Chapter M: M. J. SUTHERLAND, D.Sc., F.I.C (11)

DUDLEY LIMESTONE, a highly fossiliferous limestone belonging to the Silurian system, occurring near Dudley, and equivalent to the Wenlock limestone. It abounds in beautiful masses of coral, shells, and trilobites.

DUEL (Lat. _duellum_, from _duo_, two), a premeditated and prearranged combat between two persons with deadly weapons, for the purpose of deciding some private difference or quarrel. The combat generally takes place in the presence of witnesses called seconds, who make arrangements as to the mode of fighting, place the weapons in the hands of the combatants, and see that the laws they have laid down are carried out. The origin of the practice of duelling is referred to the trial by 'wager of battle' which obtained in early ages. This form of duel arose among the Germanic peoples, and a judicial combat of the kind was authorized by Gundebald, King of the Burgundians, as early as A.D. 501. When the judicial combat declined, the modern duel arose, being probably to some extent an independent outcome of the spirit and institutions of chivalry. France was the country in which it arose, the sixteenth century being the time at which it first became common, especially after the challenge of Francis I to Charles V in 1528. Upon every insult or injury which seemed to touch his honour, a gentleman thought himself entitled to draw his sword, and to call on his adversary to give him satisfaction, and it is calculated that 6000 persons fell in duels during ten years of the reign of Henri IV. His minister, Sully, remonstrated against the practice; but the king connived at it, supposing that it tended to maintain a military spirit among his people. In 1602, however, he issued a decree against it, and declared it to be punishable with death. Many subsequent prohibitions were issued, but they were all powerless to stop the practice. During the minority of Louis XIV, more than 4000 nobles are said to have lost their lives in duels. The practice of duelling was introduced into England from France in the reign of James I; but it was never so common as in the latter country. Cromwell was an enemy of the duel, and during the Protectorate there was a cessation of the practice. It came again into vogue, however, after the Restoration, thanks chiefly to the French ideas that then inundated the court. As society became more polished duels became more frequent, and they were never more numerous than in the reign of George III. Among the principals in the chief duels of this period were Charles James Fox, Sheridan, Pitt, Canning, Castlereagh, the Duke of York, the Duke of Richmond, and Lord Camelford. The last mentioned was the most notorious duellist of his time, and was himself killed in a duel in 1804. A duel was fought between the Duke of Wellington and Lord Winchelsea in 1829, but the practice was dying out. It lasted longest in the army. By English law fatal duelling is considered murder, no matter how fair the combat may have been, and the seconds are liable to the same penalty as the principals. In 1813 the principal and seconds in a fatal duel were sentenced to death, though afterwards pardoned. An officer in the army having anything to do with a duel renders himself liable to be cashiered. In France duelling still prevails to a certain extent; but the combats are usually very bloodless and ridiculous affairs. In the German army until 1918 it was common, and was recognized by law. The duels of German students, so often spoken of, seldom cause serious bloodshed.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Millingen, _History of Duelling_; Steinmetz, _Romance of Duelling_; G. Letainturier-Fradin, _Le duel [`a] travers les [^a]ges_; C. A. Thimm, _Bibliography of Fencing and Duelling_; A. Hutton, _The Sword and the Centuries_.

DUEN'NA, the chief lady-in-waiting on the Queen of Spain. In a more general sense, an elderly woman holding a middle station between a governess and companion, appointed to take charge of the young daughters of Spanish and Portuguese families.

DUFAURE (d[.u]-f[=o]r), Jules Armand Stanislas, French orator and statesman, born 1798, died 1881. He practised law at Bordeaux; entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1834, and became an influential leader of the Liberal party. Under the Republic he was Minister of the Interior, but was driven from the public service by the _coup d'['e]tat_ of 1851, and for the next twenty years devoted himself closely to his Bar practice and pamphlet writing. Under the Government of Thiers he acted as Minister of Justice; and in 1876, and again from 1877 to 1879, he was head of the Cabinet.

DUFF, Alexander, Scottish missionary, born 1806, died 1878. Educated at St. Andrews University, in 1829 he set out for India as the first Church of Scotland missionary to that country, and reached Calcutta after being twice shipwrecked. He opened a school in which he taught successfully the doctrines of Christianity, as well as general knowledge, but on his secession (along with the other missionaries of the Church) from the Church of Scotland in 1843, he had to give up the school and begin again. In 1849 he visited Scotland, where he remained until 1856. He assisted in founding the University of Calcutta, and, having been obliged to return home for reasons of health, he raised L10,000 to endow a missionary chair in the New College, Edinburgh, becoming himself its first occupant. His chief writings are: _The Church of Scotland's India Mission_ (1835); _Vindication of the Church of Scotland's India Mission_ (1837); _India and India Missions_ (1840); _The Jesuits_ (1845); and _The Indian Mutiny: its Causes and Results_ (a series of letters published in 1858).

DUFF, Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant, writer on political and other subjects, born in Aberdeenshire in 1829, died in 1906. He was educated at Edinburgh Academy, The Grange, Bishop Wearmouth, and Balliol College, Oxford, was called to the Bar at the Inner Temple in 1854, and in 1857 entered the House of Commons as Liberal member for the Elgin Burghs, which constituency he continued to represent until 1881. He was Under-Secretary for India in W. E. Gladstone's ministry from 1868 to 1874, and Under-Secretary for the Colonies from 1880 to 1881, in which latter year he was appointed Governor of Madras. His Indian administration was most successful, and on his retirement in 1886 he was made a G.C.S.I. He was president of the Royal Geographical Society from 1889 to 1893, and of the Royal Historical Society from 1892 to 1899, and was also a trustee of the British Museum. His published works include: _Studies in European Politics_ (1866); _A Political Survey_ (1868); _Elgin Speeches_ (1871); _Notes of an Indian Journey_ (1876); _Miscellanies, Political and Literary_ (1879); _Memoir of Sir H. S. Maine_ (1892); _Ernest Renan_ (1893); and _Notes from a Diary_ (7 vols., 1897-1905).

