Chapter M: M. J. SUTHERLAND, D.Sc., F.I.C (12)

DUNKIRK' (Fr. _Dunkerque_), a seaport town, France, department of Nord, at the entrance of the Straits of Dover, surrounded by walls, and otherwise defended by forts and outworks. It has several fine churches, a college, a public library, and a gallery of paintings; manufactures of earthenware, leather, soap, starch, ropes; sugar-refineries, breweries, and distilleries, and a large trade. In 1658 Dunkirk was given up to the English by Turenne, and continued with them till 1662, when Charles II sold it to Louis XIV. It is one of the chief French torpedo stations, and during the European War was a British base and frequently bombed by the enemy. Pop. 38,891.

DUN'LIN, a British bird (_Tringa alpina_), a species of sandpiper, occurring in vast flocks along sandy shores. It is about 8 inches in length from the point of the bill to the extremity of the tail, and its plumage undergoes marked variations in summer and winter, the back passing from black with reddish edges to each feather, to an ashen grey, and the breast from mottled black to pure white. During the winter it migrates to Asia, Africa, the Canaries, West Indies, and California.

DUNMOW', GREAT and LITTLE, two villages, England, county of Essex. The latter is remarkable for the ancient custom, revived in 1855, of giving a flitch of bacon to any couple who, a year and a day after their marriage, could swear that they had neither quarrelled nor repented. The prize, instituted in 1244 by Robert de Fitzwalter, was first claimed in 1445.

DUN'NAGE, faggots, boughs, or loose wood laid in the hold of a ship to raise heavy goods above the bottom to prevent injury from water; also loose articles wedged between parts of the cargo to hold them steady.

DUNNE, Finley Peter, American humorist, born in Chicago in 1867. After serving as reporter on various papers, he became editor of the _Evening Journal_ (1897-1900). Dunne first attracted attention by a series of sketches in the _Times-Herald_, where he humorously commented upon all sorts of subjects in the name of one Martin Dooley, publican of Archey Road. His works include: _Mr. Dooley in Peace and War_ (1898), _Mr. Dooley's Philosophy_ (1900), _Observations by Mr. Dooley_ (1902), and _Mr. Dooley Says_ (1910).

DUNNET HEAD, a bold rock promontory in Caithness, with sandstone cliffs 100 to 300 feet high, the most northerly point of the mainland of Scotland, crowned by a lighthouse visible at a distance of 25 miles.

DUNNOT'TAR CASTLE, an extensive ruin on the coast of Kincardineshire, Scotland, on a precipitous rock rising from the sea. It dates from the close of the fourteenth century, and was long the stronghold of the Keiths, earls marischal. During the Commonwealth this castle was selected for the preservation of the Scottish regalia; and in 1685 it was used as a State prison for Covenanters. It was dismantled in 1720.

DUNOIS (d[.u]-nw[:a]), Jean, Count of Orleans and of Longueville; a French hero, natural son of Louis, Duke of Orleans, born 1402, died 1468. Dunois made the name 'Bastard of Orleans' illustrious by his military exploits. He began his career with the defeat of Warwick and Suffolk, whom he pursued to Paris. Being besieged by the English, he defended Orleans until relieved by the Maid of Orleans. In 1450 he had completely freed France from the English, and was rewarded by the title of 'deliverer of his country', the county of Longueville, and the dignity of High Chamberlain of France.

DUNOON', a town, police burgh, and watering-place of Scotland, in Argyleshire, on the shore of the Firth of Clyde, 27 miles by river from Glasgow. It extends for about 3 miles S.S.W. from the Holy Loch, and consists of Hunter's Quay to the N., Kirn and Dunoon proper to the S.; each with its separate steamboat pier. On a green rocky knoll are remains of the castle of Dunoon, once a residence of the family of Argyll. Pop. 9860.

