Chapter M: M. J. SUTHERLAND, D.Sc., F.I.C (9)

_Greek Drama._--The Greek drama was religious in its origin. It arose from the dithyrambs or songs composed in honour of Dionysus, the god of all vegetation, though identified most closely with the vine. When vegetation died in winter, this was considered to be the death of Dionysus; when it bloomed anew in the spring, this was thought to be the god's resurrection. The one event was celebrated with gloomy song and dance, and the other with merry revels and crude indecency. The history of Greek drama is the history of the decline and fall of the chorus. At first the chorus was the whole play, and in the _Supplices_ of Aeschylus, the earliest extant tragedy, the chorus played a predominating part. According to tradition, Thespis (about 535 B.C.) introduced for the first time a masked actor, who carried on a dialogue with the leader of the chorus. Aeschylus introduced a second actor, and Sophocles a third. It is thought that there never were more than three actors, but, of course, duplication of parts was permitted. There were also frequently mute characters (_k[=o]pha pros[=o]pa_) on the stage. Dialogue became more important in the later plays of Aeschylus, and chorus became less important; Sophocles developed his dialogue in masterly style, though his choruses are among the most beautiful things in all Greek poetry; in Euripides the choruses, however lovely in themselves, are less an integral part of the drama than they were in the plays of his predecessors. In fact the chorus acted as a clog on the freedom of the dramatist, who wished to develop exciting situations and depict realistic characters. In comedy the same decline of the chorus is to be found; in the _Acharnians_, the earliest comedy, the chorus is very prominent; in the _Plutus_, the last comedy extant, it is comparatively unimportant. Sumptuary laws had something to do with this, and there is a vast difference between the magnificently apparelled chorus in the _Birds_, and the chorus in the _Lysistrata_, which represented elderly Athenian men and women in their everyday costume.

Greek tragedies were usually presented in the form of trilogies, that is, in sets of three plays all dealing with the same subject. To these was added, as a rule, a fourth play, known as a satyr-play. The _Cyclops_ of Euripides is the only example extant of this kind of play. It is not very amusing, though it contains a certain amount of horse-play and high spirits. The satyr-play was intended to lighten the gloom of the three preceding tragedies. We have one complete trilogy preserved--the magnificent _Oresteia_ of Aeschylus, consisting of the _Agamemnon_, _Choephoroe_, and _Eumenides_--plays which are bracketed with _Lear_ and _Othello_ as the highest and most majestic of all tragedies. In later times the three plays of the trilogy dealt with different subjects. The tragedies to be performed were carefully selected by some of the Athenian magistrates, and at the festival prizes were given for the best tragedy, on the recommendation of a carefully chosen jury. Comedies were presented one at a time; prizes were offered for the best of them also. Greek tragic actors wore long flowing robes, and added to their height by means of the _cothurnus_ or thick-soled boot; it is believed that they wore masks with some sort of speaking-trumpet in the mouth, so that their words would be audible to the vast audience which assembled in the theatre, a huge circular open-air amphitheatre.

Each of the three Greek tragic writers whose work has been preserved is supreme in his own way. Aeschylus's lyric dramas are among the greatest writings of all time; the plays of Sophocles are masterpieces of deft construction, of well-woven plot, and ironic dialogue; and his choruses are lyrics of the greatest beauty. Aeschylus is more titanic; Sophocles is more humane. Euripides, the latest of the three, is a great poet and a champion of the weak, such as women and slaves; moreover, he sees deeply into men's hearts. He is really the founder of romantic drama, through the Roman Seneca, who imitated him. Of Greek comic poets we only possess one, but he is a host in himself. Aristophanes is a Gargantuan mirth-maker; he bestrides the narrow world like a Colossus. He plays with a master's hand upon every note in the whole comic gamut. His works, owing to the conditions of the old comedy, were very frequently political and highly personal in their tone. The later plays are less so. The _Birds_, _Clouds_, and _Frogs_ are among the very greatest comic creations; only a little less great is the _Lysistrata_, where a serious purpose is veiled by intense indecency. The old comedy, however, was essentially the product of its own age; it did not invite, or even permit, imitation. The new comedy, of which Philemon, Menander, and Diphilus were the principal writers, gradually supplanted it. Their plays were more or less romantic comedies with carefully constructed plots. They are all lost, but we may gain some idea of them from Plautus and Terence, and from the fragments which have been found, some of them fairly recently.

_Roman Drama._--Roman drama is not intrinsically good; it is in many respects a weak imitation of Greek drama, but it has been very much more important in its influence. Early English, French, and Italian dramatists all turned to Seneca as a model for tragedy, and to Plautus and Terence as models for comedy. This was partly due to the fact that though most of them had small Latin, they had less Greek; but it was partly because the Latin writers were easier to imitate. Italy had native farces, known as Atellan Fables, which were not without their influence on the development of comedy. These plays were broadly farcical, and dealt almost entirely with country life. The two great Roman comedy writers, Plautus and Terence, based their work, however, upon the new comedy of Greece, especially upon the plays of Menander and Diphilus. Plautus is decidedly coarse at times, and sometimes his fun is too much like that of a fourth-form boy at a public school, but his work is wholesome and vigorous, and he is a more creative and virile writer than Terence. Terence's plays are somewhat weak dramatically, but are written in a style of great beauty. He was a careful literary craftsman. Seneca, the only Roman tragic writer, had an immense influence on later dramatists. It is hard to account for this. He based his work upon Euripides, but he suppressed everything that makes Euripides tender and human. Senecan tragedy abounded in bloodshed and horrors; the speeches are full of pompous rant, and their metre is most monotonous. Some of the choruses are good rhetorical writing, though scarcely great poetry. Seneca's influence pervades all our early tragedy; it is clearly seen in _Gorboduc_ and in Jonson's _Sejanus_ and _Catiline_; even Shakespeare is not without traces of it. As the Roman Empire declined so did the Roman stage; finally nothing was performed save pantomime, in the proper sense of the word, where everything was done in dumb-show. This appeared to content the populace of the Roman Empire, even as the cinema seems to satisfy the citizens of a later and perhaps greater empire.