DUFF'ERIN AND AVA, Frederick Temple Hamilton-Blackwood, Marquess of, British statesman and author, son of the fourth Baron Dufferin and a granddaughter of R. B. Sheridan, born at Florence 1826, died in 1902. He began his public services in 1855, when he was attached to Earl Russell's mission to Vienna. Subsequently he was sent as Commissioner to Syria in connection with the massacre of the Christians (1860); was Under-Secretary of State for India (1864-6); Under-Secretary for War (1866); Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (1868-72); Governor-General of Canada (1872-78); Ambassador at St. Petersburg (1879-81); at Constantinople (1882); sent to Cairo to settle the affairs of the country after Arabi Pasha's rebellion (1882-3); Viceroy of India (1884-8); Ambassador to Italy (1889-91); to France (1891-96). He was elected president of the Royal Geographical Society in 1878, and Lord Rector of Glasgow University in 1891. Besides being a noted diplomatist, he was also a popular author. In 1847 he published _Narrative of a Journey from Oxford to Skibbereen during the year of the Irish Famine_; in 1860, _Letters from High Latitudes_; also various pamphlets on Irish questions. In 1888 he was made Marquess of Dufferin and Ava.--Cf. Sir A. Lyall, _Life of the Marquess of Dufferin and Ava_.

DUFR['E]NOY (d[.u]-fr[.e]-nw[:a]) Pierre Armand, French geologist and mineralogist, born in 1792, died in 1857. He became director of the school of mines, and published a great variety of papers on geology and mineralogy. In 1841 he published, in collaboration with ['E]lie de Beaumont, a great geological map of France with three volumes of text, and this was followed by his _Trait['e] de Min['e]ralogie_. He introduced a new classification of minerals, based on crystallography.

DUFRESNY (d[.u]-fr[=a]-n[=e]), Charles Rivi[`e]re, a French comic poet, born in 1648, died in 1724. He was clever and versatile, and had great skill as a landscape-gardener and an architectural designer. Among his dramatic pieces may be mentioned _L'Esprit de Contradiction_, _Le Mariage Fait et Rompu_, and _Le Double Veuvage_. He also wrote _Amusements s['e]rieux et comiques d'un Siamois_, which suggested to Montesquieu his _Lettres Persanes_.

DUG'DALE, Sir William, an English antiquary, born in 1605 of a good family in Warwickshire, died 1686. He was made Chester herald in 1644; accompanied Charles I through the civil war; and after the Restoration received knighthood, and was appointed garter king-at-arms. In concert with Roger Dodsworth he produced an important work on English monasteries entitled _Monasticon Anglicanum_. Among his other works are: _Antiquities of Warwickshire_; _The Baronage or Peerage of England_; _Origines Judiciales, or Historical Memoirs of the English Law, Courts of Justice, &c._; a _History of St. Paul's Cathedral_; and various minor writings. He also completed and published the second volume of Spelman's _Concilia_.

r[=e] dugong_)]

DU'GONG, a herbivorous mammal, the _Halic[)o]r[=e] dugong_, belonging to the ord. Sirenia, which also includes the manatees. It is a native of the Indian and Australian seas; possesses a tapering body ending in a crescent-shaped fin, and is said sometimes to attain a length of 20 feet, though generally it is about 7 or 8 feet in length. The fore-limbs are in the form of flippers; hind-limbs are absent. The skin is thick and smooth, with a few scattered bristles; the colour bluish above and white beneath. Its food consists of marine plants; it yields little or no oil, but is hunted by the Malays for its flesh, which resembles veal, and is tender and palatable. It has been suggested that the appearance of this animal has given rise to the legends of mermaids and mermen.

DUGUAY-TROUIN (d[:u]-g[=a]-tr[:o]-an), Ren['e], a distinguished French seaman, born at St. Malo in 1673, died at Paris 1736. As commander of a privateer he took many prizes from the British between 1690 and 1697. He then entered the royal marine as a captain, and signalized himself so much in the Spanish War that the king granted him letters of nobility, in which it was stated that he had captured more than 300 merchant ships and twenty ships of war. By the capture of Rio de Janeiro (1711) he brought the Crown more than 25,000,000 francs. Under Louis XV he rendered important services in the Levant and the Mediterranean.

DU GUESCLIN (d[:u]-g[=a]-klan), Bertrand, Constable of France, born about 1314, died 1380. Mainly to him must be attributed the expulsion of the English from Normandy, Guienne, and Poitou. He was captured by Chandos at the battle of Auray in 1364, and ransomed for 100,000 francs. While serving in Spain against Peter the Cruel, he was made prisoner by the English Black Prince, but was soon liberated. For his services in Spain he was made Constable of Castile, Count of Trastamare, and Duke of Molinas; and in 1370 he was made Constable of France.

DUIKERBOK, species of Cephalophus, small South African antelopes with short horns (none in the female), and a tuft of stiff hairs between them.

DUISBURG (d[:o]'is-b[u:]r_h_), a flourishing town in Rhenish Prussia, 13 miles north of D[:u]sseldorf. It is an ancient place, believed to be of Roman origin. It early rose to be a free town, and became a member of the Hanseatic League. It possesses a beautiful church of the fifteenth century, and has iron manufactories, engineering works, chemical works, and cotton and woollen mills; and a large trade greatly facilitated by a canal communicating with the Rhine, which is about 2 miles distant. Pop. 229,483.

DUJARDIN (d[.u]-zh[.a]r-da[n.]), Karel, a Dutch artist, who excelled in painting landscapes, animals, and scenes in low life, born in 1640 at Amsterdam, died at Venice 1678. His paintings are rare, and command high prices. His masterpiece, _The Charlatans_ (1657), is in the Louvre.

DUKE (Fr. _duc_, Sp. _duque_, It. _duca_, all from Lat. _dux_, leader, commander), a title belonging originally to a military leader. In Britain it is the highest rank in the peerage. Royal dukes have a special status and precedence. The first hereditary duke in England was the Black Prince, created by his father, Edward III, in 1336. The duchy of Cornwall was bestowed upon him, and was thenceforward attached to the eldest son of the king, who is considered a duke by birth. The duchy of Lancaster was soon after conferred on Edward's third son, John of Gaunt, and hence arose the special privileges which these two duchies still in part retain. A duke in the British peerage, not of royal rank, is styled 'your grace', or 'my Lord Duke'; his wife is a duchess. (See _Address, Forms of_.) The coronet consists of a richly-chased gold circle, having on its upper edge eight golden leaves of a conventional type called strawberry leaves; the cap of crimson velvet is closed at the top with a gold tassel, lined with sarsenet, and turned up with ermine. (See _Coronet_.) At various periods and in different continental countries the title duke (_Herzog_ in Germany) was given to the actual sovereigns of small states. The titles 'grand-duke' and 'grand-duchess', 'archduke' and 'archduchess', were in use also on the European continent, especially in Russia and Austria until 1918. In the Bible the word _dukes_ is used (_Gen._ xxxvi) for the _duces_ of the _Vulgate_.