DUNS, John, commonly called _Duns Scotus_, an eminent scholastic divine, born 1265 or 1274, but whether in England, Scotland, or Ireland is uncertain. He was admitted when young into an institution belonging to the Franciscan friars at Newcastle, whence he was sent to Merton College, Oxford. In 1301 he was appointed divinity professor at Oxford, and the fame of his learning and talents drew crowds of scholars from all parts. In 1304 he went to Paris, and was appointed professor and regent in the theological schools, in which situation he acquired the title of _Doctor Subtilis_, 'the subtle doctor'. He opposed Thomas Aquinas on the subject of grace and free-will; and hence the _Scotists_ are opposed to the _Thomists_. Duns Scotus was the apostle of _realism_, which was opposed to the systems of _nominalism_ and _conceptualism_ promulgated by the other sections into which the schoolmen were divided. He died, it is said, at Cologne in 1308, leaving behind him numerous works. He was a genuine scholastic philosopher, who worked out ideas taken from Aristotle, St. Augustine, and the preceding scholastics.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. J. Townsend, _The Great Schoolmen_; C. R. Hagenbach, _History of Doctrines_; E. Pluzanski, _Essai sur la philosophie de Duns Scot_; and article in _Dictionary of National Biography_.

DUNS, or DUNSE (dunz, duns), police burgh and county town of Berwickshire, Scotland, on the Whitadder; has manufactures of linen, and paper-mills. Pop. 3040. On Duns Law (700 feet) are traces of a camp formed by Leslie's Covenanters in 1639.

DUNSIN'ANE, a hill in Scotland, one of the Sidlaws, 1012 feet high, about 7 miles N.E. of Perth, with vestiges of a hill-fort locally called Macbeth's Castle, and immortalized by Shakespeare in _Macbeth_.

DUN'STABLE, a town, England, county of Bedford, 32 miles north-west of London. It was an important Roman station, and had a palace and a priory founded by Henry I in 1131. Part of the latter is used as the parish church. It has a grammar school, founded in 1715. Dunstable is famous for its manufactures of straw-plait. Pop. 8057.

DUN'STAN, ST., an English archbishop and statesman, was born at Glastonbury in 925, died at Canterbury 988. As a youth he was remarkable for his learning and his skill in music, painting, carving, and working in metals. He entered the Benedictine order, became an anchorite at Glastonbury, and in 945 was made abbot by King Edmund. After the death of Edmund, Edred, the next king, made him his Prime Minister and principal director in civil and ecclesiastical affairs. In the reign of Edwy he was banished, but was recalled by Edgar, and made Archbishop of Canterbury. He was again deprived of power on the accession of Ethelred in 978, and devoted the last years of his life to his diocese and the literary and artistic pursuits of his earlier days. He did much to improve education and to raise the standing and character of the priesthood. The old biographies of him have all a large legendary element.--Cf. W. Stubbs (editor), _Memorials of St. Dunstan_ (Rolls Series, 1874).

DUODECIMAL SYSTEM, in numeration, a system of numbers the scale of which is twelve. _Duodecimals_ is a term applied to an arithmetical method of ascertaining the number of square feet, &c., in a rectangular area or surface, whose sides are given in feet, inches, and lines. The method is similar to that of ordinary decimals, the scale being twelve instead of ten.

DUODEC'IMO (often contracted 12_mo_) is that form of volume in which each leaf forms a twelfth part of the sheet.

DUODE'NUM (Lat. _duodeni_, by twelves), the commencement of the intestinal canal, the first of the smaller intestines, so called because its length is about twelve fingers' breadth.

DUPANLOUP (d[.u]-p[:a]n-l[=o]), F['e]lix Antoine Philibert, French prelate, born at St. F['e]lix, in Savoy, 1802; became a French subject by naturalization in 1838; died at Paris 1878. He was ordained in 1825, appointed professor of theology at the Sorbonne in 1841, and Bishop of Orleans in 1849. From that time he took a prominent part in all the political and religious discussions in France. He belonged to the Gallican party, but submitted to the decisions of the council of the Vatican; and was a strenuous advocate of free education. He wrote: _La Pacification R['e]ligieuse, De l'['e]ducation_, and _De la haute ['e]ducation_.

DUPLEIX (d[.u]-pl[=a]), Joseph, a French leader in India, born 1697, died 1763. He accumulated a fortune by commercial operations in India, and in 1742 was appointed Governor of Pondicherry for the French East India Company. He formed the project of founding a French Empire in India, and soon made himself master of the Carnatic partly by conquest and partly by political intrigue. He was opposed by Clive, and a long string of British successes caused the complete overthrow of all his plans. Recalled in 1753, he died in want and obscurity in Paris.

