Chapter XXX: Book X: The Natural History of Birds (11)

[1764] There is a small lizard, called by the modern naturalists the Lacerta scincus; but Cuvier conceives that this cannot be the animal here referred to, because it is so very much smaller than the ichneumon, that no one would have thought of comparing them; and, what seems a better reason, because it is not found in the Nile. From the account of the scincus in B. xxviii. c. 30, it is probable that the animal here referred to is a species of monitor, popularly called the land crocodile. Herodotus, B. iv. c. 192, speaks of the land crocodile as found in Libya; it is also mentioned by Pausanias, Corinthiaca, c. 20, and by Prosper Alpinus, Ægypt. B. iv. c. 5.—B. The scincus is probably the “Lacerta ouaran” of Cuvier.

[1765] Cuvier remarks, that this account cannot really apply to the dolphin, because none of the cetacea possess the spines here described. He investigates the subject with his usual sagacity, and concludes, with much probability, that the animal here referred to was a squalus, the Squalus centrina, or spinax of Linnæus; Ajasson, vol. vi. pp. 443, 444; Lemaire, vol. iii. pp. 422, 423. We have an account of the contest between the crocodile and the dolphin in Seneca, Nat. Quæst. B. iv. c. 2.—B.

[1766] We have some account of the Tentyritæ in Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. x. c. 21.—B. See B. xxviii. c. 6.

[1767] See B. vii. c. 2. The best description of the Psylli is that given by Lucan in B. ix. l. 892, _et seq._, where he describes the march of Cato’s army across the burning coasts of the Syrtes.

[1768] This, as Cuvier remarks, is the case with the crocodiles of North America, which, like other reptiles, become torpid during the cold season; Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 444; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 424.—B.

[1769] Cuvier remarks, as singular, that the descriptions given by the ancients of the hippopotamus should have been incorrect, more especially with reference to Herodotus, who had visited Egypt, and who has described some of the animals of that country with considerable accuracy; Ajasson, vol. vi. pp. 444, 445; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 425. Pliny has copied the description of Herodotus, B. ii. c. 71, almost verbatim, and the same has been done by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ii. c. 7. Even the Latin authors, such as Diodorus Siculus and Ælian, who might have seen the animal in Rome, continued to transcribe the account of Herodotus.—B.

[1770] Herodotus and Aristotle, _ubi supra_, assert, that his hide is so hard, that spears and other missiles are formed from it; the statement of Pliny is, however, much more correct.—B.

[1771] “Euripo.” See the Notes to c. 7 of this Book.

[1772] Pliny, speaking of the hippopotamus, in B. xxviii. c. 31, styles it, “the discoverer of the art of letting blood.”—B.

[1773] Cuvier remarks upon this and the following Chapter, that they are entirely fabulous. The diseases, remedies, and instructions given by the animals are equally imaginary, although Pliny has taken the whole from authors of credit, and it has been repeated by Plutarch, De Iside, and by Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. ii. c. 35, and many others. Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 446; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 426.—B.

[1774] Cuvier has given an interesting account of the ibis, the opinions entertained of it by various travellers and naturalists, and a detail of the examination which he made of two of its mummies, which were brought by Grobert to Paris, from the wells of Sakhara. These mummies were found to be similar to those previously examined by Buffon, Shaw, and others, and proved the ibis of the ancient Egyptians to have been a species of curlew. This opinion he further supports by a reference to various sculptures and mosaics, where this bird is represented, and he remarks upon the errors into which most travellers and historians have fallen as to it; the only correct account he conceives to be that of the African traveller, Bruce, who describes and figures it under the name of Abou hannès. See the extract in Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 633, _et seq._, from his _Recherches sur les Ossements Fossiles_, vol. i. p. 141, _et seq._ Herodotus gives an account of the ibis, B. i. c. 75, 76, but it is not correct.—B.

[1775] The fabulous account of the powers of this herb is referred to in B. xxv. c. 53, and supported by the highest authorities; among others, by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 6.; Cicero, De Nat. Deor. B. ii. c. 50; Virgil, Æn. B. xii. c. 412.—B.

[1776] See B. xxii. c. 45, for a similar cure. It is not known what plant is here alluded to, but it has been thought to be the cinara, or artichoke.

[1777] The Chelidonium majus of Linnæus. It probably derived its name from the swallow, χελίδων, because its flowers appear at the time that bird makes its first appearance in the spring. This supposed property is mentioned by Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. iii. c. 25. Pliny speaks of its efficacy in diseases of the eyes, B. xxv. c. 50, and c. 91.—B.

[1778] Pliny speaks of the medical virtues of cunile bubula, in B. xx. c. 61; Columella, B. vi. c. 13, says that it is a cure for scabies. It is not certain what is the plant here referred to; it is considered identical with origanum, by Hardouin, and has been supposed by some to be marjoram, or pennyroyal. The effect of the cunile on the tortoise is mentioned by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 6; by Plutarch, Nat. Quæst.; Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. vi. c. 12; and by Albertus Magnus, B viii. Tr. ii. c. 2; but there is some difference in their statements. Some speak of it as an antidote, enabling the tortoise to counteract the poison of the serpent, while others regard it as giving the tortoise increased vigour to resist the attacks.

[1779] Aristotle, _ubi supra_, and Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. iv. c. 14, refer to this supposed fact, which is without foundation, so far, at least, as the contest of the weasels with the serpents and the rue are concerned. The hostility of the weasel to the mouse is probably correct. Pliny again refers to it, B. xx. c. 51, and it forms the subject of one of Phædrus’s Fables, B. iv. c. 2.—B.

[1780] We have the same account in Plutarch.—B. Plutarch speaks, however, of the _river_ crab.

[1781] Pliny refers to this effect, B. xx. c. 95; he speaks also of its application to the eyes of the animal; it is probable, that feniculum and marathrum both refer to the same plant; the latter being the ordinary Greek, and the former the Latin, name. This effect of the feniculum is also mentioned by Ælian, B. ix. c. 16.—B.