DUKHOBORZI (d[u:]_h_-o-bor'ts[=e]), a Russian sect of religious mystics which arose in the eighteenth century. The name means 'spirit-fighters', as the sect was accused by the orthodox priests of fighting against the spirit of God. They reject the doctrine of the Trinity, of the deity of Christ, hold property in common, and refuse oaths and military service, thus resembling Quakers. In 1899 a body of several thousands emigrated to Canada, where they received territory in Assiniboia and Saskatchewan.

DUKINFIELD, or DUCKINFIELD, a municipal borough, England, county Cheshire, separated by the Tame from Ashton-under-Lyne, and mostly within Stalybridge parliamentary borough. Collieries, cotton-factories, brickworks, and tileworks give employment to the population. Pop. (municipal borough), 19,426.

DULCE (d[u:]l's[=a]), a lake of Guatemala, on the east coast, communicating with the Gulf of Honduras by the lakelet el Golfete. It is about 30 miles long by 12 broad, and affords profitable turtle hunting.

DULCIGNO (d[u:]l-ch[=e]n'y[=o]), a small seaport town, formerly in Albania, now in Montenegro, on the Adriatic, the seat of a Roman Catholic Bishop. It was captured by the Austrians in 1916, and retaken by Italian troops in 1918. Pop. 5000.

DUL'CIMER, one of the most ancient musical instruments, used in almost all parts of the world. The modern instrument consists of a shallow trapezium-shaped box without a top, across which runs a series of wires, tuned by pegs at the sides, and played on by being struck by two cork-headed hammers. It is in much less common use in Europe now than it was a century or two ago, and is interesting chiefly as being the prototype of the piano. It is still, however, occasionally to be met with on the Continent at fairs in the country, and in England in the hands of street musicians. It was known in Persia and Arabia under the name of _santir_, and was introduced into Europe by the Crusaders. The Hebrew psaltery is supposed to have been a variety of the dulcimer.

DUL'CINISTS, followers of Dulcinus, a layman of Lombardy, in the fourteenth century, who preached the reign of the Holy Ghost, affirming that the Father had reigned till Christ's incarnation, and that the Son's reign terminated in 1300. He was followed by a great many people to the Alps, where he and his wife were taken and burned by order of Clement IV.

DULCITOL, or DULCITE, is an alcohol closely allied to the sugars. It is found in Madagascar manna, from which it is extracted by boiling water.

DULI'A (Gr. _douleia_, service, from _doulos_, a slave), an inferior kind of worship or adoration, as that paid to saints and angels in the Roman Catholic Church. The Catholics recognize different degrees of worship. The lowest degree is the _dulia_, which is given to saints and angels. _Hyperdulia_ is reserved for the Virgin alone; and _latria_ is given to God and to each person of the Trinity.

DULSE, a red sea-weed, the _Rhodymenia palm[=a]ta_, used in some parts of Scotland as an edible. It has a reddish-brown, or purple, leathery, veinless frond, several inches long, and is found at low water adhering to the rocks. It is an important plant to the Icelanders, and is stored by them in casks to be eaten with fish. In Kamchatka a fermented liquor is made from it. In the south of England the name is given to the _Iridaea ed[=u]lis_, also an edible red sea-weed.

DULUTH (du-luth'), a town of the United States, capital of St. Louis county, Minnesota, at the south-west extremity of Lake Superior. The Northern Pacific and Lake Superior and Mississippi railways terminate here; and extensive docks and other works have been constructed, affording a convenient outlet for the surrounding wheat region. Pop. 97,077.

DULWICH (dul'ich), a suburb of London, in County Surrey, about 5 miles south of London Bridge, giving name to a parliamentary division of the borough of Camberwell; noticeable on account of its school, _Dulwich College_, called the 'College of God's Gift,' founded as a charitable institution in 1619 by the actor Edward Allen or Alleyn. Four parishes were benefited by the charity: St. Luke's, Middlesex; St. Botolph's, Bishopsgate; St. Saviour's, Southwark; and St. Giles', Camberwell. Having outlived its usefulness, in 1857 an Act was passed by which the college was reconstituted. It now consists of two branches, the educational and the eleemosynary, between which the surplus revenue is divided in the proportion of three-fourths to the former and one-fourth to the latter. The educational branch comprises two schools, the upper and the lower; the former giving boys a high-class education (lower fees for those of the privileged parishes), and having a number of scholarships and exhibitions. The eleemosynary branch maintains a certain number of resident and non-resident poor people. The original revenues were only L800, but now amount to L20,000. Dulwich College is celebrated for its pictures, many of which were bequeathed by the founder; but the greater and more valuable portion of them was the bequest of Sir Francis Bourgeois, a landscape-painter, who died in 1810. The collection includes many fine pictures of the Dutch school.

DUMA, or DOUMA, the Lower House of the former Russian Parliament, the Upper House being the Council of the Empire. In 1905 Tsar Nicholas II granted his country a Constitution, promising that responsible Government would be established, and that no law would be made effective without the consent of the Duma. The first Duma accordingly met in 1906, and was to have had the power of a Parliament in Constitutional countries. The Legislative Assembly could make new laws, modify existing ones, issue the national Budget, &c., but had no right to alter the fundamental laws of the empire. In spite of the promises, however, given by the Tsar, the Imperial Government paid no attention to the demands of the Assembly, and when the criticisms of the Deputies became too loud, the first Duma was dissolved. A second Duma assembled the next year, but its members, in consequence of governmental restrictions on elections, were mostly Conservatives. In the opinion of the Government, however, even the second Duma was too Liberal in its tendencies, and it was promptly dissolved. The third Duma, which met in 1907, and whose members were mostly landed proprietors, retired officers, and priests, was absolutely subservient to the autocratic Government, and, from that date to the outbreak of the Russian Revolution in 1917, the power and influence of the Russian Duma were almost nil. The Duma ceased to exist on 7th Nov., 1917, when the Bolsheviks came into power, and the Government of Commissaries of the People was set up.

