Chapter M: M. J. SUTHERLAND, D.Sc., F.I.C (6)

DIVISIBIL'ITY, that general property of bodies by which their parts or component particles are capable of separation. The study of radioactivity has shown that larger atoms may be broken up into smaller ones, and the old conception of the atom as an absolutely indivisible unit is no longer entertained by physicists. (See _Matter_.) Numerous examples of the division of matter to a degree almost exceeding belief may be easily instanced. Thus glass test-plates for microscopes have been ruled so fine as to have 225,000 spaces to the inch. Cotton yarn has been spun so fine that one pound of it extended upwards of 1000 miles, and a Manchester spinner is said to have attained such a marvellous fineness that one pound would extend 4770 miles. One grain of gold has been beaten out to a surface of 52 sq. inches, and leaves have been made 367,500 of which would go to the inch of thickness. Iron has been reduced to wonderfully thin sheets. Fine tissue paper is about the 1200th part of an inch in thickness, but sheets of iron have been rolled much thinner than this, and as fine as the 4800th part of an inch in thickness. Wires of platinum have been drawn out so fine as to be only the 30,000th part of an inch in diameter. Human hair varies in thickness from the 250th to the 600th part of an inch. The fibre of the coarsest wool is about the 500th part of an inch in diameter, and that of the finest only the 1500th part. The silk line, as spun by the worm, is about the 5000th part of an inch thick; but a spider's line is only the 30,000th part of an inch in diameter; insomuch that a single pound of this attenuated substance might be sufficient to encompass our globe. The trituration and levigation of powders, and the perennial abrasion and waste of the surface of solid bodies, occasion a disintegration of particles almost exceeding the powers of computation. The solutions of certain saline bodies, and of other coloured substances, also exhibit a prodigious subdivision of matter. A single grain of sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol, will communicate a fine azure tint to five gallons of water. In this case the sulphate must be attenuated at least 10,000,000 times. Odours are capable of a much wider diffusion. A single grain of musk has been known to perfume a large room for the space of twenty years. At the lowest computation the musk had been subdivided into 320 quadrillions of particles, each of them capable of affecting the olfactory organs.

DIVISION, in arithmetic, the dividing of a number or quantity into any parts assigned; one of the four fundamental rules, the object of which is to find how often one number is contained in another. The number to be divided is the _dividend_, the number which divides is the _divisor_, and the result of the division is the _quotient_. Division is the converse of multiplication.

DIVISION, in the army, the smallest formation of troops which is a mixed force. A division, besides three brigades of infantry, includes artillery, engineers, and administrative troops. It is commanded by a major-general, and if at full strength consists of about 20,000 men.

DIVISION, in Parliament, the mode of determining a question at the end of a debate. In the House of Commons the Speaker puts the question, and declares whether in his opinion the 'Ayes' or the 'Noes' have it. Should his opinion not be acquiesced in by the minority, the House is cleared, and the 'Ayes' directed to go into the right lobby and the 'Noes' into the left, where they are counted by two tellers appointed for each party. In the House of Lords the two sides in a division are called 'Contents' and 'Not-contents'.

DIVISION OF LABOUR, a method employed in productive undertakings for the simplifying of the work to be done by each of the workmen engaged therein. The separation of the process of production into a series of simple operations means that less ability on the part of the workman is required in order that he may acquire the necessary skill in performing any particular operation, and saves much time, partly because practice leads to each operation being more quickly performed, and partly by avoiding the waste which takes place in workmen moving from one operation to another. Owing to both of these causes, the cost of producing complicated articles may be immensely reduced. By standardizing operations division of labour tends to the invention of machinery; increases the skill and dexterity of the individual workman in the particular operation in which he is engaged; enables semi-skilled or unskilled labour to replace skilled; makes a more continuous and economical use of capital possible; and conduces to the more economical distribution of labour by classing work-people according to their capacity. It has, however, a deteriorating effect on the labourer's usefulness as an all-round workman, and is liable to kill his interest in his work, thereby reducing the incentive to industry. What is called division of labour in English economics has been sometimes termed _co-operation_ by foreign economists.

DIVORCE (Lat. _divortium_, from _divertere_, to turn apart, separate), a separation, by law, of husband and wife, which is either a divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_, that is, a complete dissolution of the marriage bonds, or a divorce _a mens[^a] et thoro_ (from bed and board), whereby the parties are legally separated, but not unmarried. The causes admitted by different codes of laws as grounds for the modification or entire dissolution of the marriage contract, as well as the description of tribunal which has jurisdiction of the proceedings, and the form of the proceedings, are various. Divorce was permitted by the law of Moses, but forbidden in the New Testament, except for adultery. The early laws of Rome permitted the husband to divorce his wife for adultery and many other alleged offences. The facility of divorce continued, without restriction, under the Roman emperors, but as the modern nations of Europe emerged from the ruins of the Roman Empire, they adopted the doctrine of the New Testament. Marriage, under the Roman Church, instead of a civil contract, came to be considered a sacrament of the Church, which it was unlawful to dissolve. The ecclesiastical courts could indeed annul a marriage, but only for a cause that existed at the time the marriage was contracted, such as prior contracts or impotency. For any cause arising after marriage they could only pronounce a divorce _a mens[^a] et thoro_, which did not leave either party free to marry again, except by Papal dispensation. A divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_, for any cause arising subsequent to marriage, could formerly be obtained in England only by an Act of Parliament, and the ecclesiastical courts must have previously pronounced a divorce _a mens[^a] et thoro_. The Act passed in 1857, however, established a new court for trying divorce causes, called the Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes, since absorbed into the Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty Division of the High Court of Justice. According to present practice the husband may obtain a divorce for simple adultery; but if the wife is the petitioner, she must show that her husband has been guilty of certain kinds of adultery, or of adultery coupled with desertion or gross cruelty. Either party may marry again after divorce. A divorce cannot be obtained if it appear that the petitioner has been guilty of the same offence, or has been accessory to or has connived at the offence, or if there has been collusion between the parties to obtain a divorce, or if they have condoned the offence by living together as man and wife after discovery. The husband may claim damages from the adulterer, and the court may also order the adulterer to pay the costs of the proceedings, in whole or in part. The Act also abolished divorces _a mens[^a] et thoro_, substituting, however, judicial separations. (See _Judicial Separation_.) A decree for a divorce is always in the first instance a _decree nisi_ (q.v.). A Matrimonial Causes Bill, introduced in the House of Lords in 1920, proposes to abolish the legal disabilities of a wife in this matter, and to grant divorce to husband or wife on any of the following grounds: (_a_) adultery; (_b_) desertion for at least three years; (_c_) cruelty; (_d_) incurable insanity coupled with at least five years' confinement under the lunacy laws; (_e_) incurable habitual drunkenness coupled with three years' separation under a temporary separation order granted on the ground of habitual drunkenness; and (_f_) imprisonment under a commuted death sentence. In Scotland, from the time of the Reformation, divorce might be obtained by either party on the ground of adultery, marriage being held to be only a civil contract, and as such under the jurisdiction of the civil courts. Condonation, or connivance, or collusion is sufficient to prevent a divorce from being obtained on the ground of adultery, but not recrimination, that is, a counter charge of adultery. Wilful desertion for at least four years is also held a valid reason for divorce. The action is carried on before the Court of Session. In other countries, including British colonies, the law relating to divorce varies greatly. In the United States of America, marriage, though it may be celebrated before clergymen as well as civil magistrates, is considered to be a civil contract, and the laws as to divorce, and the facility or difficulty of obtaining it, differ greatly in the several states. In France divorce was legalized in 1884, with conditions, after having been prohibited for many years.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lehr, _Le mariage, le divorce et la s['e]paration de corps dans les principaux peuples civilis['e]s_; Stephen, _Commentaries on the Laws of England_; Bryce, _Marriage and Divorce_.