[1782] “Si vero squamæ obtorpuere;” Hardouin supposes that this applies particularly to the eyes.—B. There can be little doubt that he is correct in that supposition.

[1783] Aristotle, _ubi supra_, and Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. vi. c. 4, state that the dragon takes the juice of the _picris_ into the stomach, when overloaded with food. The exact plant referred to, under that name, cannot be ascertained for certain; but it appears probable, that it is a wild lettuce or endive, or some plant belonging to that family.—B.

[1784] This effect of aconite, and the antidote for it, are mentioned in B. xxvii. c. 2; they are also mentioned by Aristotle, _ubi supra_; and by Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. iv. c. 49, and alluded to by Cicero, De. Nat. Deor. B. ii. c. 50. It appears from a statement of Tavernier, as referred to by Hardouin, that the same antidote against poisoned weapons is still employed in the island of Java.—B.

[1785] From the Greek παρδαλιαγχὴς, “pard-strangle.”

[1786] This is again referred to, B. xxix. c. 39.—B.

[1787] “Quod persequi immensum est æque scilicet quam reliquam cum singulis hominum societatem.” The meaning of this passage is obscure, and extremely doubtful.

[1788] This is alluded to by Cicero in his letters to Atticus, and is mentioned by Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. vi. c. 41; B. xi. c. 19; and Var. Hist. B. i. c. 11.—B. The same is still said of rats, whence our expression “to rat,” _i. e._ to desert a falling cause.

[1789] The priests of this college, or augurs, were among the most important public functionaries in the Roman state, both from the rank of the individuals and the political power which they derived from their office.—B. The augurs, or diviners by birds, held the highest rank in the state; but the power of their college greatly declined in the later period of the Roman history. It was finally abolished by the Emperor Theodosius.

[1790] Other instances are mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, B. iii. Justin, B. xv. c. 2, and Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. xvii. c. 41.—B. Showers of frogs are a thing not unknown in England even. They are probably caused by whirlwinds acting upon waters which are the haunt of these animals.

[1791] The ravages of locusts have been known in all ages; their destructive effects in Egypt and Judea, have formed the subject of a very elaborate dissertation by Bochart, in his work on the “Animals of Scripture,” Part i. B. iv. c. 3 and 4.—B.

[1792] Used as a place of banishment by the Romans. See B. iv. c. 28, and c. 82, of the present Book.

[1793] See c. 82 of the present Book, and B. x. c. 85.—B.

[1794] The “dog-milkers.” See B. vi. c. 35.

[1795] “Solipugis.” There has been much discussion as to the word here employed by Pliny, and the animal which he intends to designate. The solipugus, solpugus, solipuga, or solipunga, probably different names of the same animal, is mentioned by various writers; among others, by Lucan, Phars. B. ix. l. 837; Diodorus Siculus, B. iii.; Strabo, B. xvi.; and Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. xvii. c. 40. It is again referred to in B. xxix. c. 16. The description given is, however, too indefinite to enable us to identify it with any known animal; it would almost seem to indicate something between the spider and the ant.—B. We still hear in modern times of the venomous and destructive nature of the red ants on the coast of Guinea; and it is not improbable that it is to these that Pliny alludes.

[1796] See B. v. c. 33.

[1797] This is mentioned by Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. xv. c. 26.—B. The scolopendra is one of the multipede insects.

[1798] Aristotle, De Gener. Anim. B. iii. c. 6, and Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 32, accounts for the vulgar error, by stating that the hyæna has a peculiar structure of the parts about the anus, which might, to an unpractised eye, give the idea, that it possesses the generative organs of both sexes. Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. i. c. 25, and Oppian, Cyneget. B. iii. c. 289, have adopted this erroneous opinion. What is said respecting the hyæna, in the remaining part of this Chapter, is mostly without foundation.—B.

[1799] We have had some account given of the mantichora, in c. 30. The mantichora and the corocotta are altogether imaginary.—B. Cuvier, in Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 447; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 439, thinks that the stories of the corocotta and the catoblepas, owe their origin to mutilated accounts of the hyæna, and the animal known to us as the gnu.

[1800] According to Cuvier, what Pliny here says respecting the herds of wild asses, and the power of the old males, is correct; but it is doubtful whether there is any foundation for what is said about the castration of the newly-born animals; Ajasson, _ubi supra_; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 440.—B.

[1801] “De aquaticis et iisdem terrestribus;” although these words are inserted in the title of this Chapter, the subject is not treated of in it.—B.

[1802] Pliny here adopts the vulgar opinion respecting the origin of the substance called “castor,” and in B. xxxii. c. 13, gives a more correct description, which he had derived from a physician, named Sextius. It is a fetid, oily substance, secreted by a gland situate near the prepuce. Cuvier remarks, that when the gland becomes distended with this secretion, the animal may probably get rid of it by rubbing the part against a stone or tree, and in this way, leave the castor for the hunters, thus giving rise to the vulgar error. Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 448; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 440.—B.

[1803] The beaver has the most powerful teeth of any animal of the class Rodentia, to which it belongs; it uses them for cutting down trees, with which it constructs its habitation. Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B, viii. c. 5, refers to this.—B.

[1804] The tail is covered with a kind of scale, and is flattened; but, in its internal organization, is formed like those of other quadrupeds.—B.

[1805] See B. xxxii. c. 52.

[1806] Pliny, speaking of the different kinds of frogs, B. xxxii. c. 18, says, “There are some which live only in the hedges, and thence have the name of rubeta, or bramble frogs.” It seems impossible to identify this reptile with any of our known animals: and we may conclude that there is no foundation for the statement. Ælian gives an account of the venomous nature of this animal. Anim. Nat. B. xvii. c. 12.—B.