DUPONT (d[.u]-p[=o]n), Pierre, French poet and song-writer, born at Lyons 1821, died at St. ['E]tienne (Loire) 1870. He was educated by his godfather, a priest, and began to write and compose songs at an early age. After issuing a volume of poems in 1844, he went to Paris and obtained a place in the office of the secretary of the Institute. Some of his songs, such as _Song of Bread_ and _Song of the Workers_, had a Socialistic ring which proved obnoxious to the Government which came into power in Dec., 1852. He was arrested, imprisoned, and condemned to be banished for seven years; but his release was soon procured. His poems have been collected under the titles _Cahiers de Chansons_, _La Muse Populaire_, _Chants et Chansons_, _Po['e]sie et Musique_, and _['E]tudes Litt['e]raires_.

DUPONT DE NEMOURS (d[.u]-p[=o]n d[.e] n[.e]-m[:o]r), Pierre Samuel, French political economist, born at Paris, Dec., 1739; died in America 1817. He early gained a reputation for his writings on commerce, and his exposition of the theories of the physiocrats, and was employed by Turgot and Vergennes in the public service. During the ministry of Calonne he became Councillor of State, and in 1787 was secretary to the Assembly of the Notables. He was twice president of the National Assembly. During the Revolution he opposed the extreme republicans, and narrowly escaped the guillotine at the downfall of Robespierre. From 1798 to 1802 he was in America, and on his return to France he refused all public office. He finally returned to America in 1815. Among his writings are: _Philosophie de l'Univers_, _Vie de Turgot_, and a translation of Ariosto.

D[:U]PPEL (d[.u]p'l), a fortified village in Schleswig-Holstein, on the coast of the Little Belt. The place is of considerable strategical importance, and has been the scene of some severe struggles between the Danes, to whom it formerly belonged, and the Germans. It was captured by the Prussians in 1864, after a siege and bombardment which lasted nearly two months.

DUPUY, Charles Alexander, French statesman, born at Le Puy, Haute-Loire, in 1851. Educated at the Lyc['e]e of Le Puy and the Lyc['e]e Charlemagne in Paris, he was professor of philosophy at the colleges of Nantes and Aurillac, and afterwards vice-rector of the Corsican College at Ajaccio. He entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1885, was Minister of Public Instruction in 1889, and succeeded Ribot as Premier in 1893, but resigned and became President of the Chamber of Deputies. He was again Premier from 1894 to 1895, and from 1898 to 1899, and was elected to the Senate in 1900. He was Minister of Labour from 1912 to 1914.

DUPUYTREN (d[.u]-p[.u]-i-tr[:a]n), Guillaume, Baron, French surgeon and anatomist, born in 1777, died at Paris 1835. In 1812 he became professor of surgery, and in 1815 first surgeon to the H[^o]tel Dieu, Paris. In 1823 he was appointed first physician to Louis XVIII, and retained the same situation under Charles X. He was considered the first French surgeon of his day, made important discoveries in morbid anatomy, and invented several useful surgical instruments.

DUQUESNE (d[.u]-k[=a]n), Abraham, French admiral, born 1610, died 1688. In his seventeenth year he was in the sea-fight off Rochelle, and distinguished himself during and after the year 1637 in the war against Spain. In 1647 he commanded the expedition against Naples. In the Sicilian War he thrice defeated the combined fleets of Holland and Spain, under the renowned De Ruyter. After he had reduced Algiers and Genoa, Louis XIV conferred upon him the fine estate of Bouchet, and made it a marquisate, with the title of Duquesne. He was a Protestant, and the only person exempted from the banishment of his sect, occasioned by the repeal of the Edict of Nantes.

DURA'MEN, the name given by botanists to the central wood or heart-wood in a tree trunk. It is harder than the newer wood that surrounds it, and is often dark-coloured from being impregnated with tannin and other antiseptic substances.

DURANCE (d[.u]-r[:a]ns), a river of France, which rises in the Cottian Alps, and, after a course of about 180 miles, joins the Rhone about 4 miles below Avignon. Marseilles is supplied with water from the Durance.