DIXMUDE, a town of Belgium, in Flanders. It was the scene of severe fighting during the European War. Captured by the Germans, it was retaken by the Belgians on 29th Sept., 1918. Pop. 4040 (1911); 450 (1919).

DIXON, William Hepworth, miscellaneous writer, born at Manchester, 1821, died in London, 1879. In 1849 he published a memoir of Howard the philanthropist, which was followed by the _Life of William Penn_ (1851), and by a work on Admiral Blake (1852). In 1853, after having been a contributor, he became chief editor of _The Athenaeum_, a post which he retained till 1869. During this period he published several very popular works, including the _Personal History of Lord Bacon, The Holy Land_, and _New America_, the last being followed by _Spiritual Wives_. After his retirement from _The Athenaeum_, and in the last ten years of his life, he gave to the world about twenty-five volumes of history, travel, and fiction, among others, _Free Russia; Her Majesty's Tower; The Switzers; History of Two Queens, Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn; Diana Lady Lyle_, and _Ruby Grey_ (both novels); and his last work, _Royal Windsor_.

DIZFUL, a town of Persia, near the western boundary, on the River Dizful; a place of great trade and manufactures. Pop. about 25,000.

DJAVID BEY, Hussein, a Turkish Jew, one of the leaders of the Committee of Union and Progress, and Minister of Finance from 1914 to 1918. His advice that Turkey should adhere to strict neutrality during the European War was, unfortunately for his country, not followed by his colleagues, who decided to join Germany.

DJEMAL PASHA, Turkish soldier and politician, and one of the leaders of the Committee of Union and Progress. Minister of Marine in 1914, he commanded the Turkish forces in Palestine from 1915 to 1917, and became notorious on account of his oppression of and cruelties against the inhabitants of Syria and Palestine, and by his hatred of Zionism. Accused in 1918 of various crimes, such as misappropriation of funds, and compelled to flee from Constantinople, he was condemned to death in his absence in 1919. He was nevertheless one of the Turkish delegates who signed the Peace Treaty on 11th May, 1920.

DJOKDJOKARTA, a Dutch residency in the Island of Java, on the south coast, with a capital of the same name. Its forests abound in teak. Its natural fertility is great, and rice, coffee, and tobacco are extensively cultivated. It is ruled by a sultan who is dependent on the Dutch. Pop. 441,800. The town is large and regular, and contains the sultan's water-palace, and the seat of the Dutch Resident, which is a fort commanding both the palace and the town. Pop. 97,058.

DNIEPER (n[=e]'p[.e]r; Russ. _Dnjepr_, dnyepr; anciently BORYSTH[)E]N[=E]S, or DANAPRIS), a great river of Russia which rises in the government of Smolensk, flows first south-west, then south-east, and again south-west to the Black Sea. It begins to be navigable a little above Smolensk, and has a total length, including windings, of 1230 miles. Among its tributaries are the Beresina, the Pripet, the Desna, and the Psiol. In its lower course there are important fisheries. The region watered by the river in its lower course is famous for its great fertility, and is known as the _black-soil_. Between Kiev and Alexandrovsk it forms a series of cataracts. Since 1838 there have been steamboats on the river, and the trade carried by it is considerable. Through the Beresina Canal the Dnieper communicates with the Baltic Sea.

DNIESTER (n[=e]s't[.e]r; Russ. _Dnjestr_; ancient TYRAS), a large river of Europe (Poland, Roumania, and Ukraine), which has its source in the Carpathian Mountains, in Austrian Galicia, enters Russia at Chotin, and empties itself into the Black Sea, after a course of about 750 miles. Its navigation is difficult on account of frequent shallows and rapids.

DOAB' (that is, _Two Waters_), a name in Hindustan applied indiscriminately to any tract of country between two rivers, like the Greek _Mesopotamia_. The tract between the Ganges and the Jumna is usually called _the_ Doab; other similar tracts have their distinctive names, the Punjab being divided into five districts of this kind.

DOBELL', Sydney, English poet and man of letters, born in 1824, died 22nd Aug., 1874. His first poem, _The Roman_, appeared in 1850, and was favourably received by the critics. Among his other works are: _Balder_, _Sonnets on the War_, and _England in Time of War_.