[1807] As Cuvier remarks, it is impossible that any animal can discharge by vomiting what Pliny terms the “coagulum,” which is the fourth stomach of a ruminant animal; the same substance which, under the name of rennet, is employed to coagulate milk. He conjectures, that the error may have originated in the observation, that occasionally in fish, when suddenly drawn out of the water, the air-bladder is protruded from the mouth, which may have been mistaken for the stomach. The circumstance is mentioned by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 23, and by Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. iii. c. 19, as well as the vomiting of the bile; respecting this latter, we may remark, that vomiting is produced in various animals, when under the influence of extreme terror.—B.

[1808] The gecko, according to Littré.

[1809] This is incorrect; the bite of this animal, wherever found, is never fatal.—B.

[1810] This refers to what will be found stated in this Chapter, that stags conceal their horns, when they fall off, that they may not be used in medicine.—B.

[1811] This is mentioned by Aristotle, Plutarch, and Ælian, but it must be considered as very doubtful.—B.

[1812] See B. xviii. c. 74.

[1813] It seems that Pliny here attributes the blackening of the mouths of the stags to their turning up the earth with their muzzles; Aristotle, however, refers it to a constitutional cause, arising from their violent sexual excitement; Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 29.—B.

[1814] Or seseli, probably hart-wort. See B. xx. c. 87, and B. xxv. c. 52.

[1815] We learn from Hardouin, that there has been much discussion respecting the plants or other substances which the female is supposed to eat after parturition. Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 6, asserts that it eats the chorion, the membrane in which the fœtus has been enveloped, and afterwards the herb seselis. To make the account of Pliny agree with that of Aristotle, some of the commentators have even supposed, that _chorion_ here means the name of a plant, and they have proposed to substitute the word _chorion_ for _aros_ in the text.—B. Aros is probably the present “Arum maculatum,” or wake-robin. See p. 307, N. [1846].

[1816] Aristotle, Plutarch, and Xenophon speak of the influence of music on these animals.—B.

[1817] Aristotle, _ubi supra_, mentions this respecting their ears; the same takes place, to a certain extent, with all animals that have large external auricles.—B.

[1818] Aristotle, _ubi supra_, Ælian, _ubi supra_, and B. iii. c. 17, and Theophrastus, in a fragment on the Envious among Animals, agree in stating that one of the horns of the stag is never found, although they differ respecting the individual horn, whether the right one or the left. Aristotle says that it is the left, while Theophrastus and Ælian agree with the statement of Pliny.—B.

[1819] Cuvier says, that no antlers are added after the eighth year.—B.

[1820] This, as well as most of the statements respecting the growth of the horns, is mentioned by Aristotle, _ubi supra_, but it is quite unfounded.—B.

[1821] This story of the white hind of Sertorius, is given in detail by Aulus Gellius, B. xv. c. 22, who tells us that it was given to him by a native of Lusitania, upon which Sertorius pretended that it had been sent from Diana, who, through it, held converse with him, and instructed him how to act. Plutarch, Frontinus, and Valerius Maximus, also relate the story.

[1822] This story, which is obviously incorrect, is mentioned by Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. ii. c. 9; and is again referred to in B. xxviii. c. 42.—B.

[1823] Graguinus, Hist. Franc. B. ix. c. 3, relates a still more wonderful anecdote of a similar nature; but, as Buffon remarks, such tales are without foundation, the life of the stag not being more than thirty or forty years. Cuvier, also, says that its life does not exceed thirty-six or forty years.—B.

[1824] The real nature of the tragelaphus of Pliny, and the hippelaphus, or horse-stag of Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ii. c. 1, which appear to be the same animal, had long remained a disputed question among naturalists, when, as Cuvier states, the point was decided by Alphonse Duvaucel, who ascertained that it was a species of stag, which inhabited the mountains of the north of Hindostan.—B.

[1825] And in Arabia as well, according to Diodorus Siculus, B. ii.

[1826] This fact is confirmed by Cuvier, who observes, that it is the more remarkable that Africa should be without stags, as it abounds in gazelles of all forms and colours. He supposes that those travellers, who affirm that they have seen stags in this country, had really met with gazelles, which they mistook for those animals; Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 451; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 453.—B.

[1827] Cuvier remarks, that Pliny’s account of the chameleon appears to be taken from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ii. c. 11, but that it is less correct. He notices Aristotle’s account of the eye, which is more accurately given than the account of Pliny; Ajasson, vol. vi. pp. 451, 452; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 454.—B. The chameleon receives its name from the Greek χαμαὶ λέων, “the lion on the ground.”

[1828] See B. xi. c. 55.

[1829] One of those popular errors which have descended from the ancients to our times; the chameleon feeds on insects, which it seizes by means of its long flexible tongue; the quantity of food which it requires appears, however, to be small in proportion to its bulk.—B.

[1830] “Circa caprificos.” Some commentators would understand this in reference to the wild fig-tree, and take it to mean that the animal is more furious when in its vicinity. The conjecture of Hardouin, however, seems more reasonable. He takes “caprificos” to mean the same as the “caprificialis dies,” mentioned in B. xi. c. 15, as being sacred to Vulcan, and falling towards the end of the dog-days.

[1831] This is another of the erroneous opinions respecting the chameleon, which has been very generally adopted. It forms the basis of Merrick’s popular poem of the Chameleon. The animal, indeed, assumes various shades or tints, but the changes depend upon internal or constitutional causes, not any external object. Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. ii. c. 14, refers to the change of colour, but does not allude to its colour having any connection with that of the object with which it comes in contact.—B.

[1832] The quantity of muscular fibre and blood in the chameleon is no doubt small in proportion to the bulk of the animal, although not much less than in other animals of the same natural order; its spleen is very minute, as Cuvier says, not larger than the seed of a lentil.—B.