DUMAS (d[.u]-m[:a]), Alexandre (called _Dumas P[`e]re_), French novelist and dramatist, born at Villers-Cotterets 1803, died at Puys, near Dieppe, 1870. He was the son of a republican general, and grandson of the Marquis de la Pailleterie and a negress, Tiennette Dumas. In 1823 he went to Paris, and obtained an assistant-secretaryship from the Duke of Orleans, afterwards Louis Philippe. He soon began to write for the stage, and in 1829 scored his first success with his drama _Henri III et sa cour_. It was produced when the battle between the Romanticists and the Classicists was at its height, and hailed as a triumph by the former school. The same year appeared his _Christine_, and in quick succession _Antony_, _Richard d'Arlington_, _T['e]r['e]sa_, _La Tour de Nesle_, _Catharine Howard_, and _Mlle de Belle-Isle_. Dumas had now become a noted Parisian character. The critics fought over the merits of his pieces, and the scandal-mongers over his prodigality and _galanteries_. Turning his attention to romance, he produced a series of historical romances, among which may be mentioned: _Le b[^a]tard de Maul['e]on_; _Isabelle de Bavi[`e]re_; _Les Deux Dianes_; _La Reine Margot_; _Les Trois Mousquetaires_, with its continuations _Vingt Ans Apr[`e]s_ and the later _Vicomte de Bragelonne_. His _Monte-Cristo_ and several others are also well known to English readers through translations. Several historical works were also written by him: _Louis XIV et son Si[`e]cle_, _Le Regent et Louis XV_, _Le Drame de '93_, _Florence et les M['e]dicis_, &c. The works which bear his name amount to some 1200 volumes, including about 60 dramas; but the only claim he could lay to a great number of the productions issued under his name was that he either sketched the plot or revised them before going to press. He earned vast sums of money, but his recklessness and extravagance eventually reduced him to the adoption of a shifty, scheming mode of living. His _M['e]moires_, begun in 1852, present interesting sketches of literary life during the Restoration, but display intense egotism. In 1860 he accompanied Garibaldi in the expedition which freed Naples from the Bourbons. He died at the residence of his son, and was buried in Villers-Cotterets in 1872. Dumas was remarkable for his creative rather than for his artistic genius, and although he frequently squandered his gifts, he was admired even by the highly cultured, such as Thackeray and others.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Blaze de Bury, _Alexandre Dumas: sa vie, son temps, son oeuvre_; A. B. Davidson, _Alexandre Dumas p[`e]re: his Life and Works_.

DUMAS, Alexandre, son of the above, born 1824, died in 1895, novelist and dramatist. His works treat mostly of the relations between vice and morals. His first novels, _La Dame aux Cam['e]lias_ and _Diane de Lys_, were very successful, as were also the plays which were founded on them. His dramas, which are much superior to his novels, deal satirically with the characters, follies, and manners of French society. He was thus a pioneer in the 'comedy of manners'. His plays, besides his dramatized novel _La Dame aux Cam['e]lias_, which marked a date in the history of the French stage, and which supplied Verdi with the plot for _La Traviata_, are: _Le demi-monde_, _Le fils naturel_, _L'Ami des femmes_, _La princesse Georges_, and _L'['E]trang[`e]re_.

DUMAS, Matthieu, French soldier and military writer, born in 1753, died in Paris 1837. He early entered the French cavalry, took part in the War of American Independence, and was employed in the Levant and in Holland. At the commencement of the Revolution he assisted Lafayette in organizing the National Guard. On the triumph of the extreme party in 1797 Dumas was proscribed, but made his escape to Holstein, where he wrote the first part of his _Pr['e]cis des ['E]v['e]nements Militaires_, a valuable source for the history of the period of which it treats (1798-1807). He was recalled from exile by Napoleon, who had become First Consul. His first employment was to organize the reserve for the army of Italy. In 1802 he was appointed State Councillor; in 1805 he became general of division, and was shortly afterwards Neapolitan minister in the service of Joseph Bonaparte. In 1808 he was actively employed in the arrangements for the war against Austria, fought in the battles of Essling and Wagram, and arranged the terms of the armistice of Znaim. He held the office of General Intendant of the army in the campaign of 1812. After the Restoration Louis XVIII appointed him Councillor of State, and gave him several important appointments connected with the army. In 1830 he aided in bringing on the revolution of July, and after the fall of Charles X he obtained the chief command of all the national guards of France, together with a peerage. He published a translation of Napier's _History of the Peninsular War_.

DU MAURIER (d[.u]-m[=o]'ri-[=a]), George Louis Palmella Busson, artist and writer, was born in Paris 1834, died in 1896. He was the son of an English mother and a Frenchman who had been naturalized as a British subject. At the age of seventeen he took up the study of chemistry in London, but soon adopted art as a profession. After studying in Belgium and France, he returned to London, and soon began to contribute drawings to _Punch_, _Once a Week_, _Cornhill Magazine_, &c. He succeeded Leech on _Punch_, and became famous chiefly through his drawings for that publication. He also illustrated various books, and wrote three novels, _Trilby_, _Peter Ibbetson_, and _The Martian_. His elder son, Guy Du Maurier, born in 1865, killed in France in 1915, was the author of _An Englishman's Home_ (1909).

DUMBA, Konstantin Theodor, Austro-Hungarian diplomatist, who became conspicuous as an agent of German propaganda in the United States during the European War. He went as Ambassador to the United States in 1913, and at the outbreak of the war endeavoured to organize a vast conspiracy there, with a view to hampering the productions of munitions for the Allies. Abusing his position of Ambassador, he planned explosions and strikes in American factories. On 1st Sept., 1915, J. F. J. Archibald, an American newspaper correspondent, was arrested at Falmouth, and among the papers found upon him was a letter from Dr. Dumba to Baron Burian, Austrian Minister for Foreign Affairs, wherein the former suggested a plan of crippling the munition factories in America by creating strikes. President Wilson then demanded his recall, and he left the United States in Oct., 1915, Great Britain granting him a safe conduct.