D[:O]BELN (d_eu_'beln), a town of Saxony, about 40 miles south-east of Leipzig, with a great trade in grain, and manufactures of cloth, yarn, leather, and lacquered wares. Pop. 17,920.

D[:O]BEREINER'S LAMP, a contrivance for producing an instantaneous light, invented by Professor D[:o]bereiner, of Jena, in 1824. The light is produced by throwing a jet of hydrogen or a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases upon recently prepared spongy platinum, when the metal instantly becomes red-hot, and then sets fire to the gas. The action depends upon the readiness with which spongy platinum absorbs both oxygen and hydrogen. The intimate contact of the two gases leads to chemical combination with evolution of heat. Coal-gas may be employed instead of hydrogen, and this has led to the application of the principle to self-lighting devices for igniting gas flames.

DOBRITCH, or BAZARJIK, a town in Roumania, was, till the end of the second Balkan War, the chief town in Bulgarian Dobrudja. It is situated on a small tributary of the Danube, and is on the Cernavoda-Constanza railway. At one time it was famous for its panair or great annual fair, but it is now no longer an important centre. Pop. 10,000.

DOBRUDJA, or DOBRUD'SCHA, THE (anciently SCYTHIA MINOR), a territory forming part of the kingdom of Roumania, included between the Danube, which forms its boundary on the west and north, the Black Sea on the east, and Bulgaria (to which it belonged before 1878) on the south. Its area, formerly 6000 sq. miles, was increased by the Treaty of Bucharest of 10th Aug., 1913, and is now 8969 sq. miles. During the European War the Dobrudja was invaded in 1916 by an army of Germans, Bulgarians, and Turks, under General von Mackensen. In 1918 Roumania was compelled by the Treaty of Bucharest to cede the Dobrudja to Bulgaria, but it was restored to her in 1919. There are some fertile spots, but on the whole it is marshy and unhealthy. The population is of various nationalities, Roumanians, Bulgars, Greeks, Turks, and Jews. The inhabitants engage in tillage and stock-rearing. The principal towns are Kustendje and Tultcha. See _Roumania_. Pop. 381,306.

DOBSON, Henry Austin, poet, born at Plymouth in 1840. He was educated at Beaumaris, Coventry, and Strasbourg; in 1856 obtained a clerkship under the Board of Trade, where he rose to be one of the officials known as principals. His earliest verses first appeared in book form under the title _Vignettes in Rhyme and Vers de Soci['e]t['e]_ (1873). His other volumes of verse include: _Proverbs in Porcelain_ (1877); _Old World Idylls_ (1883); and _At the Sign of the Lyre_ (1885), which _The Athenaeum_ pronounced to be "of its kind as nearly as possible perfect". Among his prose works may be mentioned his lives of _Hogarth_, _Fielding_, _Steele_, _Goldsmith_, _Horace Walpole_, _Richardson_, and _Fanny Burney_; _Thomas Bewick and his Pupils_; _Four Frenchwomen_, a study on Charlotte Corday, the Princesse de Lamballe, and Mesdames Roland and de Genlis; three series of _Eighteenth Century Vignettes_; _A Paladin of Philanthropy_; _Sidewalk Studies_; _Old Kensington Palace_; _At Prior Park_; _A Bookman's Budget_; and several editions of standard works. His collected poems were published in one volume in 1897. Many of Mr. Dobson's poems are written in various French forms, such as the rondeau and ballade, and all are marked by gracefulness and ease. He died in Sept., 1921.

DOCE'TAE (from Gr. _dokein_, to seem or appear), the name given, in the earlier ages of the Church, to those who denied the reality of the human form of Christ, maintaining it to be merely a phantom or shadow. In the sense of regarding Christ's body as a heavenly and ethereal, instead of a human one, docetism had its partisans even among the orthodox.

DOCK, a name applied to different plants of the genus Rumex, belonging to the rhubarb family (Polygonaceae). These are large herbaceous plants, with stout roots, alternate and often entire leaves, and bearing panicles of small greenish flowers. They are very troublesome as weeds, but the roots of some of them are used medicinally as astringents.

DOCKET, or DOCQUET (dok'et; from _dock_, to shorten; Icel. _dokr_, stumpy tail), in law, a term variously used, as for a summary of a larger writing; a small piece of paper or parchment containing the heads of a writing; an alphabetical list of cases in a court, or a catalogue of the names of the parties who have suits depending in a court.

DOCKS, are artificial enclosures for the reception of shipping, for the purpose of loading, discharging, or repairs. They may be divided into four types, viz. tidal docks or basins, wet docks, dry or graving docks, and floating docks.

_Tidal Docks or Basins_ are open permanently to the main channel or river, and the water-level therefore varies with the rise and fall of the tide. This variation of level is a serious hindrance in the work of loading or discharging cargo, unless the tidal range be small. It should be noted that this form is more properly termed a tidal basin.

_Wet Docks_ have a water entrance normally closed by gates or caissons, which permit the water-level of the enclosed area being maintained at high-water level. This uniformity of level is of great service in dealing with cargo, but this type has the disadvantage of only permitting traffic in and out of the dock at high water. This disadvantage may be modified by the provision of a lock at the dock entrance.

_Dry or Graving Docks_ are used for the purpose of examining and repairing ships. The entrance is controlled by either gates or caissons. The ship having entered, the gates are closed, and the water pumped out, allowing the vessel to settle down gradually upon a row of keel blocks, running up the centre line of the dock. The sides of the docks are built in the form of large continuous steps or 'altars', which support the ends of the timber shores which serve to keep the ship in an upright position. The floor is graded to channels, leading to powerful pumps, usually of the centrifugal type, and capable of emptying a large dock in one hour.

_Floating Docks_ fulfil the same functions as dry docks. In their modern form, they consist of a hollow steel box or pontoon, carrying hollow longitudinal walls at each side. These walls contain the pumps and controlling machinery, the pontoon portion being capable of being filled with or emptied of water, thus raising or sinking the dock. This lower portion is subdivided into a great number of compartments, all of which may be filled separately, so that errors of trim can be corrected. In making use of this type the dock is lowered by flooding the lower compartments. The ship is then floated into position and shored.