[1833] Cuvier remarks, that this account is from the anonymous treatise De Mirab. Auscult. p. 1152, and from Theophrastus; and that it was probably derived, in the first instance, from the imperfect account which the ancients possessed of the reindeer, the hair of which animal becomes nearly white in the winter, and in the summer of a brown or grey colour. Bekmann, however, who has written a commentary on the above-mentioned treatise, supposes that the tarandrus is the elk. Cuvier conceives, that the animal described by Cæsar, Bell. Gall. B. vi. c. 26, as inhabiting the Hercynian Forest, which he designates as “bos cervi figurâ,” is the reindeer; and suggests that “tarandrus” may have originated in the German, _das rennthier_. Ajasson, vol. vi. pp. 453, 454; Lemaire, vol. iii. pp. 456, 457. Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. ii. c. 16, speaks of the change of colour in the tarandrus in a way which does not correspond with any animal known to exist.—B. Pliny’s stories of the tarandrus, thos, and chameleon are ridiculed by Rabelais, B. iv. c. 3.

[1834] Cuvier supposes that the lycaon of Pliny is the Indian tiger, which has a mane; but what is said of its change of colour is incorrect.—B.

[1835] Naturalists have differed respecting the identity of the animal here described, but Cuvier conceives, that Bochart has proved it to be the canis aureus chakal (jackal) of Linnæus. The description given by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ii. c. 17, and B. ix. c. 44, agrees with this supposition; it is also described by Oppian, Halieut. B. ii. c. 615.—B.

[1836] It is possible that the quills of the porcupine may be stuck into the skin of the dog so firmly, as to be detached from their natural situation; but there is no reason to believe that they can be darted out or projected by any exertion of the animal. Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. i. c. 31, and B. xii. c. 26, describes the hystrix; see also Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 30.—B.

[1837] Cuvier remarks, that this account of the bear is generally correct; he points out, however, certain errors, which will be duly noticed. Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. vi. c. 3, gives an account of the parturition of the bear.—B.

[1838] This description of their mode of coupling, though from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 30, is not correct. Buffon and other naturalists assure us that they do not differ herein from other quadrupeds.—B.

[1839] Aristotle says, that the cubs are born blind, without hair, and that their limbs are ill formed, which is correct; but the account here given is greatly exaggerated.—B.

[1840] As the birth takes place when the mother is in her winter retreat, it can have been witnessed only when in the menagerie.—B.

[1841] This is referred to in B. xxviii. c. 46; this property of the fat of the bear is also mentioned by Galen and by Dioscorides, and it still retains its place among our popular remedies; but it is difficult to conceive that it can have any virtue above other fatty substances of the same consistence.—B.

[1842] This, which appears to be a vulgar error, is mentioned by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 17; by Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. vi. c. 3; and by Oppian, Halieut. B. ii.—B.

[1843] We have a somewhat similar account in the treatise De Mirab. Auscult. p. 1155.—B.

[1844] Probably from Aristotle, _ubi supra_.—B.

[1845] This apparent anomaly has been attempted to be explained, by supposing that the bears lay up a plentiful store of provisions in their winter retreats, which they consume while they remain without exercise.—B.

[1846] Pliny enumerates, at considerable length, the varieties of aros, in B. xxiv. c. 92; it is also described in B. xix. c. 30; it is probably a species of arum.—B. See pp. 299, 300, N. [1815].

[1847] This is, of course, without foundation.—B.

[1848] This supposed noxious quality is entirely without foundation.—B.

[1849] This probably refers more particularly to the mode in which the bear descends from trees or poles, in the supine posture, not, as is the case in most other animals, with the head downwards.—B.

[1850] 18th September.

[1851] It appears, from the remarks of Cuvier, to be still doubtful whether the bear be really a native of Africa; see Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 457; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 466.—B.

[1852] It is supposed that the white mouse of Pontus, mentioned also by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 17, is the ermine, or else the marten; but, as Cuvier remarks, Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 457, Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 467, the ermine does not hibernate.—B.

[1853] Cuvier, _ubi supra_, conceives that the Alpine mouse is the marmot; but he remarks, that it is inferior in size to the badger.—B.

[1854] Cuvier, _ubi supra_, conceives the Egyptian mouse to be the jerboa, the Mus jaculus of Linnæus; but it is much smaller than the marmot. Pliny, in B. x. c. 85, says, that the Egyptian mouse walks on two feet, as does the mouse of the Alps. Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vii. c. 37, and Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. xv. c. 26, refer to the mouse of Egypt.—B. Probably the Mus cahirinus.

[1855] The faculty which these and other animals possess of foreseeing the weather and the future direction of the wind, is mentioned by Plutarch, and as existing especially in the hedgehog. It is also mentioned by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 6; but it is not confined, as Pliny states, to its change in one direction only. It has been suggested by some commentators, that, by a slight alteration in the text, the statement may be extended to a change of the wind in either direction, Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 468.—B.

[1856] The teasel, or carding thistle, is now used for this purpose; as also iron wires, crooked and sharpened at the point. Not a single quill, probably of the hedgehog, is now used in the manufacture of cloth.

[1857] Dalechamps suggests that these complaints were probably to the effect that thistles and thorns were employed instead of the quills of the hedgehog; that the skin of the hedgehog was brought to market in a bad state; and again, that the rich merchants were in the habit of buying them up, and forestalling the market. Hardouin quotes an edict of the Emperor Zeno against monopolies of hedgehogs and carding materials, if, indeed, that is the meaning of the word “pectinum.”

[1858] These statements are from the treatise De Mirab. Ausc., but, as Cuvier remarks, are fabulous, Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 470; Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 458.—B.

[1859] Λεοντοφονὸς, the “lion-killer.”

[1860] See c. 30 of this Book.

[1861] This fable is referred to by Ovid, Metam. B. xv. l. 414, and by Theophrastus in his Treatise on Stones.

[1862] See B. xxxvii. c. 11.

[1863] It is not unusual for animals to cover their excrements with earth, probably from the fact of their being annoyed by the unpleasant odour.—B.

[1864] This statement respecting the “meles,” or badger, as well as what is said of the prescience of the squirrel, is without foundation. There has been some difference of opinion respecting the identity of the animal, which Pliny calls “meles;” by some it has been supposed to be the polecat, or else the weasel.—B.

[1865] This bears reference to what is said of bears in c. 54, and of Alpine mice and hedgehogs.