DURAN'GO, a town in Mexico, capital of the state of Durango, about 500 miles N.W. of Mexico, on an elevation 6845 feet above the sea. It is well built, has a cathedral, a mint, manufactures of cotton and woollen goods and leather. Pop. 34,085.--The state (area, 42,272 sq. miles) is partly mountainous and unproductive, but has valuable gold-, silver-, and iron-mines, and also fertile tracts. Pop. 436,147 (1910); estimated pop. in 1919, 509,585.

DURANTE (d[:o]-r[.a]n't[=a]), Francesco, Italian musician, born 1684, died 1755. He attained a high degree of eminence in vocal church music, and he trained the most celebrated musical masters of the eighteenth century in Naples--Pergolese, Sacchini, Piccini, Guglielmi, and Jomelli.

DURAZZO (d[:o]-r[:a]t's[=o]; ancient DYRRHACHIUM, or EPIDAMNUS), a seaport of Albania, on the Adriatic, 50 miles south by west of Scutari. It is fortified, and has a good harbour. For four centuries the town remained under Turkish rule and lost all importance, but in 1912, during the Balkan War, it came again into prominence. It was occupied by the Serbians on 28th Nov., 1912, and in 1913 was incorporated in the newly created Principality of Albania. During the European War Durazzo was captured by the Austrians in Feb., 1916, but was reoccupied by the Italians on 14th Oct., 1918. Pop. 5000.

DUR'BAN, chief port of Natal, on a land-locked bay (Port Natal). It is well laid out, has a fine town hall, handsome churches, post office, hospital, electric tramways, and parks and gardens, and is connected by railway with Maritzburg and the interior. The harbour now admits large vessels. Founded in 1834, it was named after a governor of the Cape. Pop. 48,475.

DURBAR (d[u:]r-b[:a]r'; Pers. _dar_, door, and _bar_, court, admittance), a term signifying the court, council-chamber, or audience-room in the palaces of the native princes of India; hence, a general reception by a ruler in British India or by any officer of rank. Durbars were held on a ridge at Delhi on the proclamation of Queen Victoria (1877), of King Edward VII (1903), and of King George V (1911).

D[:U]REN (d[:u]'ren), a town in the Rhine province, on the right bank of the Roer, 16 miles E. by N. of Aix-la-Chapelle. It has important manufactures of woollens, paper, leather, rails, and hardware, and an extensive trade. Pop. 32,511.

D[:U]RER (d[:u]'r[.e]r), Albrecht, German painter, designer, sculptor, and engraver on wood and metal, born at N[:u]rnberg 1471, died there 1528. His father was a skilful goldsmith of Hungary. In 1486 he left his father's trade and became an apprentice of Michael Wohlgemuth, then the best painter in N[:u]rnberg. Having finished his studies, he entered upon his 'wanderjahre', the usual course of travels of a German youth. On his return to N[:u]rnberg he married Agnes, the daughter of Hans Frey, a mechanic, who has been falsely accused for centuries of embittering his life and bringing him to his grave. In 1505 he went to Venice to improve himself in his art. His abilities excited envy and admiration. He painted the _Martyrdom of Bartholomew_ for St. Mark's church, which painting was purchased by the Emperor Rudolph and removed to Prague. He also travelled to Bologna, to improve his knowledge of perspective. On his return to N[:u]rnberg his fame spread far and wide. Maximilian I appointed him his court-painter, and Charles V confirmed him in this office. All the artists and learned men of his time honoured and loved him, and for many years he was one of the chief burghers of his native town. Profound application and great facility in the mechanical part of his art were the characteristics of D[:u]rer, and enabled him to exert a great influence on German art. He was the first in Germany who taught the rules of perspective, and of the proportions of the human figure. He not only made use of the burin, like his predecessors, but was also among the first to practise etching. He also invented the method of printing woodcuts in two colours. Among his masterpieces in painting are a _Crucifixion_, _Adam and Eve_, an _Adoration of the Magi_, and portraits of Raphael, Erasmus, and Melanchthon, who were his friends. Among his best engravings on copper are his _Fortune_, _Melancholy_, _Adam and Eve in Paradise_, _St. Hubert_, _St. Jerome_, and _The Smaller Passion_, in sixteen plates. Among his best engravings on wood are _The Greater Passion_ (so called), in thirteen plates; _The Smaller Passion_, with the frontispiece, thirtyseven pieces; _The Revelation of St. John_, with the frontispiece, fifteen plates; _The Life of Mary_, two prints, with the frontispiece. D[:u]rer has also much merit as a writer, and published works on _Human Proportion_, _Fortification_, and the _Use of the Compass and Square_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Thausing, _D[:u]rer, Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Kunst_ (2 vols.; English translation by F. A. Eaton); L. Cust, _Albrecht D[:u]rer: a Study of his Life and Works_; F. N[:u]chter, _Life and Selection from Works_.