The initial cost of these two latter types is in favour of the floating dock, the annual maintenance charges of which, however, may be five to ten times those of an ordinary masonry dock. The mobility of a floating dock may be considered an advantage, allowing it to be easily removed to another locality to meet changing conditions, but this adaptability should not be overvalued.

The average life of a steel dock may be assumed to be 40 years, whereas a masonry dock may be said to last indefinitely, subject only to the fact that it may outlive its usefulness.

The first wet docks constructed in England were those now called the Commercial Docks, in London, which existed in a much less extensive form so early as 1660. In 1800 the West India Docks were constructed, and were followed by the East India Docks, Millwall Docks, London Docks, the St. Katharine Docks, and the Victoria Docks, affording, together with those at Tilbury, more than 600 acres of water accommodation, besides wharf and warehouse grounds, where all kinds of appliances and machinery for the speedy and convenient transfer of goods and cargoes are in use. Some of the warehouses are extremely capacious, the tobacco warehouse of the London Docks being itself nearly 5 acres in extent. Next after the London docks come those of Liverpool, which extend more than 6 miles along the north bank of the Mersey, and cover, together with the Birkenhead docks, nearly as large a total acreage as those of London. The other important British docks are those at Southampton, Bristol, Cardiff, Hull, Great Grimbsy, Newcastle, Shields, Barrow, Leith, Glasgow, Dundee, &c. A floating dock at Hamburg has a length of 728 feet, inside width of 123 feet, and a lifting capacity of 46,000 tons.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Shields, _Principles and Practice of Harbour Construction_; L. V. Harcourt, _Harbours and Docks_; Kempe, _Engineer's Year Book_.

DOCK-WARRANTS, orders for goods kept in the warehouses connected with a dock. They are granted by the proper officer at the dock to the importer in favour of any one that he may name. These warrants are held to be negotiable, so that they may pass from one holder to another, the property of them being always vested in the holder.

DOCK-YARDS, establishments supplied with all sorts of naval stores, materials and conveniences for the construction, repairs, and equipment of ships of war. In England the royal dock-yards are at Chatham, Sheerness, Portsmouth, Devonport, and Pembroke, besides the Deptford and Woolwich store-yards. There are also royal dock-yards or naval victualling yards at Haulbowline in Cork Harbour, Rosyth, Invergordon, at the Cape of Good Hope, Gibraltar, Malta, Bermuda, Bombay, Calcutta, Hong-Kong, Sydney, and Wei-hai-wei. Others in the colonies have been given up. The dock-yards are under the direct control of the Admiralty. The chief officer of the greater or home dock-yards is generally an admiral, with a considerable staff of officials under him, professional and other. Since the introduction of steam the engineering department has become an important one in such establishments.

DOCTOR, a term literally signifying teacher. In the Middle Ages, from the twelfth century, it came into use as a title of honour for men of great learning, such as Thomas Aquinas (Doctor Angelicus) and Duns Scotus (Doctor Subtilis). It was first made an academical title by the University of Bologna, and emperors and Popes soon afterwards assumed the right of granting universities the power of conferring the degree in law. The University of Paris followed in the footsteps of Bologna, and in 1145 the title was bestowed on Peter Lombard. The faculties of theology and medicine were soon included, but for a long time the faculty of arts retained the older title of _Magister_, till the German universities substituted that of Doctor. In England the Doctor's degree was introduced into the universities during the reign of John or Henry III. The title of Doctor is in some cases an honorary degree, and in other cases (as in medicine and science) conferred after examination. The title of D.C.L. (Doctor of Civil Law), for example, at the Universities of Oxford and Durham, is frequently an honorary degree, and so also are those of D.D. (Doctor of Divinity) and LL.D. (Doctor of Laws) at various universities. The Popes and the Archbishops of Canterbury exercise the right of conferring the degree of Doctor both in law and divinity. Oxford and Cambridge, and many other universities, create doctors of music (Mus.D.).

DOCTORS' COMMONS was a college founded in 1567 for the Doctors of the Civil Law in London, and was at one time the seat of the Court of Arches, the Archdeacon's Court, and the Court of Admiralty. The practitioners in these courts were called advocates and proctors. In 1857 an Act was passed empowering the college to sell its property and dissolve, and making the privileges of the proctors common to all solicitors.

DOCTORS OF THE CHURCH, a name given to four of the Greek Fathers (Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysostom) and five of the Latin Fathers (Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and Gregory the Great). The Roman Catholic Church, however, recognizes eighteen 'Doctors of the Church', including, besides those already mentioned, Chrysologus, Leo, Isidore, Peter Damian, Anselm, Bernard of Clairvaux, Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, and Alphonsus of Liguori. The title is conferred only after death.

DOCTRINAIRES, a section of French politicians, represented by the Duc de Broglie, Royer-Collard, Guizot, and others, who became prominent after the Restoration in 1815. They favoured a constitutional monarchy similar to that which then existed in Britain. In the Chambers they thus occupied a place between Radicals and ultra-Royalists. They received the name of _doctrinaires_ because they were looked upon more as theoretical constitution-makers than practical politicians, and the term is now used with a wider application to political theorists generally.

1, Pistil. 2, Corolla.]

DODDER, the common name of the plants of the genus Cusc[)u]ta, a group of slender, branched, twining, leafless pink or white annual parasites, nat. ord. Convolvulaceae. The seeds germinate on the ground, but the young plant speedily attaches itself to some other plant, from which it derives all its nourishment. Four species are common in England--_C. europaea_, found on nettles and vetches; _C. Epithymum_, on furze, thyme, and heather (these two being natives); _C. trifolii_, on clover; _C. Epil[=i]num_, on cultivated flax (both introduced from abroad).