[1866] This statement is contrary to the account given by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 15; he says, that while other serpents conceal themselves in holes in the earth, vipers conceal themselves under rocks.—B.

[1867] Cuvier remarks, Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 458, Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 473, that nothing is more striking, either to the vulgar or to the man of science, than the long abstinence from food which serpents are capable of enduring.—B.

[1868] Cavatica.

[1869] This is the case with the Helix Pomatia, and still more so with the Helix Neritoidea, which is very common in the neighbourhood of Nice, and which, at the approach of winter, is furnished with an operculum of great thickness.—B.

[1870] See B. iii. c. 9.

[1871] See B. iv. c. 23. The Romans valued them as a delicate food.

[1872] This account appears to be principally from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 29.—B.

[1873] According to Cuvier, Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 458, and Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 475, the species of lizard named monitor, frequently exceeds this size; but he remarks, in reference to the size of the Indian lizard, that none of the saurians, except the crocodile, attains the length here mentioned.—B.

[1874] See B. vi. c. 23.

[1875] See B. v. c. 31.

[1876] See B. v. c. 22, and B. vi. c. 3.

[1877] This anecdote is referred to by Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. vi. c. 25. He gives an account of the dog of Gelon, Anim. Nat. B. vi. c. 62, and Var. Hist. B. i. c. 13.—B.

[1878] Tzetzes, Chil. iii. of his History, calls her Ditizela, and thus alludes to this story: “The said Nicomedes had a dog of very large size, and of Molossian breed, which manifested great fidelity to him. One day seeing his mistress, the wife of Nicomedes, and the mother of Prusias, Zielus, and Lysandra, Ditizela, by name, and a Phrygian by birth, toying with the king, he took her for an enemy, and rushing on her, tore her right shoulder.” It is supposed that she died of the injuries thus received. Some editions call her Condingis, and others Cosingis.

[1879] A. Cascellius was an eminent Roman jurist, but nothing seems to be known of his preceptor, Volcatius, whose prænomen is thought to have been Mucius. Cascellius was noted for his great eloquence and his stern republican principles; and of Cæsar’s conduct and government he spoke with the greatest freedom. He never advanced in civic honours beyond the quæstorship, though he was offered the consulship by Augustus; which he declined. He is frequently quoted in the Digest. Horace, in his Art of Poetry, ll. 371, 372, pays a compliment to the legal reputation of Cascellius, who is also mentioned by Valerius Maximus and Macrobius.

[1880] From Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. vii. c. 10, it appears that his name was Cælius Calvus, but probably no further particulars are known of him.

[1881] He was a distinguished Roman eques, and a friend of Germanicus; for which reason he incurred the hatred of Sejanus. To satisfy the vengeance of Tiberius and his favourite Sejanus, one Latinus Latiaris, a supposed friend of Sabinus, induced him to speak in unguarded terms of Sejanus and Tiberius, and then betrayed his confidence. He was put to death in prison.

[1882] More commonly called the Gradus or Scalæ Gemoniæ, “the stairs of wailing;” a place down which the bodies of the criminals were thrown, when executed in prison.—B.

[1883] “Lorum,” the leather thong by which the dogs were held until the proper moment, when they were “let slip” upon their prey.

[1884] This is mentioned by Gratian, Cyneget. l. 237.—B.

[1885] This practice is mentioned by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 33, and Diodorus Siculus, B. xvii. But Cuvier informs us, that neither the tiger nor the panther are capable of generating with the dog; he supposes that the account was invented to enhance the value of the spotted or striped dogs, which were brought from India.—B.

[1886] The dog is capable of generating with the wolf; and as what is termed the shepherd’s dog much resembles the wolf, Cuvier conceives it not impossible, that it may have originated from this mixture; Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 459; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 481.—B.

[1887] This is mentioned by Ælian, in his Anim. Nat. B. vi. c. 53, and his Var. Hist. B. i. c. 4. It likewise forms the subject of one of Phædrus’s Fables.

[1888] These statements are probably, for the most part, from Aristotle, Hist. Anim, B. v. c. 14, and B. vi. c. 20.—B.

[1889] “Faunos cerni.” Hardouin remarks on these words; “Flitting before the sight, and rushing upon each other, like the Ephialtes,” and refers, for a farther explanation, to his commentary on the passage in B. xxv. c. 10, where the subject is treated more at large. The Ephialtes is generally supposed to have been what we term incubus or nightmare.—B.

[1890] All these remedies are perfectly useless.—B.

[1891] Pliny details the noxious effects, conceived to be produced by the influence of Sirius, in B. ii. c. 40, and, among others, its tendency to produce canine madness. In B. xxix. c. 32, he enumerates the various remedies proposed for the disease; these, however, are equally inefficacious with those mentioned here.—B.

[1892] We have an account of this disease in Celsus, B. v. c. 27, and especially of the peculiar symptom from which it derives its classical denomination. It is remarkable that Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 22, speaking of canine madness, says, that it is communicated by the dog to all animals, _except man_.—B. See B. vii. c. 13.

[1893] It appears that there was a difference of opinion as to the number of days during which the Dog-star continued to exercise its influence.—B.

[1894] The history of this supposed discovery is related more at large, B. xxv. c. 2 and 6. The popular name of the plant is still the “dog-rose.”—B.

[1895] Columella says, that the operation prevents the tail from acquiring “fœdum incrementum,” “a foul increase;” and, as many shepherds say, secures the animal from the disease.—B.

[1896] This is one of the marvellous tales related by Julius Obsequens, c. 103.—B.

[1897] Plutarch, in his Life of Alexander, gives some account of this celebrated horse, and Aulus Gellius, B. v. c. 2, devotes a chapter to it.—B.

[1898] Ajasson estimates the price to have been 70,200 francs, £2925 sterling.—B.

[1899] Situate on the river Hydaspes; Q. Curtius calls it Bucephalus.—B. See B. vi. c. 23, where it is called Bucephala.