DUMBAR'TON, a royal and parliamentary burgh and seaport, Scotland, chief town of Dumbarton county, stands on the Leven near its junction with the Clyde, 16 miles W.N.W. of Glasgow. Shipbuilding is carried on to a great extent, and there are foundries and engine-works. Dumbarton unites with Port-Glasgow, Renfrew, Rutherglen, and Kilmarnock in sending a member to Parliament. Originally it was called Alcluyd, and it was the chief town of Cumbria or Strathclyde. Pop. 21,989. A little to the south is the famous rock and castle of Dumbarton, rising above the Clyde. The rock, which is of basalt, is 240 feet in height, and about 1 mile in circumference at the base. It is one of the fortresses stipulated to be kept in repair by the Act of Union, and the barracks contain accommodation for 150 men. There has been a stronghold here from the earliest times, and the fortress of Dumbarton occupied an important place in Scottish history.--_Dumbartonshire_, the county of Dumbarton, is partly maritime, partly inland, consisting of two detached portions, the larger and most westerly lying between the Clyde, Loch Long, and Loch Lomond, and the far smaller portion being about 4 miles east of the former, and comprising only two parishes. More than half the area of the county is occupied by mountains, some of them attaining a height of upwards of 3000 feet. The lower lands are fertile, and in general well cultivated. More than one-half of Loch Lomond and fully two-thirds of the islands in it belong to Dumbartonshire. The Gareloch, an arm of the Firth of Clyde, forms a part of the county into a peninsula. The principal rivers are the Leven, from Loch Lomond, and the Kelvin, both belonging to the Clyde system. The chief minerals are coal, limestone, ironstone, and slate, all of which are wrought more or less. On the banks of the Leven and elsewhere are extensive cotton printing and bleaching establishments; and there are extensive shipbuilding yards along the Clyde. Besides Dumbarton, the chief town, the county contains the towns of Helensburgh and Kirkintilloch, and the manufacturing villages of Alexandria, Renton, and Bonhill. Vestiges of the Roman wall of Antoninus still exist. The county returns one member to the House of Commons. Pop. 139,831.

DUMB-CANE, a plant of the ord. Araceae, the _Dieffenbachia seguina_, of the West Indies, so called from its acridity causing swelling of the tongue when chewed, and destroying the power of speech.

DUMDUM, a military village and extensive cantonment, Hindustan, province of Bengal, 4-1/2 miles E.N.E. of Calcutta. The village is famous as being the scene of the first open manifestation of the sepoys against the greased cartridges, which led to the mutiny of 1857. Pop. 12,000.

DUMDUM BULLET (so called from the arsenal at Dumdum, a small village 4-1/2 miles from Calcutta), a hollow-nosed bullet which expands on impact, and so causes an ugly wound. It was used in Indian frontier fighting to stop the rushes of fanatical tribesmen. While the term 'Dumdum' bullet should strictly only be applied to hollow-nosed bullets, it is popularly applied to any kind of expanding bullet. Ordinary bullets can be converted into expanding ones by means of filing the cupro-nickel envelope until the lead core is exposed, by means of slitting the envelope at the shoulders, or simply by reversing the bullet in its socket. Expanding bullets are considered legitimate in big-game shooting, but in the Declaration signed at the Hague, 29th July, 1899, Germany expressly promised not to use such bullets in warfare. In spite of this the Germans freely used bullets of this kind in the European War.

DUMFRIES (dum-fr[=e]s'), a river port, railway centre, and until 1918 a parliamentary burgh, Scotland, capital of the county of same name, and the chief place in the south of Scotland; situated on the left bank of the Nith, about 6 miles from its junction with the Solway Firth. It is connected with the suburb Maxwelltown (in Kirkcudbright) by three bridges, one dating from the thirteenth century. It is a pleasing, well-built town, with various handsome public edifices. There are iron-foundries, hosiery and tweed factories, tanneries, and coach-building works. The River Nith is navigable to the town for vessels of under 60 tons, but the port has decreased in importance since the development of the railway system. Dumfries is a place of great antiquity. The church of the Minorites which once stood here was the scene of the murder of the Red Comyn by Bruce in 1306. Burns spent his closing years here, and the street in which he lived now bears his name. His remains rest under a handsome mausoleum, and a statue of him was erected in 1882. Dumfries was the head-quarters of the Young Pretender in 1745. Until 1918 Dumfries united with Annan, Sanquhar, Lochmaben, and Kirkcudbright (the Dumfries burghs) in sending a member to Parliament. Pop. 19,076.--_Dumfriesshire_, the county of Dumfries, abuts on the Solway Firth, having on its borders the counties of Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk, Roxburgh, Ayr, and Kirkcudbright; area about 1100 sq. miles or 702,946 acres, of which about a third is under cultivation. The surface is irregular, but for the most part mountainous, especially in the north and north-west districts, where the hills attain a considerable elevation, some of them exceeding 2000 feet. The dales of the Nith, Annan, and Esk, the chief rivers of the county, contain fine pasture holms and good arable land. Oats, potatoes, and turnips are the most common products. Good cattle are reared, and are much in request for the English market. The sheep on the hill pastures are mostly Cheviots; on the lower and arable lands the Leicester breed prevails. The minerals most abundant are coal, lead, iron, antimony, and gypsum. Coal and lead are worked to a small extent. Limestone and freestone abound in various parts. There are no manufactures worth mentioning. The county returns one member to the House of Commons. Its principal towns are Dumfries, Annan, Sanquhar, Lockerbie, Moffat, Langholm, and Lochmaben. Pop. 72,825.

DUMONT (d[.u]-m[=o]n), Pierre ['E]tienne Louis, the friend and literary assistant of Mirabeau and Jeremy Bentham, was born at Geneva in 1759, died at Milan 1829. Ordained a minister of the Protestant Church in 1781, he attached himself to the democratic party in Geneva, and when the opposite party gained the ascendency he went to St. Petersburg, in 1782, where he was appointed pastor of the French Reformed Church. Soon after he accepted an offer to act as tutor to the sons of Lord Shelburne, afterwards Marquess of Lansdowne, which brought him to London, where he became intimate with Jeremy Bentham and Sir Samuel Romilly. Visiting Paris during the first years of the Revolution, he gained the friendship of Mirabeau, whom he assisted in the composition of speeches and reports, and of whom he wrote some interesting _Recollections_. On his return to London he formed that connection with Bentham which fixed his career as a writer; recasting, popularizing, and editing Bentham's works in a form suitable for the reading public. He returned to Geneva in 1814 and became a Senator.