DODDRIDGE, Philip, D.D., an English Dissenting divine, born in London in 1702, died in 1751. He was an earnest pastor, and the author of many hymns and devotional treatises. _The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul_ and _The Family Expositor_ are amongst his best known works. Many of his hymns are still sung, such as _O God of Bethel, by whose hand_; and _O happy day that fixed my choice_.

DODECANESE (Gr., twelve islands), a name applied since the Turko-Italian War of 1912-3 to a group of islands lying off the south-west coast of Asia Minor, the base of the Italian troops. The group, consisting of the Southern Sporades, includes the Islands of Patmos, Cos, Lipsos, and others near Rhodes. Italy agreed to restore the islands to Turkey, but was prevented from carrying out the agreement by the breaking out of the Balkan War. The Treaty of Peace with Turkey (11th May, 1920) allotted these islands to Italy, who ceded them again to Greece (with the exception of Rhodes).

DODGSON, Charles Lutwidge. See _Carroll, Lewis_.

DODO (_Didus ineptus_), an extinct genus of birds once abundant on the Island of Mauritius, and assigned by naturalists to the ord. Columbae or pigeons, though an extreme modification of the type. It was a massive clumsy bird, larger than a swan, covered with down instead of feathers, with short ill-shaped legs, a strong bulky hooked beak, and wings and tail so short as to be useless for flight. Its extinction was due to its organization not being adapted to the new conditions which colonization and cultivation introduced. It probably became extinct soon after 1681.

DODO'NA, a celebrated locality of ancient Greece, in Epirus, where was one of the most ancient Greek oracles. It was a seat of Zeus (surnamed the Pelasgian), whose communications were announced to the priestesses in the rustling of the leaves on its oak tree, and the murmuring of water which gushed forth from the earth.

DODS, Marcus, theologian, born at Belford, Northumberland, in 1834, his father being minister of the Scottish Church there, died in 1909. He was educated in Edinburgh, where he took his M.A. degree at the age of twenty. In 1858 he was licensed as a minister of the Free Church of Scotland, and eight years afterwards was ordained to Renfield Free Church, Glasgow, where he remained until his appointment in 1889 to the chair of New Testament Exegesis in New College, Edinburgh. Of his works some of the most important are: _The Prayer that Teaches to Pray_ (1863, 6th edition, 1889); _Epistles to the Seven Churches_ (1865); _Israel's Iron Age_ (1874); _Mohammed, Buddha, and Christ_ (1877); _The Book of Genesis_ (1882); _Parables of Our Lord_ (1883 and 1885); _How to become like Christ_ (1897); _Forerunners of Dante_ (1903); _The Bible: its Origin and Nature_ (1905); and articles in the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_.

DODSLEY, Robert, English poet, dramatist, and publisher, born in 1703, died in 1764. His first volume of verses, _The Muse in Livery_, appeared in 1732. _The Toy Shop_ was performed at Covent Garden in 1735. In 1737 his _King and the Miller of Mansfield_ was performed at Drury Lane, and met with an enthusiastic reception. He also wrote a tragedy, entitled _Cleone_, which had an extraordinary success on the stage. A selection of _Fables in Prose_, with an _Essay on Fables_ prefixed, was one of his latest productions. He planned the _Annual Register_ (commenced in 1758); the _Collection of Old Plays_ (12 vols. 12mo), which now chiefly sustains his name as a publisher; and the _Collection of Poems by Different Hands_ (6 vols. 12mo).

DOE, John, and Richard Roe, two fictitious personages of the English law who formerly appeared in a suit of ejectment. This fictitious form of procedure was abolished in 1852.

_m_, Molars. _pm_, Premolars. _cl_, Carnassial. _can_, Canines. _i_, Incisors.]

DOG (_Canis familiaris_), a digitigrade, carnivorous animal, forming the type of the genus Canis, which includes also the wolf, the jackal, and the fox. The origin of the dog is a much-debated question. The original stock is unknown, but various species of wolf and jackal have been suggested as ancestors. Probably a number of wild types were domesticated by prehistoric man, and there has been a good deal of crossing between these different stocks. It is generally agreed that no trace of the dog is to be found in a primitive state, the dhole of India and dingo of Australia being believed to be wild descendants from domesticated ancestors. Several attempts to make a systematic classification of the varieties of dogs have been made, but without much success, it being difficult in many cases to determine what are to be regarded as types, and what as merely mongrels and cross-breeds. Colonel Hamilton Smith divides dogs into six groups as follows: (1) _Wolf-dogs_, including the Newfoundland, Esquimaux, St. Bernard, shepherd's dog, &c.; (2) _Watch-dogs and Cattle-dogs_, including the German boar-hound, the Danish dog, the matin dog, &c.; (3) _Greyhounds_, the lurcher, Irish hound, &c.; (4) _Hounds_, the bloodhound, staghound, foxhound, setter, pointer, spaniel, cocker, poodle, &c.; (5) _Terriers_ and their allies; (6) _Mastiffs_, including the different kinds of mastiffs, bull-dog, pug-dog, &c. (See the different articles.) On each side of the upper jaw are three incisors, one canine, four premolars, and three or two molars: on each side of the lower jaw the same number, except that the molars are four or three. The fore-feet have five toes, the hind-feet four or five; the claws are strong, blunt, and formed for digging, and are not retractile. The tail is generally long, and is curled upwards. The female has six to ten mammae; she goes with young nine weeks as a rule. The young are born blind, their eyes opening in ten to twelve days; their growth ceases at two years of age. The dog commonly lives about ten or twelve years, at the most twenty. By English law it is prohibited to use dogs for purposes of draught.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Youatt, _Training and Management of the Dog_; R. B. Lee, _A History and Description of Modern Dogs_; F. T. Barton, _Our Dogs and All about Them_; J. S. Turner and V. Nicolas, _The Kennel Encyclopaedia_.

DOG-DAYS, the name applied by the ancients to a period of about forty days, the hottest season of the year, at the time of the heliacal rising of Sirius, the dog-star. The time of the rising is now, owing to the precession of the equinoxes, different from what it was to the ancients (1st July); and the dog-days are now counted from 3rd July to 11th Aug., that is, twenty days before and twenty days after the heliacal rising.