[1900] This account is given by Suetonius, Life of Julius Cæsar, c. 61. Cuvier suggests that the hoofs may have been notched, and that the sculptor probably exaggerated the peculiarity, so as to produce the resemblance to a human foot.—B.

[1901] The nephew of Tiberius and the father of the Emperor Caligula.—B.

[1902] Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. xii. c. 40, states that three mares of Miltiades and Evagoras, which had been victorious in the Olympic games, were buried with sepulchral honours in the Ceramicus.—B.

[1903] Ajasson suggests, with much plausibility, that when connections of this description are mentioned, the report originated from persons who had significant names, as Lebœuf and Poulain; analogous to our names of Lamb, Bull, Hog, &c.—B.

[1904] See B. iii. c. 17.

[1905] We here find Pliny tripping, for he has previously said, in B. vii. c. 1, that man is the only animated being that sheds tears. See also c. 19 of the present Book, where he represents the lion as shedding tears.

[1906] Ælian calls him Centoarates. Antiochus I., or Soter, is here alluded to. He was killed in battle with the Galli or Galatians, B.C. 261.

[1907] Mentioned by Cicero, De Divin. B. i. c. 33.—B.

[1908] Hardouin refers to the works of Busbequius, in which we meet with nearly the same account of the sagacity of the horse, as in Pliny; Lemaire, iii. 489.

[1909] As already mentioned in the Note to c. 54 of the last Book, there were four parties or factions of the charioteers who were named from the colour of their dress.

[1910] The games of the Circus were divided into the Patrician and the Plebeian; the first being conducted by generals, consuls, and the curule ædiles, the latter by the ædiles of the people.—B.

[1911] Related somewhat more at large by Plutarch, in his Life of Publicola.—B.

[1912] Many of these particulars are from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 22.—B.

[1913] Georgics, B. iii. l. 72, et seq.—B.

[1914] See Introduction to vol. i. p. vii.

[1915] Varro, de Re Rust. B. ii. c. 7; and Columella, B. vi. c. 29, have treated on this subject at considerable length.—B.

[1916] The materials of this chapter appear to have been principally taken from Aristotle, Varro, and Columella.—B.

[1917] See B. iv. c. 12.

[1918] Varro, _ubi supra_, gives considerably different directions on this point; he says, “Intercourse is to be allowed, at the proper season of the year, twice a day, morning and evening.”

[1919] This sentence in Columella, _ubi supra_, seems to illustrate the meaning, which is somewhat obscure. “Veruntamen nec minus quam quindecim, nec plures quam viginti, unus debet implere”—“One male ought to be coupled with not more than twenty females, nor less than fifteen.”

[1920] Cuvier states, that the hippomanes is a concretion occasionally found in the liquor amnii of the mare, and which it devours, from the same kind of instinctive feeling which causes quadrupeds generally to devour the afterbirth. He remarks, however, that this can have no connection with the attachment which the mother bears to her offspring; Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 459; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 495. The hippomanes is said to have been employed by the sorceresses of antiquity, as an ingredient in their amatory potions. See Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 24, and Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. xiv. c. 18.—B. See also B. xxviii. c. 11.

[1921] Now Lisbon. See B. iv. c. 35.

[1922] The accounts given, by Phœnician navigators, of the fertility of Lusitania, and the frequency of the mild western breezes, gave rise to the fable here mentioned, which has been generally received by the ancients; and that not merely by the poets, as Virgil, Geor. B. iii. l. 274, 275, but by practical writers, as Varro, B. ii. c. 1, and Columella, B. vi. c. 27. Justin, however, B. xliv. c. 3, attributes the opinion to the great size of the horses, and their remarkable fleetness, from which they were said to be the sons of the wind.—B.

[1923] The origin and meaning of this name is not known.—B.

[1924] Martial describes the peculiar short, quick step of the “asturco,” in one of his Epigrams, B. xiv. Ep. 199.—B.

[1925] “Alterno crurum explicatu glomeratio;” it would not be possible to give a literal translation, but we may judge of the meaning by the context.—B. He clearly alludes to a movement like our canter.

[1926] “Tolutim carpere incursus;” Hardouin explains this by a reference to Plautus, Asinaria, A. iii. sc. 3, l. 116. “Tolutim ni badizas”—“If you do not amble, lifting up your feet.”

[1927] Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 24, gives an account of the diseases of horses.—B.

[1928] “Genere veterino;” so called, according to Hardouin, from “vectura,” “carriage,” as applicable to horses, asses, and mules; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 497.—B.

[1929] There is considerable difficulty in ascertaining the exact amount of sums of money mentioned by the ancients. “We read in Varro, B. ii. c. 1, and B. ii. c. 8, of enormous prices said to have been given for asses, and the particular case of Axius is mentioned, B. iii. c. 2; according to the usual estimate, the sum here mentioned amounts to upwards of £3200 sterling.—B.

[1930] See B. xvii. c. 5.

[1931] Varro, B. i. c. 20, and B. iii. c. 16, and Columella, B. vii. c. 1, enlarge upon the valuable qualities of the ass for agricultural purposes; Columella, B. vi. c. 37, treats at length upon the production of mules.—B.

[1932] See a passage in Plautus, in which the superior excellence of the asses of Arcadia is referred to; Asinaria, A. ii. sc. 2, l. 67.—B.

[1933] See B. iii. c. 17.

[1934] This property is mentioned by Herodotus, B. iv. c. 28, and by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 27, also De Gener. Anim. B. ii. c. 8, and by Strabo, B. vii. The ass is a native of Arabia, and degenerates when brought into a cold climate.—B.

[1935] These circumstances appear to have been taken from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 14, and B. vi. c. 23.—B.

[1936] “Per raritatem eorum translucentibus fluviis.”—B.

[1937] Upwards of £3200 sterling.—B.

[1938] An epigram of Martial, B. xiii. Ep. 97, appears to refer to the employment of the young ass as an article of food.—B. The famous sausages of Bologna are made, it is said, of asses’ flesh.