DU'RESS (Lat. _duritia_, severity, from _durus_, hard), in law, restraint or compulsion, is of two kinds: _duress of imprisonment_, which is imprisonment or restraint of personal liberty; and _duress_ by menaces or threats (_per minas_), when a person is threatened with loss of life, or with some kind of injury. An act done under duress is voidable or excusable.

D'URFEY (dur'fi), Thomas, an English poet and wit, the grandson of a French Protestant refugee, was born at Exeter in 1653, and died in 1723. He abandoned law for literature, and wrote a large number of comedies of a licentious character. His bombastic tragedy _The Siege of Memphis_ appeared in 1676. D'Urfey's name is now principally remembered in connection with his _Pills to Purge Melancholy_, a collection of songs and ballads, partly his own, and many of them coarse or licentious. His society was generally courted by the witty, and he enjoyed the favour of four successive monarchs.

DURGA (d[u:]r'g[:a]), a Hindu divinity, one of the names given to the consort of Siva. She is generally represented with ten arms. In one hand she holds a spear, with which she is piercing Mahisha, the chief of the demons, the killing of whom was her most famous exploit; in another a sword; in a third the hair of the demon chief; and in others, the trident, discus, axe, club, and shield. A great festival in her honour, the _Durga puja_, is celebrated annually, lasting for ten days.

DURHAM, SIMEON OF, English chronicler of the twelfth century; wrote _Annals of England to the Reign of Henry I_, particularly valuable for events connected with the north of England. They were continued by John of Hexham.

DURHAM (du'ram), an ancient city, capital of the county of the same name, on the River Wear, which is crossed here by four bridges, 14 miles S. of Newcastle. The principal public buildings are the ancient castle--now appropriated to the uses of the university--the cathedral and other churches, the town hall, county prison, and grammar-school. The educational institutions comprise the university, opened in 1833, the grammar-school, a training-school for school-mistresses, and other schools. There are manufactures of carpeting and mustard. The cathedral occupies a height overlooking the Wear. The larger portion of it is Norman in style, with insertions in all the English styles. Three magnificent and elaborately ornamental towers spring up from the body of the building, one from the centre 212 feet high, and two together from the west end each 143 feet high; the entire length is 420 feet. It was founded by William de St. Carilef, assisted by Malcolm, King of Scotland, in 1093. A parliamentary borough until 1918, Durham returned two members to the House of Commons from 1673 to 1885, and one member from 1885 to 1918. Pop. 17,500.

DURHAM BOOK, a Latin text of the gospels written by Bishop Eadfrith of Lindisfarne, with an interlinear Saxon gloss, finished in the year 720; now in the British Museum.

DURHAM, COUNTY OF, a county on the N.E. coast of England, having on the E. the North Sea, on the N. Northumberland, from which it is divided by the Rivers Tyne and Derwent, Cumberland on the W., and Yorkshire on the S., the River Tees parting the two counties. Its area is 647,592 acres, of which two-thirds are under cultivation. The western portion of the county is hilly, enclosing fertile valleys, the eastern portion is more level, and the centre contains extensive coal-fields. Durham is the chief coal county in England, and also produces fire-clay. The chief crops are wheat, oats, turnips, and potatoes. The cattle are esteemed both for the dairy and for fattening. In connection with the commerce of the county may be noticed its foundries, ironworks, potteries, glass-houses, iron-shipbuilding, engine and machine works, and chemical works. For parliamentary purposes it is divided into eleven divisions, each of which sends one member to the House of Commons. It was formerly one of the three counties called counties _palatine_. The chief towns besides Durham are Sunderland, Gateshead, South Shields, Stockton, Darlington, and Hartlepool. Pop. 1,369,860.-- Cf. _Victoria History of the County of Durham_.