DUMONT D'URVILLE (d[.u]-m[=o]n d[.u]r-v[=e]l), Jules Sebastien C['e]sar, French navigator, was born in 1790, killed in a railway accident between Paris and Versailles 1842. After completing his studies at Caen, he entered the French navy, in which he ultimately rose to be rear-admiral. From 1826 to 1829 he commanded the corvette _Astrolabe_, which was sent to obtain tidings of La P['e]rouse, and to make hydrographic observations. He made surveys of the coasts of Australia and New Zealand, and found remains of the shipwreck of La P['e]rouse on one of the Pacific islands. The result of this voyage was the publication of _Voyage de D['e]couverte autour du Monde_. In 1837 he sailed with the _Astrolabe_ and _Z['e]l['e]e_ on a voyage of Antarctic discovery, and after many dangers, and having visited many parts of Oceania, he returned in 1840. On his return he began the publication of _Voyage au P[^o]le sud et dans l'Oc['e]anie_, which was finished by one of his companions.

DUMOURIEZ (d[.u]-m[:o]-ri-[=a]), Charles Francois Duperrier, a French general of great military talent, was born at Cambrai in 1739 of a noble family of Provence, died near Henley-on-Thames 1823. He served as an officer in the Seven Years' War. In 1768 he went to Corsica as quartermaster-general of the small army which was sent for the conquest of that island, and was afterwards made colonel. In 1778 he was appointed Governor of Cherbourg. At the Revolution he joined the Jacobins, and subsequently the Girondists, and in 1792 he was Minister of Foreign Affairs. War breaking out between France and Austria, he resigned in order to take command of the army; invaded Flanders, and defeated the Austrians at Jemappes and conquered Belgium. Instead of prosecuting the war vigorously, he now entered upon measures for the overthrow of the Revolutionary Government, issued a proclamation, in which he promised the restoration of the constitutional monarchy in the person of the heir to the crown, but was attacked by the Versailles volunteers, and compelled to flee (4th April, 1793). The Convention set a price of 300,000 livres upon his head. At first he retired to Brussels, and after various wanderings found a final refuge in England. His _Memoirs_, written by himself, appeared in 1794; an enlarged edition in 1822. He was also the author of a large number of political pamphlets.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Holland Rose and A. M. Broadley, _Dumouriez and the Defence of England against Napoleon_; H. Welschinger, _Le Roman de Dumouriez_.

D[:U]NA (d[:u]'n[.a]), or WESTERN DVINA, a river of Russia, which rises in the government of Tver, about 15 miles W. of the source of the Volga, falls into the Gulf of Riga, has a course of about 650 miles, and waters the seven governments of Tver, Pskov, Vitebsk, Mogilev, &c., draining an area of about 65,000 sq. miles. It is navigable for a considerable distance, but is frozen for about four months each year.

D[:U]NABURG (d[:u]'na-b[u:]rg), DVINABURG, or DVINSK, a fortified town in Latvia, formerly belonging to Russia, in the government of Vitebsk on the right bank of the D[:u]na, or Dvina, 112 miles south-east of Riga. It carries on various industries, a considerable trade, and has three yearly fairs. The official name is Dvinsk, or Daugavpils. It was captured by the Germans in Feb., 1918. Pop. 110,912.

D[:U]NAM[:U]NDE (d[:u]'na-m[.u]n-de; 'D[:u]namouth'), a fortress and port on the Gulf of Riga, at the mouth of the D[:u]na, having a large winter harbour for the shipping of Riga. Pop. 2500.

DUNBAR', William, the most eminent of all the old Scottish poets, was born, probably in East Lothian, about 1460-5. In 1475 he went to St. Andrews, where, in 1477, he took the degree of B.A., and two years later that of M.A. After this he seems to have become a begging friar of the Franciscan order, and made journeys in England and France, but he returned to Scotland about 1490, and attached himself to the court of James IV, from whom he received a pension of L10. On the marriage of James IV to Margaret of England Dunbar celebrated the event in a poem of great beauty, entitled _The Thrissil and the Rois_. His pension was ultimately raised to L80 a year, and he was the recipient of various additional gratuities, though he appears frequently to have addressed both the king and the queen for a benefice, but always without success. After the defeat at Flodden his name disappears from the royal accounts, and he probably died about 1520. His works, which consist of elaborate allegories, satirical and grimly humorous pieces, and poems full of brilliant description and luxuriant imagination, first collected by David Laing (Edinburgh, 1834), were edited by John Small and A. J. G. Mackay, for the Scottish Text Society, between 1884 and 1893.--Cf. _The Cambridge History of English Literature_ (vol. ii).

DUNBAR' (Gael., Castle Point), a town of Scotland; a royal and municipal (formerly parliamentary) burgh and seaport in Haddingtonshire, at the mouth of the Firth of Forth. It is a place of great antiquity, having originated in a castle, once of great strength and importance, which underwent several memorable sieges, on one occasion being successfully defended (in 1338) against the English for nineteen weeks by Black Agnes of Dunbar, Countess of March. In 1650, at the 'Race of Dunbar', Cromwell totally defeated the Scottish army under David Leslie near the town. The harbour is not very commodious, but the town is an important fishing-station. Pop. 4830.

DUNBLANE', an old episcopal city, Scotland, in Perthshire, 6 miles north-east of Stirling, on the Allan. The ancient cathedral, partly in ruins, dates from the twelfth century. The nave is 130 feet by 58 feet, and the choir, now the parish church, is 80 feet by 30 feet. The building was restored in 1893. Bishop Leighton held the see from 1662 to 1670. About two miles from the town the indecisive battle of Sheriffmuir was fought in 1715, between the Royal forces under the Duke of Argyle, and the Jacobites under the Earl of Mar. Pop. 4600.