[1939] The onager, according to Cuvier, is the same with the ass, in the wild state; it still exists in large herds in various parts of Southern Asia, and is called by the Tartars, Kulan.—B.

[1940] Most of the circumstances here mentioned appear to have been taken from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 24 and 36; Varro, B. ii. c. 8; and Columella, B. vi. c. 37.—B.

[1941] It is expressly stated by Columella, _ubi supra_, that the mules “produced from a horse and a female ass, are in all respects most like the mother.”

[1942] This is explained by Columella, _ubi supra_, who remarks, that when a stallion is admitted to a female in the full heat of its passion, it often causes mischief; which is not the case when its ardour has been a little subdued by having been worked for some time.—B.

[1943] Varro, _ubi supra_, says: “The produce of a mare and a male ass is a mule, of a horse and a female ass a _hinnus_.”

[1944] Varro, B. ii. c. 1, alludes to this occurrence; Livy mentions two instances, B. xxvi. c. 23, and B. xxxvii. c. 3; these prodigies were said both to have occurred at Reate.—B.

[1945] Herodotus relates two cases, which were regarded as presaging some extraordinary event, B. iii. c. 153, and B. vii. c. 57. Juvenal, Sat. xiii. l. 66, and Suetonius, Life of Galba, c. 4, speak of a pregnant mule as a most extraordinary circumstance; it seems to have given rise to a proverbial expression among the Romans.—B.

[1946] Cuvier remarks, that there is, in the deserts of Asia, a peculiar animal, with undivided hoofs, the Equus hemionus of naturalists, and the Dgiggetai of the Tartars, which bears a resemblance to our mules, but is not the produce of the horse and the ass; he refers us to Professor Pallas’s account of it in Acad. Petrop. Nov. Com. vol. xix. p. 394; Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 461; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 505.—B.

[1947] Pliny repeats this advice in B. xxx. c. 53; it is, of course, entirely without foundation.—B.

[1948] The epigram of Martial previously referred to bears this title.—B. See N. [1938], p. 324.

[1949] This temple was the Parthenon. This anecdote is mentioned by Arist. Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 24; Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. vi. c. 49.—B.

[1950] In which they probably exposed their samples for sale, as our farmers do in small bags. The phrase is ἀπὸ τῶν τηλιῶν, in Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 24, from whom Pliny takes the story.

[1951] This alleged superiority is mentioned by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. iii. c. 91, by Varro, B. ii. c. 5, and by Columella, B. vi. c. 1; but it is remarked by Dalechamps and Hardouin, that the appellation of Pyrrhic given to these oxen, was more probably derived from their red colour, πυῤῥὸς, than from the name of the king. The materials of this chapter are principally from the above writers, especially Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 21, and B. viii. c. 7.—B.

[1952] This singular notion is mentioned by Varro and Columella, _ubi supra_; Cuvier says, that it is the origin of the pretended secret of producing the sexes at pleasure, which was published by Millot; Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 461.—B.

[1953] 4th January. See B. xviii. c. 64.

[1954] This is mentioned by Herodotus, B. iv. c. 183; this peculiarity in their mode of taking their food is ascribed to the extraordinary length of the horns; it is also mentioned by Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. xvi. c. 33.—B.

[1955] “Fœdi visu.” This is very similar to the expression used by Virgil, Georg. B. iii., when describing the points of an ox, l. 52,—“oui turpi caput”—“the head of which is unsightly”— probably in allusion to its large size.

[1956] According to Cuvier, there is an ox, in warm climates, which has a mass of fat on the shoulders, and whose horns are only attached to the skin; Buffon has described it under the name of Zebu; Ajasson, vol. vi. p. 461; Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 512.—B.

[1957] “Ad laborer damnantur;” with respect to the colour, Varro, B. ii. c. 5, has the following remarks: “The best colours are black, red, pale red, and white. The latter ones are the most delicate, the first the most hardy. Of the two middle ones, the first is the best, and both are more valuable than the first and last.”

[1958] We have an account of this process in Columella, B. ii. c. 6.—B.

[1959] This anecdote is related by Valerius Maximus, B. viii. c. 1. Virgil, Georg. B. ii. l. 537, speaks of the use of oxen in food, as a proof of the degeneracy of later times, and as not existing during the Golden Age; “Ante Impia quad cœsis gens est epulata juvencis.” This feeling is alluded to by Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. xii. c. 34, and by Suetonius, Life of Domitian, c. ix.—B.

[1960] It is doubtful whether this is the meaning of “alternos replicans orbes,” or what indeed is the meaning. Most editions omit “orbes,” thus making the matter still worse.

[1961] Hardouin supposes that this alludes to the exhibition of oxen hunted at the exhibition of shows and in the Circus, for the gratification of the Roman people.—B.

[1962] Referred to by Virgil, Georg. B. ii. ll. 145, 146, “et maxima taurus Victima,” “and the bull the largest victim of all.”—B.

[1963] In reference to this remark, we may mention the passage in Virgil, Æn. B. iii. c. 119, “Taurum Neptuno, taurum tibi, pulcher Apollo.” “A bull to thee, Neptune, a bull to thee, beauteous Apollo.”

[1964] Instances are mentioned by Livy, B. xxxv. c. 21, and by Val. Maximus, B. i. c. 65.—B.

[1965] We have an account of Apis in Herodotus, B. iii. c. 28; also in Pomponius Mela, B. i. c. 9; and in Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. xi. c. 10.—B.

[1966] “Quem cantharum appellant.” According to Dalechamps, “So called from the blackness of the colour, and its resemblance to a beetle.” Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 516. He refers the reader to a further account in B. xxx. c. 30.—B.

[1967] From the Greek θάλαμοι, “bed-chambers.”

[1968] Tacitus, Ann. B. ii. c. 69, gives an account of the sickness of Germanicus after his return from Egypt, but does not refer to the circumstance here mentioned.—B.

[1969] The “goblet.” See B. v. c. 10.

[1970] Seneca, Quæst. Nat. B. iv. c. 2, gives an account of this ceremony, but does not refer to the birth of Apis.—B.