DOGE (d[=o]j: from Lat. _dux_, a leader, later a duke), formerly the title of the first magistrates in the Italian Republics of Venice and Genoa. The first doge of Venice elected for life was Paolo Anafesto, in 697; and in Genoa, Simone Boccanera, in 1339. In 1437 the Doge of Venice obtained from the emperor a diploma creating him 'Duke of Treviso, Feltre, Belluno, Padua, Brescia, Bergamo, &c.'. In Venice the dignity was always held for life; in Genoa, in later times, only for two years. In both cities the office was abolished by the French in 1797. The title was re-established in 1802 for the Ligurian Republic, but was abolished in 1805.

DOG-FISH, a name given to several species of small shark, common around the British Isles. The rough skin of one of the species (_Scyllium canic[)u]la_), the lesser spotted dog-fish, is used by joiners and other artificers in polishing various substances, particularly wood. This species is rarely 3 feet long, _S. cat[)u]lus_, the greater spotted dog-fish, is in length from 3 to 5 feet. It is blackish-brown in colour, marked with numerous small dark spots. Both species are very voracious and destructive. Their flesh is hard, dry, and unpalatable. The common or picked dog-fish (_Acanthias vulg[=a]ris_) is common in British and N. American seas, and is sometimes used as food. It is fierce and voracious. _S. profundorum_ has been brought up from 816 fathoms in the North Atlantic. The tiger or zebra-shark (_Stegostoma tigrinum_) is a handsome dog-fish native to the Indian Ocean. It is marked with dark stripes on a yellow ground, and may attain the length of 15 feet.

DOGGER, a Dutch vessel equipped with two masts and somewhat resembling a ketch. It is used particularly in the North Sea for the cod and herring fisheries.

DOGGER BANK, an extensive sand-bank, near the middle of the North Sea, between Denmark on the east and England on the west, celebrated for its cod-fishery. It commences about 36 miles east of Flamborough Head and extends E.N.E. to within 60 miles of Jutland, in some places attaining a breadth of about 60 miles, though it terminates merely in a point. Where shallowest the water over it is 9 fathoms. In Oct., 1904, the Russian Baltic Squadron fired upon a British fishing-fleet on the Dogger, killing two men. The incident was settled by arbitration. During the European War a naval battle was fought off the Dogger Bank on 24th Jan., 1915, in which three powerful German cruisers were seriously injured by a British fleet under Admiral Beatty, but made their escape to Heligoland.

DOGGETT'S COAT AND BADGE, the prize for a rowing-match which is held annually on the 1st Aug., the course being on the Thames from London Bridge to Chelsea. The match is open to six young watermen whose apprenticeship ends the same year, and the prize is a waterman's red coat bearing a badge which represents the white horse of Hanover. It was instituted--in celebration of the accession of George I--by the actor Thomas Doggett, born in Dublin; but though first rowed in 1716, its winners have only been recorded since 1791. The match, like other events of the same kind, suspended during the War, was held again on 3rd and 4th Aug., 1920, for the years 1915 to 1920.

DOG-GODS. The dog was the first domesticated animal, and at an early period was deified. In ancient Egypt the god Anubis, who guided souls to the Otherworld, was dog-headed, as Herodotus says, or jackal-headed. Yama, the Indian god of death, has a dog form, and in the _Mah['a]bh['a]rata_, as Dh['a]rma, god of justice (one of his forms), leads the Pandava brothers to Paradise as a dog. Indra had a dog form, and the custom still prevails among Northern Indian hill tribes of pouring hot oil in a dog's ear to bring rain; The Big Dog (Indra) is supposed to hear the howl of the tortured dog. The dog of Hades figures in Greek, Scandinavian, Celtic, and other mythologies. Cuchullin slew the dog of Hades, and was called 'Hound (_cu_) of Culann'. The widespread belief that dogs howl when a sudden death is about to take place has a long history. Dog ancestors figure in American, Javan, and other myths. In Japanese temples are images of 'Ama-Inu' (Heavenly Dog). Red Indian myths refer to a Dog Creator and to the eclipse-causing dog. Eskimos thrash dogs during an eclipse.

DOGMA (Gr. _dogma_, from _dokein_, to seem), an article of religious belief, one of the doctrines of the Christian faith. The history of dogmas, as a branch of theology, exhibits in a historical way the origin and the changes of the various Christian systems of belief, showing what opinions were received by the various sects in different ages of Christianity, the sources of the different creeds, by what arguments they were attacked and supported, what degrees of importance were attached to them in different ages, the circumstances by which they were affected, and the mode in which the dogmas were combined into systems. Lectures on this subject are common in the German universities. In English dogma and dogmatism have come to be frequently used for assertion without proof.

DOGMAT'ICS, a systematic arrangement of the articles of Christian faith (dogmas), or the branch of theology that deals with them. The first attempt to furnish a complete and coherent system of Christian dogmas was made by Origen in the third century.

D[=O]GRA. The D[=o]gras are a race of Indian hillmen, descended from Rajputs, who in almost prehistoric times overran the country to the east of Jammu, in Southern Kashmir, and founded principalities. They are now found in and recruited from the country comprised within a rough triangle having Jammu, Simla, and Chamba at its angles; or more generally still, between the upper waters of the Rivers Chenab and Sutlej, two of the five rivers from which the Punjab takes its name. By religion the D[=o]gras are, as becomes their descent, strict Hindus; indeed, their religion may be considered Hinduism in its purer and more original form, uncontaminated by outside influences. As is the case with other high-caste Hindus, the D[=o]gra's life is largely governed by ceremonial observances, those relating to birth, initiation, marriage, and death being the more important. He is, however, rather less fastidious about ceremonial cooking than either the sacerdotal Brahman or his distant Rajput cousin of the plains.