DUN'CAN, Adam, Viscount, a British naval officer, was born in Dundee in 1731, died 1804. He went to sea when young, and was a post-captain in 1761. In the following year he served at the taking of Havana; and in 1779 he shared in the victory of Admiral Rodney over the Spaniards. In 1789 he became rear-admiral of the blue, and in 1794 vice-admiral of the white squadron. The following year he was appointed commander of the North Sea fleet, and in Oct., 1797, won a brilliant victory over the Dutch fleet off Camperdown, for which he was rewarded with the title of Viscount Duncan of Camperdown and a pension of L2000 a year.

DUNCAN, Thomas, an eminent Scottish painter, was born in 1807, died at Edinburgh 1845. He studied under Sir W. Allan, and was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1843. His principal works were illustrative of Scottish history and character. Among the best known of them are: _The Abdication of Mary Queen of Scots_, _Anne Page and Slender_, _Prince Charles Edward and the Highlanders entering Edinburgh after Prestonpans_, _Charles Edward asleep in a Cave after Culloden_, and _The Martyrdom of John Brown of Priesthill_.

DUN'CANSBY HEAD, a promontory in Caithness-shire, Scotland, forming the N.E. extremity of the Scottish mainland, 1-3/4 miles E. of John o' Groat's House, and 18-1/2 miles N. by E. of Wick. Close by the promontory are two rocks, of fantastic form and great height, called the Stacks of Duncansby, which in spring and summer are covered with sea-fowl.

DUNDALK (dun-d[a:]k'), a seaport and former parliamentary borough, Ireland, capital of the county of Louth, on Castletown River, about 2 miles above its mouth in Dundalk Bay. It has railway workshops, tanyards, and a spinning-mill; the trade, chiefly in cattle and agricultural produce, is extensive. It was the seat of the court of Edward Bruce from 1315 to 1318. In 1649 it was captured by Cromwell. Pop. 13,128.

DUNDAS' OF ARNISTON, the name of a family several members of which held a conspicuous place in the legal and political history of Scotland.--Sir James Dundas, the first of Arniston, knighted by James VI, was the third son of George Dundas of Dundas, a descendant of the Dunbars, Earls of March.--His eldest son, Sir James, was member of Parliament for Mid-Lothian, and was appointed one of the judges of the Court of Session (1662).--His eldest son Robert was also raised to the bench of the Court of Session, and filled that station for thirty-seven years. He died in 1727.--His eldest son Robert (1685-1753) was successively Solicitor-General for Scotland, Lord-Advocate, member of Parliament for the county of Edinburgh, and Dean of the Faculty of Advocates. In 1737 he was raised to the bench, and on the death of Lord-President Forbes of Culloden, in 1748, he was appointed his successor.--His eldest son Robert (1713-87) also attained to the position of Lord-Advocate, and Lord-President of the Court of Session.--His brother Henry Dundas, Viscount Melville, distinguished statesman, was born in 1741 and died 1811. He obtained the post of Solicitor-General in 1773, that of Lord-Advocate in 1775, and was made joint keeper of the signet for Scotland in 1777. In 1782 he was appointed Treasurer of the Navy and member of the Privy Council; and from that time took a leading part in all the Pitt measures, and had supreme influence in Scotland. Among other offices he held that of First Lord of the Admiralty; and in 1805 he was impeached before the House of Lords of high crimes and misdemeanours in his former office of Treasurer of the Navy, but was finally acquitted. He was created Viscount Melville in 1801, a title still borne by his direct descendant.

DUNDEE', John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount. See _Graham_.

DUNDEE (Gael. _Dun Taw_, fort on the Tay), a city, royal and parliamentary burgh, and seaport, Scotland, in the county of Forfar, on the north shore of the Firth of Tay, about 8 miles from the open sea, 37 miles N.N.E. of Edinburgh; in population the third town in Scotland. It stretches along the Tay, or east to west, and of late years has been greatly extended in both directions. The more recently made streets are spacious and handsome, but most of those of more ancient date are narrow, and irregularly built. The most conspicuous building is St. Mary's Tower, or the Old Steeple as it is popularly called, 156 feet high, erected in the middle of the fourteenth century. Three modern parochial churches have been built on to it in form of a cathedral, the nave, choir, and transept respectively forming a separate church. Among public buildings are: the town hall, several public halls, the high school, exchange, infirmary, lunatic asylum, Albert Institute and free library. University College, for men and women, was opened in 1883, and affiliated to the University of St. Andrews in 1897. It was founded by private munificence, receiving an endowment of L140,000, and has ten professorships. Dundee has several public parks and recreation grounds and a good supply of water. The town has long been celebrated for its textile manufactures, particularly those of the coarser descriptions of linen, and it is now the chief seat of the linen trade in Scotland and of the jute trade in Great Britain, there being a great number of mills and factories engaged in the spinning and weaving of flax, jute, and hemp. Shipbuilding is extensively carried on, and there are large engineering establishments. Another branch of business is the northern seal and whale fishery. Dundee is also famous for its marmalade and other preserves and confectionery. The shipping accommodation includes five large wet-docks, with a connected tidal harbour and graving-docks. The chief foreign trade is with the Baltic and Archangel in the importation of flax and hemp, with Norway, Sweden, and Canada in timber, and with Calcutta in jute. The railway facilities of Dundee were greatly increased in 1878 by the opening of a bridge across the Tay; but on the 28th of Dec., 1879, the bridge was destroyed by a violent storm, when about 100 people in a train in the act of crossing lost their lives. A new bridge, to replace the one destroyed, was opened for traffic in June, 1887; it is a very substantial structure about 2 miles in length. Dundee was made a royal burgh by William the Lion about 1200, was twice in the possession of the English under Edward I, and was as often retaken by Wallace and Bruce. In 1645 it was besieged, taken, and sacked by the Duke of Montrose; and six years afterwards it was stormed by Monk, when a great number of its inhabitants were put to death. Since 1868 the town has returned two members to Parliament. In 1888 it was raised by royal grant to the rank of a city. In 1914 the burgh of Broughty Ferry was annexed to Dundee, increasing its area to 5964 acres. Pop. 176,062; population in 1921, 168,217.