[1971] The contents of this Chapter appear to be principally from Varro, B. ii. cc. 1, 2, and Columella, B. vii. cc. 2, 3, 4.—B.

[1972] This account is probably from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 14; B. vi. c. 19; and B. ix. c. 3, where we have various particulars respecting the production and mode of life of the sheep.—B.

[1973] 13th May.

[1974] 23rd July.

[1975] Varro, _ubi supra_, gives a somewhat different account: “Those lambs are called ‘cordi,’ which are born after their time, and have remained in the womb, called χορίον, from which they take that name.”—B.

[1976] The expression “senecta melior,” here employed, is limited by Columella, _ubi supra_, to the third year.—B.

[1977] Columella, B. vii. c. 8, remarks, “When deprived of his horns he knows himself to be disarmed, as it were, and is not so ready to quarrel and is less vehement in his passion.”

[1978] Columella, B. vii. c. 23, refers to this practice; he informs us, B. vi, c. 28, that it is practised with respect to the horse. It is also referred to by Aristotle, De Gen. Anim. B. iv. c. 1.—B.

[1979] For this we have the authority of Aristotle, _ubi supra_, and of Columella, _ubi supra_, who quotes from Virgil in support of it, Geor. B. iii. l. 387, _et seq._—B. “Although the ram be white himself, if there is a black tongue beneath the palate, reject him, that he may not tinge the fleece of the young with black spots.”

[1980] Varro, B. ii. c. 2, remarks, “While the coupling is taking place, you must use the same water; for if it is changed, it will render the wool spotted, and injure the womb.”

[1981] “Tectæ.” The context shows that this means covered with skins or a woollen girth, probably on account of their delicate nature, while the common sheep of husbandry, or the “colonic” sheep, were able to endure the rigour of the weather without any such protection.

[1982] The words are _tectum_ and _colonicum_; Columella, B. vii. c. 4, uses the terms _molle_ and _hirsutum_, and Varro, B. ii. c. 2, _pellitum_ and _hirtum_. The first obtained its name from its being covered with skins, to protect its delicate fleece. The colonic is so called, from “colonus,” a “husbandman,” this kind being so common as to be found in any village; whereas the tectæ were rare.

[1983] We have some account of the Arabian sheep in Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. x. c. 4.—B. Columella says, that the wool which was brought over to make these coverings, was only to be obtained at a very great price.

[1984] The greatest part of this Chapter appears to be taken, with little variation, from Columella, B. vii. c. 2-4.—B.

[1985] Here Pliny differs from Columella, who remarks, B. vii. c. 2, “Our people considered the Milesian, Calabrian, and Apulian wool as of excellent quality, and the Tarentine the best of all.”

[1986] “Pænula” was a check cloak, used chiefly by the Romans when travelling, instead of the toga, as a protection against the cold and rain. It was used by women as well as men. It was long, and without sleeves, and with only an opening for the head. Women were forbidden by Alexander Severus to wear it in the city. It was made particularly of the woolly substance known as gausapa.

[1987] The wool of Laodicea is celebrated by Strabo, B. xii.—B.

[1988] Columella, B. vii. c. 2, particularly notices the excellence of the wool of Altinum, situate near the mouth of the Padus or Po. The following epigram of Martial, B. xiv. c. 155, may be presumed to convey the opinion of the respective merits of the different kinds of wool; it is entitled “Lanæ albæ:” “Velleribus primis Apulia; Parma secundis Nobilis; Altinum tertia laudat ovis.” “Apulia is famed for its fleeces of the first quality, Parma for the second, while Altinum is praised for those of the third.”—B.

[1989] About twelve shillings sterling.—B.

[1990] Varro remarks, B. ii. c. 2, that the term “vellus,” obviously from “vello,” “to pluck,” proves that the wool was anciently plucked from the sheep, before shearing had been invented.—B.

[1991] “Quas nativas appellant.” The term “nativa,” as applied to the wool, has been supposed to refer to those fleeces that possess a natural colour, and do not require to be dyed.—B.

[1992] Martial, B. xiv. Ep. 157, calls the fleeces of Pollentia “lugentes,” “mournful,” from their black colour; they are also mentioned by Columella, _ubi supra_, and by Silius Italicus, B. viii. l. 599.—B.

[1993] Martial, B. v. c. 37, describing the charms of a lady, says, “surpassing with her locks the fleece of the Bætic sheep,” no doubt referring to the colour. In another Epigram, B. xii. E. 200, he speaks of the “aurea vellera,” the “golden fleece” of Bætis.—B.

[1994] Martial has two Epigrams on the wool of Canusium, B. xiv. E. 127, and E. 129. In the former it is designated as “fusca,” tawny; in the latter, “rufa,” red.—B.

[1995] “Suæ pulliginis.”—B.

[1996] The term here used, “succidus,” is explained by Varro, B. ii. c. 11: “While the newly-clipped wool has the sweat in it, it is called ‘succida.’” See B. xxix. c. 9.

[1997] “Pexis vestibus.” According to Hardouin, the “pexa vestis,” was worn by the rich, and had a long and prominent nap, in contradistinction to the smooth or worn cloths. He refers to a passage in Horace, B. i. Ep. i. l. 95, and to one in Martial, B. ii. E. 58, which appear to sanction this explanation. See Lem. vol. iii. p. 524.—B.

[1998] See B. iv. c. 35.

[1999] See B. iii. c. 5. Now Pezenas.

[2000]

Καὶ ῥήγεα καλὰ
Πορφύρ’ ἐμβαλέειν, στορέσαι δ’ ἐφύπερθε τάπητας.

Od. B. iv. l. 427. “And to throw on fair coverlets of purple, and to lay carpets upon them.”

[2001] These were probably much like what we call “Turkey” carpets.

[2002] The name given to this article, “lana coacta,” “compressed wool,” correctly designates its texture. The manufacturers of it were called “lanarii coactores,” and “lanarii coactiliarii.”