The D[=o]gra is not a big man, his average height being barely 5 feet 5 inches, but he is sturdy, and develops well with training, and, being fond of sport and games, makes an excellent soldier, especially in his native hills. Being Rajputs by descent, they are essentially a race of soldiers, and, enlisted in the Indian army, give excellent service as such, being law-abiding, hardy and enduring, and quietly courageous. It has already been said that D[=o]gras are not so ceremonious in their cooking arrangements as either Brahmans or down-country Rajputs, who require separate cooking-places for each man; the D[=o]gra, on the other hand, though remaining very particular about his drinking-water utensils, will yet agree to have his food prepared for him in messes of five to ten men; this trait makes his value on service and under service conditions considerably greater than that of either of the two above-mentioned classes. In the Indian army there are three first-line battalions of D[=o]gras: the 37th, 38th, and 41st. These are what are known as class regiments; that is, they consist entirely of the one class. In addition to the three regiments, D[=o]gras also enlist in the cavalry and in class-company regiments, i.e. regiments enlisting a variety of classes while keeping them separate inside the regiment.

DOG-ROSE, the _Rosa can[=i]na_, or wild brier, nat. ord. Rosaceae. It is a common British plant, growing in thickets and hedges. The fruit is known as the hip.

lis perennis_)

1, Male flower. 3, Same, enlarged. 2, Female flower.]

DOG'S-MERCURY, _Mercuri[=a]lis perennis_, nat. ord. Euphorbiaceae, a woodland herb common in Britain. It has poisonous properties, and may be made to yield a fugitive blue dye.

DOG'S-TAIL GRASS (Cynos[=u]rus), a genus of grasses. _Cynos[=u]rus crist[=a]tus_ is a perennial found wild all over Great Britain in pastures, lawns, and parks. Its roots are long and wiry, and, descending deep into the ground, ensure the herbage against suffering from drought. Its stem is from 1 to 2 feet high, and its leaves are slightly hairy.

DOG'S-TOOTH ORNAMENT, an architectural ornament or moulding consisting usually of four leaves radiating from a raised point at the centre. It is the characteristic decorated moulding of Early English architecture, as the zigzag is of the Norman.

DOG-TOOTH SPAR, a form of mineral calcium carbonate or calc-spar found in Derbyshire and other parts of England, and named from a supposed resemblance of its pointed crystals to a dog's tooth.

DOG-WATCH, a nautical term distinguishing two watches of two hours each (4 to 6 p.m. and 6 to 8 p.m.). All the other watches count four hours each, and without the introduction of the dog-watches the same hours would always fall to be kept as watch by the same portion of the crew.

DOGWOOD, a common name of trees of the genus Cornus, but specifically applied in Britain to _C. sanguinea_. It is a common shrub in copses and hedges in England; the small cream-white flowers are borne in dense roundish clusters. The branchlets and leaves become red in autumn. The wood is used for skewers and for charcoal for gunpowder.

DOIT, an ancient Scottish coin, of which eight or twelve were equal to a penny sterling. In the Netherlands and Lower Germany there was a coin of similar name and value.

DOL, a town of France, department of Ille-et-Vilaine, 14 miles south-east by east of St. Malo. The old cathedral of St. Samson mostly dates back to the thirteenth century. To the north of the town stretches a salt-marsh, protected from inroads of the sea by a twelfth-century dyke, and in the centre of the marsh Mont-Dol rises to a height of 213 feet. Pop. 3540.

DOLCI (dol'ch[=e]), Carlo, celebrated painter of the Florentine school, was born at Florence in 1616, and died there in 1686. His works, principally heads of madonnas and saints, have a character of sweetness and melancholy. Among his chief productions are: _Archduchess Claudia_, in the Uffizi (Florence); _St. Cecilia at the Organ_ and _Herodias with the Head of John the Baptist_, both in the Dresden Gallery; _Ecce Homo_ and _St. Andrew in Prayer_, at the Pitti Gallery; and _Magdalene_, at Munich.

DOLCINITES, a Christian sect of Piedmont, so named from their leader Dolcino. They arose in 1304 as a protest against Papacy, but were suppressed by the troops of the Inquisition in 1307.

DOL'DRUMS, among seamen, the parts of the ocean near the equator that abound in calms, squalls, and light baffling winds; otherwise known as the horse-latitudes.

D[^O]LE, a town in France, Jura, 26 miles southeast of Dijon. It is of Roman origin, was long the capital of Franche Comt['e], and has some interesting antiquities. The manufactures are Prussian blue, hosiery, ironware, and leather. Pop. 16,294.

DOL'ERITE, compact rock of the Basaltic series, but crystalline throughout, composed of augite and labradorite with some titaniferous iron ore and often olivine. It makes, when unaltered, an excellent road-metal.

DOLGEL'LY, a town of Wales, capital of Merionethshire, near the foot of Cader Idris. It was there that Owen Glendower held his Parliament in 1404 and signed his treaty with Charles VI of France. It has manufactories of woollens, flannels, and cloths. Pop. 2160.

DOLICHOCEPHALIC (dol-i-ko-se-fal'ik), long-headed: a term used in anthropology to denote those skulls in which the diameter from side to side is less in proportion to the longitudinal diameter (i.e. from front to back) than 8 to 10.

DOL'ICHOS (-kos), a genus of leguminous plants, sub-ord. Papilionaceae. They are found in the tropical and temperate regions of Asia, Africa, and America, and all produce edible legumes. _D. Lablab_ is one of the most common kidney beans in India, and _D. biflorus_ (horse-gram) is used as cattle-food in the same country. _D. Pachyrrhizus tuber[=o]sus_ of Martinique has a fleshy tuberous root which is an article of food.

DOL'ICHOSAURUS ('long lizard'), an extinct snake-like reptile found in the English chalk, whose remains indicate a creature of aquatic habits from 2 to 3 feet in length.

