fish only that produces them. Juba states also, that on the shores of Arabia there is a shell-fish which resembles a notched comb, and covered all over with hair[2641] like a sea-urchin, and that the pearl lies imbedded in its flesh, in appearance bearing a strong resemblance to a hailstone.[2642] No such shell-fish, however, as these are ever brought to Rome. Nor yet are any pearls of value found in Acarnania, being shapeless, rough, and of a marble hue; those are better which are found in the vicinity of Actium; but still they are small, which is the case also with those found on the coast of Mauritania. Alexander Polyhistor and Sudines[2643] are of opinion that as they grow old their tints gradually fade.

CHAP. 57.—REMARKABLE FACTS CONNECTED WITH PEARLS—THEIR NATURE.

It is quite clear that the interior of the pearl is solid, as no fall is able to break it. Pearls are not always found in the middle of the body of the animal, but sometimes in one place, and sometimes another. Indeed, I have seen some which lay at the edge of the shell, just as though in the very act of coming forth, and in some fishes as many as four or five. Up to the present time, very few have been found which exceeded half an ounce in weight, by more than one scruple. It is a well-ascertained fact, that in Britannia[2644] pearls are found, though small, and of a bad colour; for the deified Julius Cæsar[2645] wished it to be distinctly understood,[2646] that the breast-plate which he dedicated to Venus Genetrix, in her temple, was made of British pearls.

CHAP. 58.—INSTANCES OF THE USE OF PEARLS.

I once saw Lollia Paulina,[2647] the wife of the Emperor Caius[2648]—it was not at any public festival, or any solemn ceremonial, but only at an ordinary wedding entertainment[2649]—covered with emeralds and pearls, which shone in alternate layers upon her head, in her hair, in her wreaths, in her ears, upon her neck, in her bracelets, and on her fingers, and the value of which amounted in all to forty millions[2650] of sesterces; indeed[2651] she was prepared at once to prove the fact, by showing the receipts and acquittances. Nor were these any presents made by a prodigal potentate, but treasures which had descended to her from her grandfather, and obtained by the spoliation of the provinces. Such are the fruits of plunder and extortion! It was for this reason that M. Lollius[2652] was held so infamous all over the East for the presents which he extorted from the kings; the result of which was, that he was denied the friendship of Caius Cæsar, and took poison;[2653] and all this was done, I say, that his grand-daughter might be seen, by the glare of lamps, covered all over with jewels to the amount of forty millions of sesterces! Now let a person only picture to himself, on the one hand, what was the value of the habits worn by Curius or Fabricius in their triumphs, let him picture to himself the objects displayed to the public on their triumphal litters,[2654] and then, on the other hand, let him think upon this Lollia, this one bit[2655] of a woman, the head of an empire, taking her place at table, thus attired; would he not much rather that the conquerors had been torn from their very chariots, than that they had conquered for such a result as this?

Nor, indeed, are these the most supreme evidences of luxury. There were formerly two pearls, the largest that had been ever seen in the whole world: Cleopatra, the last of the queens of Egypt, was in possession of them both, they having come to her by descent from the kings of the East. When Antony had been sated by her, day after day, with the most exquisite banquets, this queenly courtesan, inflated with vanity and disdainful arrogance, affected to treat all this sumptuousness and all these vast preparations with the greatest contempt; upon which Antony enquired what there was that could possibly be added to such extraordinary magnificence. To this she made answer, that on a single entertainment she would expend ten millions[2656] of sesterces. Antony was extremely desirous to learn how that could be done, but looked upon it as a thing quite impossible; and a wager was the result. On the following day, upon which the matter was to be decided, in order that she might not lose the wager, she had an entertainment set before Antony, magnificent in every respect, though no better than his usual repast. Upon this, Antony joked her, and enquired what was the amount expended upon it; to which she made answer that the banquet which he then beheld was only a trifling appendage[2657] to the real banquet, and that she alone[2658] would consume at the meal to the ascertained value of that amount, she herself would swallow the ten millions of sesterces; and so ordered the second course to be served. In obedience to her instructions, the servants placed before her a single vessel, which was filled with vinegar, a liquid, the sharpness and strength of which is able[2659] to dissolve pearls. At this moment she was wearing in her ears those choicest and most rare and unique productions of Nature; and while Antony was waiting to see what she was going to do, taking one of them from out of her ear, she threw it into the vinegar, and directly it was melted, swallowed it. Lucius Plancus,[2660] who had been named umpire in the wager, placed his hand upon the other at the very instant that she was making preparations to dissolve it in a similar manner, and declared that Antony had lost—an omen which,[2661] in the result, was fully confirmed. The fame of the second pearl is equal to that which attends its fellow. After the queen, who had thus come off victorious on so important a question, had been seized, it was cut asunder, in order that this, the other half of the entertainment, might serve as pendants for the ears of Venus, in the Pantheon at Rome.