_Mediaeval Drama._--There is no drama between the death of Seneca and the Renaissance, unless we except the six curious 'comedies' of the nun Hrosvitha of Gandersheim (born about A.D. 935). These plays are based upon Terence, though they do not follow their model closely. They are, of course, written in Latin. They have some vivid dramatic touches, and frequent felicities of expression. They were probably intended for recitation, not for representation on the stage. They must be regarded as an isolated phenomenon. The Church for long discouraged drama, but ended by adapting it to its own purposes. As in Greece, therefore, drama originated in England from religion. The priests impressed certain events in sacred history upon the minds of their congregation by means of dramatic performances which at first took place actually in the church. Thus the removal of the stone from the mouth of the sepulchre and the discovery of the empty tomb was performed at Easter, and the finding of the Babe in the manger by the three Magi was represented at Epiphany. It is easy to understand how performances of this sort arose from the singing of suitable anthems on festival days. The Oberammergau passion-play is a somewhat sophisticated representative of these liturgical plays; it cannot be called a survival, as it only dates back to 1633. These mystery-plays, so called because they were produced by the trade-guilds (Lat. _ministerium_, a trade), were eventually brought out into the market-place on wagons, and were moved round to various 'stations' in the town, different plays being performed at each station. A distinction is sometimes made between mystery- and miracle-plays, the former being defined as dealing with gospel events only, while the latter deal with incidents derived from the legends of the saints. Several collections of these plays survive--the Wakefield, Chester, and Coventry plays. They are written in a lively fashion, and are often naively humorous, the most sacred Bible characters being introduced along with English yokels and crudely comic persons. The next development of the drama was the morality play or allegory; the well-known _Everyman_ is the most finished specimen of this kind of play which we possess. Here personifications of Virtues and Vices formed the dramatis personae; the Devil was usually included in the cast. Moralities were in ways less crude than mysteries, as they consisted of an allegory worked out by means of a more or less continuous plot, while mysteries consisted merely of a series of isolated scenes. The interlude is another early species of drama; it marks a still further advance. Interludes were both farcical and theological in their subjects, and played an important part in the controversies at the time of the Reformation. John Heywood (1497-1580) is the most important writer of interludes, the controversial plays of John Bale (1495-1563) serving to link the interlude to the regular drama, which began gradually to spring up.

Interior of the Swan Theatre in 1596. From a sketch made by a Dutchman who visited England at the time.]

_Elizabethan Drama._--The first English comedy, _Ralph Roister Doister_, appeared in 1551. It is by Nicolas Udall, and is based upon the _Miles Gloriosus_ of Plautus. _Gammer Gurton's Needle_, a more native production, thought to have been by John Still, who was master of St. John's College, Cambridge, and Bishop of Bath and Wells, appeared about 1566. Drama now improved rapidly, and was soon to attain perfection in Shakespeare. Marlowe, Kyd, Greene, Lyly, Nash, Lodge, and Peele all helped to prepare the way. The greatest of these is Marlowe, who died at the age of twenty-nine, leaving behind him the great plays _Tamburlaine_ (1588), _Faustus_, and _Edward II_. In his development of blank verse he contributed greatly to the success of the drama. The earliest tragedy, _Gorboduc_ (1562), is incredibly stiff and wooden in its versification. Marlowe made of blank verse an instrument that would sound any note of pathos or sublimity. In the plays of Shakespeare (1564-1616) drama reached its greatest height. In comedy, tragedy, history, in handling dramatic situations, and in liquid perfection of verse, he is supreme. Like the very greatest masters, he founded no school, and his contemporaries owe little to him. While they are all put in the shade by his myriad-minded genius, they are all partakers with him in the glory of their age, and are all great in themselves. Jonson (1573-1637) is one of the most important, as he to some extent founded a school and exercised considerable influence over later writers. He was a scholarly and laborious playwright, who over-elaborated some of his work, but who was a masterly adept at constructing a play, and a vigorous realist. Chapman (1559-1634), Dekker (1570-1641), and Marston (1575-1634) were all good workmanlike dramatists. Beaumont and Fletcher produced between them a great body of work, some of inferior quality, but all of great power. In some respects their work is less unlike that of Shakespeare than the work of other Elizabethans. Middleton, Webster, Tourneur, Thomas Heywood, and Massinger are all excellent in their way, Massinger in particular being a master of stage-craft. Shirley and Ford conclude the list of the great Jacobean dramatists. The Puritans caused the theatres to be closed in 1642.

_Spanish and French Drama._--Meanwhile a similar outburst of dramatic activity was taking place on the Continent. In Spain, Lope de Vega (1562-1634) wrote a prodigious quantity of plays, and wrote them with much brilliance. Calderon wrote some beautiful plays, several of which have been translated by Edward Fitzgerald. Cervantes, though much better known as a novelist, wrote many good plays. The Spanish school directly inspired Corneille (1606-1684) to write his play _Le Cid_, and so begin the great age of classical French tragedy. Racine (1639-1700) is the other great name. French classical drama, though somewhat fettered by its observance of laws that were wrongly considered essential, is extremely dignified and beautiful. In Moli[`e]re (1622-73) France possesses the greatest of all writers of society comedies. He is as supreme in his kingdom as Shakespeare is in his empire. He borrowed from his predecessors with all the licence of genius, but he payed usurious interest on his borrowings.