DUNDON'ALD, Thomas Cochrane, tenth Earl of, British admiral, was born in Lanarkshire 1775, died 1860. At the age of eighteen he embarked with his uncle, then Captain, and afterwards Sir Alexander Cochrane, in the _Hind_, of twenty-eight guns, and soon distinguished himself by his daring and gallantry. In 1800 he was appointed to the _Speedy_ sloop-of-war of fourteen guns, and in the course of thirteen months captured over fifty vessels, but was at last captured himself. In 1805, while in command of the _Pallas_ frigate, he took some rich prizes, and for the next four years in the _Imp['e]rieuse_ performed remarkable exploits in cutting out vessels, storming batteries, and destroying signals. On his return to England he entered Parliament, and by his attacks on the abuses of the naval administration made himself obnoxious to the authorities. He gave further offence by charging Lord Gambier, his superior officer, with neglect of duty (which was true); by denouncing the abuses of the prize-court, and the treatment of the prisoners of war. His enemies succeeded in 1814 in convicting him on a charge--since proved to be false--of originating a rumour, for speculative purposes, that Napoleon had abdicated. He was expelled from Parliament, ignominiously ejected from the Order of the Bath, imprisoned for a year, and fined L1000. The electors of Westminster immediately paid his fine and re-elected him, but he had to remain in prison till the expiration of his sentence. In 1818 he took service in the Chilian navy, his exploits greatly aiding the national independence of that country, as well as soon after of Brazil. In 1832 he was restored to his rank in the British navy. In 1831, by the death of his father, he had succeeded to the title of Earl of Dundonald; in 1841 he became vice-admiral of the blue; in 1848 he was appointed commander-in-chief on the North America and West India station; and in 1851 and 1854 respectively he became vice-admiral of the white, and rear-admiral of the United Kingdom. He was reinstated in the Order of the Bath (G.C.B.) on 25th May, 1847. He did much to promote the adoption of steam and the screw propeller in war-ships. He wrote an autobiography, which, though left incomplete, is a most interesting work.--Cf. J. B. Atlay, _The Trial of Lord Cochrane before Lord Ellenborough_.

DUNEDIN (dun-[=e]'din), capital of the provincial district of Otago, New Zealand, and the most important commercial town in the colony, stands at the upper extremity of an arm of the sea, about 9 miles from its port, Port Chalmers, with which it is connected by railway. Though founded in 1848, its more rapid progress dates only from 1861, when extensive gold-fields discovered in Otago attracted a large influx of population. There are many handsome buildings, both public and private: the municipal buildings, the post office, hospital, lunatic asylum, Government offices, the university, high schools (boys' and girls'), the new museum, several banks (especially the Bank of New Zealand), the athenaeum and mechanics' institute, the freemasons' hall, and two theatres. Wool is the staple export. Several woollen and other manufactories are now in existence. There is a regular line of steamers between this port and Melbourne, and communication is frequent with all parts of New Zealand. Through the opening of the new Victoria Channel from Port Chalmers vessels drawing 16 feet can now ascend to Dunedin at low water. Pop. 68,716.

DUNES, low hills of sand accumulated on the sea-coasts of Holland, Britain, Spain, and other countries, in some places encroaching on and covering what once was cultivated land, but in others serving as a natural barrier to protect the country from the destructive encroachments of the sea.

DUNFERM'LINE, a royal and police burgh of Scotland, county of Fife, 3 miles N. of the Firth of Forth, and 13 miles north-west of Edinburgh. The streets though narrow are well built. Dunfermline was early a favourite residence of the kings of Scotland, and at it were born David II, James I, Charles I, and his sister Elizabeth. The Benedictine abbey founded by Malcolm Canmore (1070) is now represented chiefly by the Abbey Church, in which are the remains of Queen Margaret and Canmore, Alexander I and his Queen, David I, Malcolm IV, and Robert Bruce. Dunfermline was made a royal burgh in 1588. The town has greatly benefited through the munificence of the late Andrew Carnegie, a native, who, besides other benefactions, settled on it the sum of L500,000. In the manufacture of table-linen it is unrivalled by any town in the kingdom. There are collieries adjacent. The Dunfermline burghs return one member to Parliament. Pop. 28,103.

DUNGAN'NON, a town of Ireland, County Tyrone, 35 miles west by south of Belfast. It has manufactures of linen and earthenware. Till 1885 it returned a member to the House of Commons. Pop. 3830.

DUNGARPUR (d[:o]n-g_a_r-p[:o]r'), an Indian native state in R['a]jput['a]na; area, 1000 sq. miles; pop. 153,381.--_Dungarpur_ is also the name of the chief town and residence of the Maharawal of the state.

DUNGAR'VAN, a seaport of Ireland, County Waterford, on the Bay of Dungarvan, much resorted to for sea-bathing. The harbour is shallow, and the trade depends almost entirely on agricultural produce. Till 1885 it returned a member to Parliament. Pop. 4977.

DUNG BEETLE, a name applied to a large number of lamellicorn beetles (in which the antennae terminate usually in lateral leaflets) from their habit of burying their eggs in dung. The _Geotr[=u]pes stercorarius_, 'dor' or 'shard-borne' beetle, and the _Scarabaeus sacer_, or sacred beetle of the Egyptians, are examples.

DUNGENESS (dunj-nes'), a low headland on the S. coast of Kent, 102 miles S.E. of Rye; has a lighthouse with fixed light.

DUNKELD', a small town of Scotland, on the Tay, about 14 miles north by west of Perth; pop. 613. It is a very ancient place, and from 850, when Kenneth I removed the remains of St. Columba from Iona to a church which he had built here, became the metropolitan see of Scotland, till supplanted by St. Andrews. The choir of the ancient cathedral is still used as the parish church. Near it is Dunkeld House, the seat of the Duke of Atholl, the grounds of which are the finest and most extensive in Scotland.

DUNKERS, or TUNKERS, also called DIPPERS, a religious sect in America, founded by Conrad Peysel, a German, in 1724, and which takes its name from the Ger. _tunken_, to dip, from their mode of baptizing converts. They reject infant baptism; use great plainness of dress and language; refuse to take oaths or to fight; and anoint the sick with oil in order to hasten their recovery, depending on this unction and prayer, and rejecting the use of medicine. Every brother is allowed to speak in the congregation, and their best speaker is usually set apart as their minister.