CHAP. 59.—HOW PEARLS FIRST CAME INTO USE AT ROME.

Antony and Cleopatra, however, will not bear away the palm of prodigality in this respect, and will be stripped of even this boast in the annals of luxury. For before their time, Clodius, the son of the tragic actor Æsopus,[2662] had done the same at Rome; having been left by his father heir to his ample wealth and possessions. Let not Antony then be too proud, for all his triumvirate, since he can hardly stand in comparison with an actor; one, too, who had no wager to induce him—a thing which adds to the regal munificence of the act—but was merely desirous of trying, by way of glorification to his palate, what was the taste of pearls. As he found it to be wonderfully pleasing, that he might not be the only one to know it, he had a pearl set before each of his guests for him to swallow. After the surrender of Alexandria, pearls came into common and, indeed, universal use at Rome; but they first began to be used about the time of Sylla, though but of small size and of little value, Fenestella says—in this, however, it is quite evident that he is mistaken, for Ælius Stilo tells us, that it was in the time of the Jugurthine war, that the name of “unio” was first given to pearls of remarkable size.

CHAP. 60.—THE NATURE OF THE MUREX AND THE PURPLE.

And yet pearls may be looked upon as pretty nearly a possession of everlasting duration—they descend from a man to his heir, and they are alienated from one to another just like any landed estate. But the colours that are extracted from the murex[2663] and the purple fade from hour to hour; and yet luxury, which has similarly acted as a mother to them, has set upon them prices almost equal to those of pearls.

(36.) Purples live mostly seven[2664] years. Like the murex, they keep themselves in concealment for thirty days, about the time of the rising of the Dog-star; in the spring season they unite in large bodies, and by rubbing against each other, produce a viscous spittle, from which a kind of wax is formed. The murex does the same; but the purple[2665] has that exquisite juice which is so greatly sought after for the purpose of dyeing cloth, situate in the middle of the throat. This secretion consists of a tiny drop contained in a white vein, from which the precious liquid used for dyeing is distilled, being of the tint of a rose somewhat inclining to black. The rest of the body is entirely destitute of this juice. It is a great point to take the fish alive; for when it dies, it spits out this juice. From the larger ones it is extracted after taking off the shell; but the small fish are crushed alive, together with the shells, upon which they eject this secretion.

In Asia the best purple is that of Tyre, in Africa that of Meninx[2666] and the parts of Gætulia that border on the Ocean, and in Europe that of Laconia. It is for this colour that the fasces and the axes[2667] of Rome make way in the crowd; it is this that asserts the majesty of childhood;[2668] it is this that distinguishes the senator[2669] from the man of equestrian rank; by persons arrayed in this colour are prayers[2670] addressed to propitiate the gods; on every garment[2671] it sheds a lustre, and in the triumphal vestment[2672] it is to be seen mingled with gold. Let us be prepared then to excuse this frantic passion for purple, even though at the same time we are compelled to enquire, why it is that such a high value has been set upon the produce of this shell-fish, seeing that while in the dye the smell of it is offensive, and the colour itself is harsh, of a greenish hue, and strongly resembling that of the sea when in a tempestuous state?

The tongue of the purple is a finger[2673] in length, and by means of this it finds subsistence, by piercing other shell-fish,[2674] so hard is the point of it. They die in fresh water, and in places where rivers discharge themselves into the sea; otherwise, when taken, they will live as long as fifty days on their saliva. All shell-fish grow very fast, and purples more especially; they come to their full size at the end of a year.

CHAP. 61.—THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF PURPLES.