_Restoration Drama._--When the theatres were reopened after the Restoration, many dramatists began to write. Restoration comedy was largely based on Moli[`e]re, who was brutalized by Wycherley, and adapted but not improved by Congreve. Congreve was, however, a master of sparkling dialogue, and in one play, _The Way of the World_, he has shown himself not unworthy of comparison with his master. Vanbrugh and Farquhar are the other two important writers of comedies; all their comedies are more or less disfigured by cynicism and immorality, the reaction after the Puritan restraint. Restoration tragedy is much less important than Restoration comedy. Otway, Lee, and Southerne are its chief exponents.

_Eighteenth Century Drama._--Some of these dramatists bring us into the eighteenth century, which was not on the whole prolific in good plays. Fielding wrote many amusing farces, but all were more or less hack-work. At a later period Foote, Cumberland, and the two Colmans wrote good acting plays, which have not lived. The two plays of Goldsmith and several of the plays of Sheridan still hold the stage. Sheridan owed much to the Restoration dramatists, especially Vanbrugh, but as he improved his originals in many respects, and made them much more presentable in decent society, he is entitled to most of the reputation he long enjoyed.

In France, Marivaux (1678-1763) wrote sentimental comedies, while Beaumarchais, whose own life was more exciting and varied than most plays, wrote comedies with brilliant plots. In Italy, Maffei, Goldoni, and Alfieri are notable dramatists; the last named wrote propaganda in the disguise of tragedy. In Germany, Lessing by precept and example inaugurated the 'romantic movement'; Schiller and Goethe are the two greatest names associated with the stage. _Wallenstein_ in particular is a good chronicle-play, while _Faust_ is considered one of the greatest of all German plays.

_Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Drama._--Victor Hugo led the Romantic movement in France, and wrote many great plays, such as _Hernani_ and _Ruy Blas_. De Musset wrote his plays, which he called _proverbes_, under the same influence, and later followers of this school are Rostand and the Belgian M. Maurice Maeterlinck. The French dramatists Augier, Scribe, and Sardou had an overwhelming influence on the English stage, not altogether for its good. English drama was at a low ebb in the middle of the nineteenth century. Lytton's plays, though sometimes performed still, are extremely theatrical. Boucicault, who made a great success by dramatizing 'the pathos of Paddy', is not a great writer. H. J. Byron was an inveterate punster and writer of burlesques of no value. One of his plays, _Our Boys_, was acted for many years. Robertson is the most outstanding author of what is known as 'the cup and saucer' school of comedy. His plays are very much acting plays; they are not literature, and are quite removed from real life. Gilbert was a man of great gifts, but though some of his farces and comedies are good, he was not a master of drama as he was of _libretti_ writing. He did little to improve the drama of his day. Sir A. W. Pinero began his career as a dramatist under the aegis of Robertson, but continued it under that of Ibsen. Ibsen (1828-1906) exercised a not altogether wholesome influence upon English drama for a considerable time. His plays are extremely well-constructed, and he refused to tolerate many conventions, such as asides and soliloquies. In many of his plays he adopted the retrospective method, where the plot consists not so much in anything being done as in the gradual discovery of what has been done long before the rise of the curtain. Sophocles had done this most skilfully in _Oedipus Tyrannus_, but Ibsen carried the method to perfection in _The Wild Duck_ and _Rosmersholm_. All Ibsen's plays are more or less unpleasant, and he did not make many of his characters sympathetic. Pinero, after writing several farces, wrote _The Second Mrs. Tanqueray_ (1893), a masterpiece after the style of Ibsen. _His House in Order_ is a cleverly constructed example of the retrospective method. H. A. Jones (born 1851) has written many excellent and extremely powerful plays, of which the best known are _The Liars_ and _The Case of Rebellious Susan_. G. Bernard Shaw (born 1856), who combines some of the qualities of a Greek sophist with some of the foibles of a modern Irishman, has written some amusing plays, though others have been spoilt by his tendency to turn them into propaganda. Galsworthy has written plays of great earnestness; in some he has neglected the Aristotelian maxim that every play must have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Sir James Barrie has accumulated a large fortune by means of his plays, and in one at least, _Peter Pan_, he has made a bid for immortality.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--S. H. Butcher, _Aristotle's_ _Theory of Poetry and Fine Art_; A. E. Haigh, _The Attic Theatre_; E. K. Chambers, _The Mediaeval Stage_; A. W. Pollard, _English Miracle Plays_; F. S. Boas, _Shakespeare and his Predecessors_; A. C. Bradley, _Shakespearean Tragedy_; Sir W. Raleigh, _Shakespeare_ (English Men of Letters Series); Sir A. W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic Literature_; K. Mantzius, _History of Theatrical Art_; A. S. Rappoport, _The English Drama_ (Temple Primers); T. H. Dickinson, _The Contemporary Drama of England_; F. Bruneti[`e]re, _Les ['E]poques du th['e][^a]tre francais 1636-1850_; A. Filon, _The Modern French Drama_; A. d'Ancona, _Origini del teatro italiano_; G. H. Lewes, _The Spanish Drama_.

DRAMMEN, or DRAM, a seaport of Norway, in a valley on both sides of the Drammen, at its mouth in the Drammenfiord, 25 miles S.S.W. of Christiania. It has manufactures of leather, soap, ropes, sail-cloth, earthenware, and tobacco; and is the second port in the kingdom for the export of timber.

DRAPER, John William, American chemist and physiologist, born at Liverpool 1811, died 1882. He went to America in 1833, and was successively professor of physical science in Hampden-Sidney College, Virginia, and of natural history, chemistry, and physiology in the University of New York. He made many contributions to scientific literature, and devoted much attention to the chemical action of light, in connection with which he effected some discoveries. Among his chief works is his _History of the Intellectual Development of Europe_ (2 vols., 1863). His son, Henry Draper (born 1837, died 1882), chemist and astronomer, made some valuable researches on the spectra of the heavenly bodies.