DOLLAR, a silver or gold coin of the United States, of the value of 100 cents, or rather above 4_s_. sterling. The same name is also given to coins of the same general weight and value, though differing somewhat in different countries, current in Mexico, a great part of South America, Singapore, and the Philippine Islands. The name is from the Dutch (also Danish and Swedish) _daler_, from Ger. _thaler_, so named from Ger. _thal_, a dale, because first coined in Joachimsthal, in Bohemia, in 1518. By the Act of 14th March, 1900, the gold dollar was declared to be the standard of value in the United States, but no provision was made for the issue of a coin corresponding to the unit.

DOLLAR, a town and police burgh, Scotland, Clackmannanshire, 10 miles E. by N. of Stirling, noted for its academy, founded by John Macnab, who left L90,000 for this purpose. The building, a handsome structure in the Grecian style, was erected in 1819. The population of the village is 1497.

DOLLART, THE, a gulf of the North Sea, at the mouth of the Ems, between the Dutch province of Groningen and Hanover. It was originally dry land, and was formed by irruptions of the sea which took place in 1277 and 1530, overwhelming thirty-four large villages and numerous hamlets.

D[:O]LLINGER (deul'ing-[.e]r), Johann Joseph Ignaz, a celebrated German theologian and leader of the Old Catholic party, was born at Bamberg, in Bavaria, in 1799, died in 1890. In 1822 he entered the Church, and soon after published _The Doctrine of the Eucharist during the First Three Centuries_, a work which won him the position of lecturer on Church history at the University of Munich. In later years he took an active part in the political struggles of the time as representative of the university in the Bavarian Parliament, and as delegate at the Diet of Frankfurt voted for the total separation of Church and State. In 1861 he delivered a course of lectures, in which he attacked the temporal power of the Papacy. But it was first at the Oecumenical Council of 1869-70 that Dr. D[:o]llinger became famous over Europe by his opposition to the doctrine of Papal infallibility. In consequence of his opposition to the Vatican decrees, he was excommunicated in 1871 by the Archbishop of Munich. A few months later he was elected rector of the University of Munich, where he remained until his death. When the sentence of his excommunication was pronounced, he received honorary degrees from the Universities of Oxford and Edinburgh. Among his numerous works are: _Origins of Christianity_, _A Sketch of Luther_, _The Papacy_, _Lectures on the Reunion of the Churches_, and _Papal Legends of the Middle Ages_.

DOL'LOND, John, an English optician of French descent, born in 1706, died in 1761. He devoted his attention to the improvement of refracting telescopes, and succeeded in constructing object-glasses in which the refrangibility of the rays of light was corrected.

DOLLS, representing more or less realistically the human form, have, for more than fifty centuries, been the common playthings of children, more especially of girls, whose maternal instinct impels them to lavish upon these often crude surrogates all the affection and devotion which their elders display towards real babies. But in ancient times, and even in the ritual of many modern religions, worship is not infrequently paid to human images, which in ancient times, and among the less cultured modern peoples, are hardly distinguishable from dolls, such as children regard as playthings and their fancy endows with a crude animism. In the earliest times in which members of our own species, _Homo sapiens_, are known to have lived in Europe, i.e. at the latter part of the so-called Old Stone (palaeolithic) Age, it was the custom to make grotesque representations of the female form as small figurines of clay or stone, which were regarded as amulets identified with the Great Mother, the giver of birth or life to mankind. As 'givers of life' such amulets were believed to be able to protect their possessors against the risk of death, because they were regarded in the most literal sense of the term as life-giving. But it was not merely against the risk of death that such amulets were believed to be potent: they could add 'vital substance' to the living and the dead, rejuvenating and reinvigorating the former, and enhancing the chances of continued existence and survival to the latter. Enormous respect was naturally paid to figurines supposed to possess such far-reaching powers; and when the Great Mother came to be identified with various animals, such as the cow, pig, &c., the amulet was identified with these 'givers of life' and sometimes represented in their shape. This is intimately associated with the origin of _totemism_ (q.v.). It is probable that the modern doll is in part at least the survivor of these primitive images of the deities of early peoples. The fact that modern dolls are usually of the female sex may also be due to the fact of the earliest prototype of the doll being an amulet representing the Great Mother.

DOL'MAN, a long robe worn by the Turks as an upper garment. It is open in front, and has narrow sleeves. It has given its name to a kind of loose jacket worn by ladies, and to the jacket worn by hussars.

DOL'MEN, a Celtic name meaning 'table-stone'. Although some apply the name to prehistoric stone chambers covered with more than one slab (really 'corridor tombs'), the Dolmen proper, whether round or square, has a single cover-slab, and three, four, or even more stones supporting it. Some authorities consider the name _dolmen_ as simply a French equivalent for _cromlech_ (q.v.).

DOLOMIEU (dol-o-my_eu_), D['e]odat Guy Silvain Tancr[`e]de Gratet de, a French geologist and mineralogist, born in 1750 at Dolomieu (Is[`e]re), died in 1801. After some years of military service, he devoted himself to geological researches. He accompanied the French expedition to Egypt, but was shipwrecked on his return off the coast of Taranto, and imprisoned and harshly treated by the Neapolitan Government. Among his works are: _Voyages aux [^I]les de Lipari_ (1783), _Sur le Tremblement de Terre de la Calabre_ (1784), _Philosophie min['e]ralogique_ (1802).

DOL'OMITE, a mineral, the main constituent of magnesian limestone. It is composed of carbonate of calcium and carbonate of magnesium in equal molecular quantities, and varies from grey or yellowish-white to yellowish-brown. Dolomite is easily scratched with the knife, and is semi-transparent. It effervesces only slightly in _cold_ hydrochloric acid. Its rhombohedral crystals are sometimes called _bitter-spar_. A variety is _pearl spar_, which has crystals with curvilinear faces and a pearly lustre.

DOLOMITES, a group of European mountains, a division of the Alps, in the Trentino, North Italy, and having the Piave and Rienz on the east, the Adige and Eisack on the west. They are named from the prevalence of the mineral dolomite, and present most interesting and picturesque scenery, the peaks being endlessly varied in form. The highest summits are Palle di San Martino (10,968 feet); Sorapiss (10,798 feet), and Monte Tofana (10,715 feet).

nus delphis_)]