Were I at this point to pass on to other subjects, luxury, no doubt would think itself defrauded of its due, and so accuse me of negligence; I must therefore make my way into the very workshops even, so that, just as among articles of food the various kinds and qualities of corn are known, all those who place the enjoyment of life in these luxuries, may have a still better acquaintance with the objects for which they live.[2675]

There are two kinds of fish that produce the purple colour; the elements in both are the same, the combinations only are different; the smaller fish is that which is called the “buccinum,” from its resemblance to the conch by which the sound of the buccinus or trumpet is produced, and to this circumstance it owes its name: the opening in it is round, with an incision in the margin.[2676] The other fish is known as the “purpura,” or purple, and has a grooved and projecting muzzle, which being tubulated on one side in the interior, forms a passage for the tongue;[2677] besides which, the shell is studded with points up to the very apex, which are mostly seven in number, and disposed[2678] in a circle; these are not found on the buccinum, though both of them have as many spirals as they are years old. The buccinum attaches itself only to crags, and is gathered about rocky places.

(37.) Purples also have another name, that of “pelagiæ”[2679] there are numerous kinds of them, which differ only in their element and place of abode. There is the mud[2680] purple, which is nurtured upon putrid mud; and the sea-weed[2681] purple, which feeds on sea-weed; both of which are held in the very lowest esteem. A better kind is the reef-purple,[2682] which is collected on the reefs or out at sea; still, however, the colour extracted from this is too light and thin. Then, again, there is the variety known as the pebble-purple,[2683] so called from the pebbles of the sea, and wonderfully well adapted for dyeing; and, better than any of them, that known by the name of “dialutensis,”[2684] because of the various natures of the soil on which it feeds. Purples are taken with a kind of osier kipe[2685] of small size, and with large meshes; these are cast into the sea, and in them cockles are put as a bait, that close the shell in an instant, and snap at an object, just as we see mussels do. Though half dead, these animals, as soon as ever they are returned to the sea, come to life again, and open their shells with avidity; upon which the purples seek them, and commence the attack, by protruding their tongues. The cockles, on the other hand, the moment they feel themselves pricked, shut their shells, and hold fast the object that has wounded them: in this way, victims to their greediness, they are drawn up to the surface hanging by the tongue.

CHAP. 62. (38.)—HOW WOOLS ARE DYED WITH THE JUICES OF THE PURPLE.

The most favourable season for taking these fish is after the rising of the Dog-star, or else before spring; for when they have once discharged[2686] their waxy secretion, their juices have no consistency: this, however, is a fact unknown in the dyers’ workshops, although it is a point of primary importance. After it is taken, the vein is extracted, which we have[2687] previously spoken of, to which it is requisite to add salt, a sextarius[2688] about to every hundred pounds of juice. It is sufficient to leave them to steep for a period of three days, and no more, for the fresher they are, the greater virtue there is in the liquor. It is then set to boil in vessels of tin,[2689] and every hundred amphoræ[2690] ought to be boiled down to five hundred pounds of dye, by the application of a moderate heat; for which purpose the vessel is placed at the end of a long funnel, which communicates with the furnace; while thus boiling, the liquor is skimmed from time to time, and with it the flesh, which necessarily adheres to the veins. About the tenth day, generally, the whole contents of the cauldron are in a liquified state, upon which a fleece, from which the grease has been cleansed, is plunged into it by way of making trial; but until such time as the colour is found to satisfy the wishes of those preparing it, the liquor is still kept on the boil. The tint that inclines to red is looked upon as inferior to that which is of a blackish hue. The wool is left to lie in soak for five hours, and then, after carding it, it is thrown in again, until it has fully imbibed the colour. The juice of the buccinum is considered very inferior if employed by itself, as it is found to discharge its colour; but when used in conjunction with that of the pelagiæ, it blends[2691] with it very well, gives a bright lustre to its colour, which is otherwise too dark, and imparts the shining crimson hue of the kermes-berry, a tint that is particularly valued. By the admixture of their respective virtues these colours are thus heightened or rendered sombre by the aid of one another. The proper proportions for mixing are, for fifty pounds of wool, two hundred pounds of juice of the buccinum and one hundred and eleven of juice of the pelagiæ. From this combination is produced the admirable tint known as amethyst colour.[2692] To produce the Tyrian hue the wool is soaked in the juice of the pelagiæ while the mixture is in an uncooked and raw state; after which its tint is changed by being dipped in the juice of the buccinum. It is considered of the best quality when it has exactly the colour of clotted blood, and is of a blackish hue to the sight, but of a shining appearance when held up to the light; hence it is that we find Homer speaking of “purple blood.”[2693]

CHAP. 63. (39.)—WHEN PURPLE WAS FIRST USED AT ROME: WHEN THE LATICLAVE VESTMENT AND THE PRÆTEXTA WERE FIRST WORN.