DRAUGHTS, a game resembling chess played on a board divided into sixty-four checkered squares. Each of the two players is provided with twelve pieces or 'men' placed on every alternate square at each end of the board. The men are moved forward diagonally to the right or left one square at a time, the object of each player being to capture all his opponent's men, or to hem them in so that they cannot move. A piece can be captured only when the square on the diagonal line behind it is unoccupied. When a player succeeds in moving a piece to the farther end of the board (the crown-head), that piece becomes a king, and has the power of moving or capturing diagonally backwards or forwards. When it so happens that neither of the players has sufficient advantage in force or position to enable him to win, the game is drawn. _Checkers_ is the common American name of the game.

The game does not offer the same scope for brilliance and originality as the sister game of chess, but still is much more profound than is generally supposed. It has been cultivated in Britain, and especially in Scotland, certainly for over two hundred years, and has served as a field of exercise for some extremely able intellects, which but for it might hardly have been exercised at all. Among famous players are: Andrew Anderson, of Carluke, who published a celebrated work on the game in 1852; James Wyllie, the 'Herd Laddie', who travelled over the world playing exhibition matches, and was for many years world's champion; Robert Martins, English champion about 1870, who played several matches with Wyllie; R. D. Yates, a young American player, who defeated Wyllie for the championship, but shortly afterwards gave up the game; James Ferrie, of Coatbridge, who in 1894 defeated Wyllie and became champion, to be defeated in turn by Richard Jordan of Edinburgh in 1896; Robert Stewart, of Fifeshire, many times Scottish champion, and probably the strongest player now living.

The Scottish tourney, held annually in Glasgow since 1893, except for a few years on account of the War, has done much to stimulate interest in the game. The English Draughts Association also holds a biennial tourney. Several international matches have taken place between Scotland and England, the first in 1884. This, like nearly all the other matches, was won by Scotland. In 1905 a very strong British team visited America and decisively defeated a side representing the United States.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: James Lees, _A Guide to the Game of Draughts_. Early works by Payne, Sturges, Drummond, Hay, Anderson, and Bowen are now very scarce. There are several periodicals devoted to the game; and some newspapers, notably _The Glasgow Weekly Herald_, give it a column weekly.

DRAVE, or DRAU (dr[:a]'ve, drou), a European river which rises in Tyrol, flows E.S.E. across the north of Illyria and the south of Styria, and between Hungary on the left and Croatia and Slavonia on the right, and, after a course of nearly 400 miles, joins the Danube 14 miles east of Essek. It is navigable for about 200 miles.

DRAVID'IAN, a term applied to the vernacular tongues of the great majority of the inhabitants of Southern India, and to the people themselves who inhabited India previous to the advent of the Aryans. The affinities of the Dravidian languages are uncertain. The family consists of the Tamil, Telugu, Canarese, Malay[^a]lam, Tulu, Tuda, Gond, Rajmahal, Oraon, &c. Only the first four mentioned have a literature, that of the Tamil being the oldest and the most important. Originally the word Dravidian was a purely philological term, but it is now used in an ethnological sense as well.--Cf. R. Caldwell, _Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South Indian Family of Languages_.

DRAWBACK, usually a certain amount of duties or customs dues paid back or remitted to an importer when he exports goods that he has previously imported and paid duty on, as, for instance, tobacco, &c.; or a certain amount of excise paid back or allowed on the exportation of home manufactures.

DRAWBRIDGE, a bridge with a lifting floor, such as was formerly used for crossing the ditches of fortresses, or any movable bridge over a navigable channel where the height of the roadway is insufficient to allow vessels to pass underneath. Modern drawbridges across rivers, canals, the entrances of docks, &c., are generally made to open horizontally, and the movable portion is called a bascule, balance, or lifting bridge, a turning, swivel, or swing bridge, or a rolling bridge, in accordance with the mode in which it is made to open. Swing-bridges are usually divided into two parts meeting in the middle, and each moved on pivots on the opposite sides of the channel, or they may move as a whole on a pivot in the middle of the channel. Rolling bridges are suspended from a structure high above the water, and are propelled backwards and forwards by means of rollers.

DRAWING is the art of representing upon a flat surface the forms of objects, and their positions in relation to each other. The idea of nearness or distance is given by the aid of perspective, foreshortening, and gradation, and in the same way the three-dimensional quality of objects is expressed. The term drawing is sometimes limited to the representing of the forms of objects in outline, with or without the shading necessary to develop roundness or _modelling_. But the term has a wider significance. Any arrangement of colours or tones which serve to express form, and the relation of one form to another, is really drawing; and thus a painting may show fine draughtsmanship without line being used at all. Drawing is not a matter of the medium employed, but of the manner in which it is used. It is, however, convenient to classify drawings according to mediums, each of which produces its effect in a different way. Thus drawing may be divided into (1) pen drawing; (2) chalk, pencil, or charcoal drawing; (3) crayon and pastel drawing; (4) drawing shaded with the brush; (5) architectural or mechanical drawing. _Pen drawings_ are often confined to pure outlines; an appearance of _relief_ or projection being given by thickening or doubling the lines on the shadow side, or they may be shaded by combination of lines. _Chalk, pencil, and charcoal drawings_ may be in line or tone. When the chalk is powdered and rubbed in with a stump, large masses and broad effects can be produced with much rapidity. The best draughtsmen, however, rarely use a stump. In _crayon and pastel drawings_ the colours of the objects represented are more or less completely represented in the medium. _Drawings shaded with the brush_ are outlined with the pencil or pen, the shading being laid on or _washed in_ with the brush in tints of Indian ink, sepia, or colour. This was the method of the early water-colour painters in England. _Architectural and mechanical drawings_ are those in which the proportions of a building, machine, &c., are accurately set out for the guidance of the constructor; objects are, in general, delineated by geometric or orthographic projection.

The great schools of painting all show excellent drawing, though differing in character. In Italy the Florentine school combined study of the antique with anatomical research, and produced many vigorous and expressive draughtsmen, notably Michael Angelo and Leonardo da Vinci. The Roman school, under the influence of Raphael, sacrificed vigour and expressiveness to elegance and the representation of ideal form. In the Lombard school a severe style of drawing is seen through harmonious colouring, and in the Venetian school the drawing is often veiled in the richness of the colour. The German and Dutch schools excel in a careful and minute style of naturalistic drawing, combined with good colour. The French school in the time of Poussin was very accurate in its drawing; at a later period its style betrayed a tendency to mannerism. David introduced, again, a purer taste in drawing and a close study of the antique, and these are qualities which distinguish his school (the so-called Classical school), of which Ingres is the leading representative, from the Romantic and Eclectic schools of a later period. The drawing of the British school is naturalistic rather than academic, but the work of Gainsborough and Alfred Stevens is comparable with that of earlier masters.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ruskin, _Elements of Drawing_; Spiers, _Architectural Drawing_; R. S. Bowers, _Drawing and Design for Craftsmen_; J. H. Brown, _Sketching without a Master_; Harold Speed, _Drawing_.

DRAWING-ROOM, a room appropriated for the reception of company; a room in which distinguished personages hold levees, or private persons receive parties. _Court drawing-rooms_ are those assemblies held from time to time for the reception or presentation to the sovereign of such ladies as by custom, right, or courtesy are admissible. Receptions at which men are presented are known as _levees_. The sovereign sometimes deputes a member of the royal family to receive, in which case presentations are equivalent to those made to the sovereign in person.

DRAWINGS. The term 'drawings' is usually taken to mean drawings of an architectural or engineering nature, such as the plans of a new building prepared by an architect, or the designs for engineering works, or for machinery produced by an engineer.

Three methods are commonly made use of in preparing drawings. (1) Orthographic, which represents the subject under consideration in one plane only, and from which dimensions may be scaled off, and which is the normal method of preparing an engineering drawing. (2) Perspective or radial projection is made use of by an architect for displaying the elevations of a building, and gives a truer appreciation of the actual appearance of the building than can be obtained by orthographic projection. (3) Isometric projection enables one to show the length, breadth, and thickness of an object drawn to scale on the one drawing. Such a drawing is really composed of three sets of parallel straight lines, and is not strictly a true representation of the object as it would appear to the eye. It has the great advantage, however, that measurements may be directly scaled from it, and lines which are parallel in the object are also parallel in the drawing.

DRAYTON, MICHAEL, an English poet, born in 1563, is said to have studied at Oxford, and afterwards held a commission in the army. The poem by which his name is chiefly remembered is his _Polyolbion_ (1622, reprinted in 1890), a sort of topographical description of England. It is generally extremely accurate in its details, with, at the same time, many passages of true poetic fire and beauty. Other works are his _Nymphidia, the Court of Fairy_; _The Barons' Wars_; _The Legend of Great Cromwell_; _The Battle of Agincourt_; besides numerous legends, sonnets, and other pieces. He died in 1631, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.--Cf. O. Elton, _Michael Drayton: a Critical Study_.

DRAYTON, MARKET, or DRAYTON-IN-HALES, a town, England, county Salop, 18 miles northeast of Shrewsbury. It has a church, supposed to have been erected, with exception of the steeple, in the reign of William I. There are paper and hair-cloth manufactories. Pop. 5167.

DREAMS, trains of ideas which present themselves to the mind during sleep. The principal feature of the state of dreaming is the absence of conscious control over the current of thought, so that all kinds of fantastic notions, which in the waking state would at once be put aside, are woven into the texture of the dream. The usual content of dreams consists of aspirations or dreads, which the dreamer had recently entertained or experienced, mixed up with incidents which excited intense emotion at some earlier period of the individual's history, and especially in early childhood. The memory of unpleasant experiences, such, for example, as the horrors of trench warfare, which is repressed in the waking state, tends to force itself on the individual's attention when the conscious control is relaxed in sleep, and to give rise to disturbing dreams which may become so intense as to interfere with sleep and cause insomnia. The only rational remedy for this distressing trouble is to discover the painful incident and persuade the patient frankly to face it and not 'try to forget'. In recent years S. Freud has placed the study of dreams upon a scientific basis. He maintains that dreams represent the fulfilment of wishes. There is usually an utter want of coherency in the images that appear before the mental eye, but this excites no surprise in the dreamer. Occasionally, however, intellectual efforts are made during sleep which would be difficult to surpass in the waking state. It is said that Condillac often brought to a conclusion in his dreams reasonings on which he had been employed during the day; and that Franklin believed that he had been often instructed in his dreams concerning the issue of events which at that time occupied his mind. Coleridge composed from 200 to 300 lines during a dream: the beautiful fragment of _Kubla Khan_, which was all he was able to commit to paper when he awoke, remains a specimen of that dream-poem. Dreams are subjective phenomena dependent on natural causes. They are retrospective and resultant instead of being prospective or prophetic. The latter opinion has, however, prevailed in all ages and among all nations; and hence the common practice of divination or prophesying by dreams, that is, interpreting them as presages of coming events. Some authorities declare that all our dreams take place when we are in process of going to sleep or becoming awake, and that during deep sleep the mind is totally inactive. This is denied by the majority of philosophers, and with apparent reason.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Havelock Ellis, _The World of Dreams_; S. Freud, _The Interpretation of Dreams_; W. H. R. Rivers, _Instinct and the Unconscious_.

A, Shoot. B, Hoist-gear. C, Hopper. D, Sand-pump and its engines. E, Engines. F, Overboard shoot. G, Suction-pipe. H, Bucket-well. J, Overboard discharge.]

DREDGING, a term applied to the operation of removing mud, silt, and other deposits from the bottom of harbours, canals, rivers, docks, &c. The most simple dredging apparatus is the spoon apparatus, which consists of a strong iron ring or hoop, properly formed for making an impression upon the soft matter at the bottom, so as to scoop it into a large leather bag attached to the ring and perforated with a number of small holes. The means for working it is a long handle, a suspending rope, and a crane or sweep-pole planted in a boat. Much more effective is the steam dredging-machine now in common use. It has a succession of strong iron buckets on an endless chain, which travels on a frame whose lower end is vertically adjustable so as to regulate the depth at which it works. It is worked by steam, and the buckets tear up the matter at the bottom, raise it, and discharge it into punts or hoppers close to the dredging vessel. Various forms of steam-pump dredgers, in which suction-pipes are the chief features, are also used. The River Clyde, from being a shallow stream, has been converted, mainly by dredging, into a waterway carrying large vessels up to Glasgow. Dredging rivers for gold is now largely carried on; and the gold-dredge may even be floated in water artificially supplied. The operation of dragging the bottom of the sea for molluscs, plants, and other objects, usually for scientific observation, is also called dredging. The oyster-dredge is a light iron frame with a scraper like a narrow hoe on one side, and a bag attached to receive the oysters. The dredges used by naturalists are mostly modifications of or somewhat similar to the oyster-dredge. Scientific dredging has of late assumed great importance as making us acquainted with the life of deep-sea areas.

DREISENSSIA, a genus of bivalve mollusc allied to the mussels. One species (_D. polymorpha_) is a native of the streams which flow into the Caspian, but has been accidentally introduced into most rivers and estuaries of Europe, including those of Britain, where it is now abundant.

DRELINCOURT (dr[.e]-la[n.]-k[:o]r), Charles, a French Calvinistic minister, born at Sedan 1595, died at Paris 1669. He was the author of many controversial works, and of _Consolations against_ _the fear of Death_. To promote the sale of the English translation of this work, De Foe wrote his _Apparition of Mrs. Veal_.

DRENTHE (dren'te), a province of Holland, bounded by Hanover, Overijssel, Friesland, and Groningen; area, 948 sq. miles. It is in general more elevated than the surrounding provinces, especially in the centre. The soil is generally poor, and the surface largely consists of heath and morass, but the province is famed for its horses and cattle. Drenthe is remarkable for the great number of so-called 'giants' graves' or barrows scattered over the country. Its capital is Assen. Pop. 200,951.

DRES'DEN, the capital of the Republic (former kingdom) of Saxony, is situated in a beautiful valley on both sides of the River Elbe, which is here spanned by four stone bridges and an iron railway bridge. It is first mentioned in history in 1206, and has been the residence of the sovereigns since 1485; was greatly extended and embellished by Augustus the Strong (1694-1736), and rapidly increased during the nineteenth century. Among the chief sights are the museum (joined on to an older range of buildings called the Zwinger), a beautiful building containing a famous picture-gallery and other treasures; the Japanese palace (Augusteum), containing the royal library (founded by the Elector Augustus in the sixteenth century) of 570,000 volumes, besides a rich collection of manuscripts; the Johanneum, containing the collection of porcelain and the historical museum, a valuable collection of arms, armour, and domestic utensils, belonging to the Middle Ages. The palace, built about 1530, restored and remodelled externally between 1890 and 1902, and until 1918 the residence of the kings of Saxony, has also a fine interior, and contains (in what is called the Green Vault) a valuable collection of curiosities, jewels, trinkets, and works of art. The theatre is one of the finest structures of the kind in the world. The city is distinguished for its excellent educational, literary, and artistic institutions, among which are the Technical High School, much on the plan and scale of a university; the Conservatory and School of Music; and the Academy of Fine Arts. The manufactures are not unimportant, and are various in character; the china, however, for which the city is famed, is made chiefly at Meissen, 14 miles distant. The commerce is considerable, and has greatly increased since the development of the railway system. The chief glory of Dresden is the gallery of pictures, one of the finest in the world, which first became of importance under Augustus II, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, but owes its most valuable treasures to Augustus III, who purchased the greater portion of the gallery of the Duke of Modena for L180,000. The pictures number about 3000, and in particular comprise many fine specimens of the Italian, Dutch, and Flemish schools. Besides this fine collection the museum contains also engravings and drawings amounting to upwards of 350,000. There is also a sculpture-gallery, the Albertinum, where by casts and otherwise the progress of sculpture is exemplified from the earliest times, all the most important antiques being shown. Dresden, being thus rich in treasures of art and favoured by a beautiful natural situation, is the summer resort of many foreigners. It suffered severely in the Thirty Years' War, and also in 1813, when it was the head-quarters of Napoleon's army. It was occupied by the Prussians in 1866, but was evacuated in the following spring. Pop. 548,308.

DRESDEN, BATTLE OF, a battle fought in 1813 (26-27th Aug.), between the French under Napoleon and the Allies under Schwarzenberg. Napoleon had come to the relief of the city, which was occupied by the French. The Allies assaulted and bombarded the city, and soon after a great pitched battle was fought (27th Aug.), the Allies being defeated.

DRESDEN CHINA, a delicate, semi-transparent, highly finished china made at Meissen, 14 miles from Dresden. The manufacture resulted from an accidental discovery made by B[:o]ttger, a young chemist, in 1710, and the vases, statuettes, groups of figures, candelabra, and clocks, manufactured during the eighteenth century are highly prized.

DREUX (dr_eu_; DUROCASSIS or DROCAE of the Romans), a French town, department of Eure-et-Loir, on the Blaise, near to where it joins the Eure, 20 miles N.N.W. of Chartres. It is built at the foot of a hill crowned by a dilapidated castle, which contains a chapel, founded in 1142; to which has been added the costly mausoleum of the Orleans family. A battle took place near the town in 1562 between the Royalists under Montmorency and the Huguenots under Cond['e], in which the latter were defeated. Pop. 10,692.

DREYFUS, Alfred, captain of artillery and general staff-officer in the French army, was born of a Jewish family in Mulhouse, Alsace, in 1859. In Oct., 1894, he was arrested on a charge of communicating military documents to a foreign Government, supposed to be Germany; and at a secret court-martial, which sat in December, he was condemned to public degradation and lifelong imprisonment. Early in 1895 he was sent to the [^I]le du Diable (Devil's Island), near Cayenne, to undergo his sentence. About the middle of the same year Colonel Picquart became head of the Intelligence Department, and in the course of his official duties discovered various circumstances tending to throw doubt on the correctness of the court-martial's decision, and pointing to another officer, of the name of Esterhazy, as the real traitor. Picquart was superseded by a Colonel Henry in Nov., 1897, and in the following January Esterhazy, charged by a brother of the condemned man with having written the _bordereau_, or memorandum, which was the chief document relied on by the prosecutors of Dreyfus, was acquitted by a court-martial. Two days later M. Zola, the eminent novelist, in a letter headed _J'accuse_ published in the _Aurore_, made serious charges against the general staff and the Government in connection with the Esterhazy court-martial. He was prosecuted, and condemned to pay a heavy fine and undergo a term of imprisonment. In June, 1898, M. Brisson succeeded M. M['e]line as Prime Minister, and next month M. Cavaignac, his War Minister, read to the Chamber several documents which he regarded as conclusive proof of the guilt of Dreyfus. The chief of these was soon admitted by Colonel Henry to have been forged by him, and M. Cavaignac at once resigned. In June, 1899, the Cour de Cassation ordered a fresh court-martial. The court-martial, which sat at Rennes, found Dreyfus guilty with extenuating circumstances. He was sentenced to ten years' imprisonment, but was pardoned by President Loubet almost immediately. In 1906, when Clemenceau was Prime Minister, the sentence was annulled, and Dreyfus was reinstated in the army (as major). He was shot at by a reactionary journalist in 1908, but escaped without serious injury. In Sept., 1919, Lieutenant-Colonel Dreyfus was publicly presented with the insignia of an officer of the Legion of Honour. Several times during the progress of the case France seemed on the verge of revolution.--Cf. J. Reinach, _Histoire de l'affaire Dreyfus_.

DRIFFIELD, GREAT, a town, England, Yorkshire, at the head of a navigable canal communicating with the Humber at Hull. It lies in a fertile district, has an ancient parish church, and manufactures linseed-cake and manures. Pop. 5676.

DRIFT, in geology, a term applied to earth and rocks which have been conveyed by flood-action, glaciers, or floating ice and deposited over the surface of a country. It is sometimes used in a wider sense to denote all post-Pliocene sands, gravels, and clays, such as the superficial deposits shown on the 'drift' maps of the Geological Survey.

DRIFT, in mining, a horizontal tunnel or passage excavated underground that follows the course of a vein or stratum. Drift, in musketry, is the lateral deviation of the bullet after it has left the barrel of the rifle; it is due to the spin of the bullet and the resistance of the air.

DRIFT SAND, sand thrown up by the waves of the sea, and blown when dry some distance inland until arrested by obstacles, round which it gradually accumulates until the heaps attain considerable dimensions, often forming dunes or sand-hills. Coast-land sometimes requires artificial protection from encroachment by drift-sand.

DRILL, a tool used for boring holes in wood, metal, stone, ivory, &c. It consists of a sharp spindle to which a circular motion is communicated by various contrivances. Drills are of various designs. For rock-boring the diamond rock-drill, an instrument with cutting edges made of bort or black diamond, is now generally adopted. See _Boring_.--Cf. Dana and Saunders, _Rock Drilling_.

DRILL is the A B C of all military movements. In the Training Manuals of the British army the word is defined as "the training of the soldier to perform certain movements as a second nature". It follows, therefore, that drill is an essential part of the training of every soldier, more especially in the early days of his training, in that without it, and without the power of movement in obedience to the expressed will of a superior given by it, a body of soldiers would be merely a collection of armed men who, however willing individually, would be incapable of carrying out collectively an order given for the general good. In the early days of our history, when fighting was largely individual, and the whole duty of a soldier was 'to do unto the other fellow as he would do unto you--and do it first' (with a club), drill, as we know it, was unknown; each man armed himself as he thought fit, and, beyond getting into some formation for the actual purpose of the assault, a battle was largely a go-as-you-please affair. In Saxon days the normal formation for the battle was the wedge; that is two men at the point followed by three, and so on till the available number was used up. This, of course, formed a solid pointed mass with considerable weight, and was used both for attack and defence. But once this formation was broken it was next to impossible to reform it. An instance of this weakness occurred at the battle of Hastings. The English were in this one and only wedge formation, officers and the better armed men at the point, and the less skilful and more indifferently armed at the base. Doubtless the troops had been got into this formation after much exertion in the way of pushing and vituperation, and, once in it, had been told on no account to break it. At a certain stage in the battle the heavily armoured Normans pretended flight; this was too much for the English, who broke their ranks and gave chase, each after his own particular source of ransom. This ended the battle; the Normans turned, and, owing to the entire inability of the English to re-form their ranks, the wedge, and with it the English army, ceased to exist: the result of want of discipline and absence of drill.

Drill and discipline are complementary to each other. In one of the battles of the Peninsular War, the 28th (now the Gloucestershire Regiment) were being hotly attacked in front by a French column. The regiment was firing in two ranks--the front rank kneeling and the rear rank standing--when suddenly a fresh attack developed from the rear. It was a matter of seconds for the commanding officer of the 28th to order the rear rank to turn about; drill and discipline did the rest, and the rear rank turned round, knelt down, and beat off the new attack. Since then the 28th has worn its badges both front and rear of its head-dresses.

Drill is an aid to discipline in that it teaches men that there is a right and a wrong way of doing a thing. Drill and the spirit arising from it has a great steadying effect on the nerves, as when in the European War the Guards Division, after being almost decimated during a German 'push', was brought out of the line and kept to steady drill for a week. To those who did not understand this appeared harsh and futile; to those who did it appeared, as it was, the best means of steadying men tried beyond endurance, and of preparing them for further efforts. Our English drill has passed through many phases in its time; but from the days when large bodies of men performed complicated manoeuvres at the executive command of one man, through the times when drill, perhaps, was considered to be the be-all and end-all of the soldier, to modern days when it is recognized as a means to an end, the guiding principle remains the same, viz. that one of the first essentials for a soldier is that he shall be so trained by drill that he shall know instinctively how to do the right thing at the right time and in the right way. Even now, when drill movements are no longer performed in face of an enemy, accuracy and attention to detail are insisted on in all parade-ground movements as part of the education of the soldier and as an aid to discipline. Drill for the soldier takes the place of the five-finger exercises for the musician. Neither of them, in itself, is of any particular value, but each adds to the efficiency of those who practise it.

DRILL (_Papio leucophaeus_), a large variety of baboon, smaller and less fierce than the mandrill, and like it a native of the coast of Guinea. The face and ears are bare and of a glossy black colour, the palms of the hands and soles of the feet are also naked and of a deep copper colour.

DRILLING, the plan of sowing in parallel rows as distinguished from sowing broadcast. It was introduced into England by Jethro Tull, who invented the first implement for drilling, and published a work on the subject in 1731. The crops which are now generally drilled are turnips and flax. The first form of drill was of very simple construction, and was only adapted for potatoes, beans, peas, carrots, clover, cereals, sowing one row at a time, but now a great variety of improved implements is in use, some of which distribute artificial manure with the seed. Among the principal advantages of drilling over broadcast sowing we may mention that a considerable saving of seed is effected in the sowing of grain crops, but the great advantage is that in the case of green crops it enables the farmer more readily to clean the land both by the hand- and by the horse-hoe. To keep the soil stirred and pulverized, which can only be properly done when the crops have been drilled, favours the retention and absorption of the moisture.

DRIPSTONE, a projecting tablet or moulding over the head of a Gothic doorway, window, archway, or niche to throw off the rain. It is also called a _weather moulding_, and _label_ when it is turned square. It is of various forms; sometimes a head is used as a termination or support, in others an ornament or simple moulding is adopted.

DRIVER, Rev. Samuel Rolles, D.D., professor of Hebrew and Biblical critic, born at Southampton 2nd Oct., 1846, died in 1914. He was educated at Winchester and at New College, Oxford, where he graduated with first-class honours in classics in 1869. In 1866 he gained the Pusey and Ellerton Hebrew Scholarship, and the Kennicott Scholarship (also for Hebrew) four years later, besides prizes for Septuagint Greek and Syriac. He was for some years a fellow and tutor of his college, and from 1876 to 1884 a member of the Old Testament Revision Committee. In 1883, on the death of Dr. Pusey, he became Regius professor of Hebrew at Oxford and (_ipso facto_) a Canon of Christ Church. Of his numerous works we may mention: _A Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew_ (1874); _Isaiah: his Life and Times_ (1888); _Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament_ (1891), a work suited for popular reading, which has passed through many editions; _Sermons on Subjects connected with the Old Testament_ (1892); _The Parallel Psalter_ (1904); _Commentaries_ on various books of the Bible; and articles in _Bible Dictionaries_ and in periodicals. He was a joint editor of the new _Hebrew-English Lexicon of the Old Testament_ published by the Clarendon Press.

DROGHEDA (dro_h_'e-da), an ancient town and seaport, formerly a parliamentary borough, Ireland, in the county of Louth, on both sides of the Boyne, about 4 miles from the sea, 26 miles north of Dublin. The Boyne is here crossed by a railway viaduct of 18 arches and 95 feet high. Flax- and cotton-spinning are carried on; there are also salt-works, breweries, and tanneries; and the fisheries are increasing. There is a good export trade in cattle, sheep, grain, butter, and eggs. In 1412 a Parliament assembled here which enacted Poynings' Law. The town was for a long time strongly fortified, and was taken by Cromwell with great slaughter in 1649; it surrendered to William III immediately after the battle of the Boyne. Pop. 12,500.

DROHOBYCZ (dro'ho-bich), a Polish town in Galicia, formerly belonging to Austria, 41 miles S.S.W. of Lemberg. Its Catholic church is one of the handsomest in the country. It has an important trade, particularly in salt, obtained from springs in the vicinity. Pop. 40,000.

DROIT D'AUBAINE (drw[:a]-d[=o]-b[=a]n), an old rule in some European countries, by which the property of a foreigner who died was claimed by the State, unless the person had a special exemption. In France, where it was not abolished till 1819, the Scots, Savoyards, Swiss, and Portuguese were exempted.

DROITWICH (droit'ich), a town of England, in the county and 6 miles N.N.E. of Worcester, on the Salwarp. It is famous for its brine springs, from which salt has been manufactured for more than 1000 years. Pop. 4146.