DURHAM UNIVERSITY, founded in 1832, opened in 1833, incorporated by royal charter in 1837. It is connected with the bishopric of Durham, the office of warden being annexed to the deanery of Durham, and a canonry in the cathedral being annexed to each of the professors of divinity and classical literature. There are also professors of mathematics, Hebrew, medicine, &c. The students mostly reside within the university buildings, but in 1870 a regulation was passed dispensing with the necessity of residing in any college, hall, or house connected with the university in order to be admitted as a member. The management of the university is entrusted, under the Bishop of Durham as visitor, to the dean and chapter of the cathedral as governors, and to the warden, senate, and convocation, the last including all persons regularly admitted since the opening of the university to the degrees of Doctor in Divinity, Civil Law, and Medicine, and to the degree of Master of Arts. The academical year is divided into three terms--Michaelmas, Epiphany, and Easter. For the degree of B.A., or a licence in theology, a residence of two years (of six months each) is necessary. The M.A. degree may be obtained by a graduate who is of the standing of nine terms since taking his degree of B.A. Armstrong College, founded in 1874, and the College of Medicine, both at Newcastle-on-Tyne, form part of the University of Durham.

DURIAN, or DURION (_Durio zibeth[=i]nus_), a large and lofty tree growing in the Malayan Archipelago. The largish flowers, of a yellow-green colour, are produced on the stem or main branches, and are followed by the large fetid fruit, which is of the size of a man's head, and is a favourite food of the natives during the time (May and June) when it is in season. There is usually a second crop in November. The smell is offensive, like putrid animal matter, but with this is associated the most delicious flavour, which places it, notwithstanding the odour, in the opinion of many, in the foremost place among tropical fruits.

D[:U]RKHEIM (d[.u]rk'h[=i]m), an old town in Rhenish Bavaria (the Palatinate), 14 miles W.S.W. of Mannheim, well known for its mineral water. The town was destroyed by the French in 1689. Pop. 6523.

DURKHEIM, ['E]mile, French philosopher and sociologist, born at Les Vosges 15th April, 1858, died in Paris 15th Nov., 1917. Educated at the ['E]cole Normale Sup['e]rieure, he travelled in Germany, where he studied social conditions. In 1887 he founded the first French chair in sociology at the University of Bordeaux. Durkheim's merit consists in having separated sociology from mere psychology, and in having made a distinction between individual mental phenomena and Folk-psychology. In 1898 he founded and published annually _L'Ann['e]e Sociologique_. His other works include: _De la division du travail social_ (1893); _Les r[`e]gles de la m['e]thode sociologique_ (1894); _Le Suicide_ (1897); _Les formes ['e]l['e]mentaires de la vie r['e]ligieuse; Sociologie et sciences sociales_ (1910); _Le syst[`e]me tot['e]mique en Australie_ (1912); _La Sociologie_ (in _La Science Francaise_, 1915); _Qui a voulu la guerre?; Les Origines de la guerre, d'apr[`e]s les documents diplomatiques_ (1915).

DURLACH (d[u:]r'l[.a]_h_), a town in Baden, 4 miles E.S.E. of Carlsruhe, at the foot of the Turmberg, with manufactures of machinery, chemicals, and leather. Pop. 13,896.

DURMAST, a species of oak, _Quercus sessiliflora_, or according to some, _Q. pubescens_, so closely allied to the common oak (_Q. robur_) as to be reckoned only a variety of it. Its wood is, however, darker, heavier, and more elastic, less easy to split, not so easy to break, yet not so difficult to bend. It is highly valued, therefore, by the builder and cabinet-maker.

DUROC (d[.u]-rok), Michel G['e]raud Christophe, Duke of Friuli, a distinguished general under Bonaparte, born at Pont-[`a]-Mousson in 1772, killed, 1813, at the battle of Bautzen. He served as aide-de-camp to Napoleon in the Italian and Egyptian campaigns. In 1805 he was made grand-marshal of the palace; and was frequently employed in diplomatic missions, though he still took his full share in the wars of France till the time of his death. He was a great favourite of Napoleon, and was killed by his side.

DURRA, or DHURRA, Indian millet, the seed of _Sorghum vulg[=a]re_, after wheat the chief cereal crop of the Mediterranean region, and largely used in those countries by the labouring classes for food. Varieties are grown in many parts of Africa, one of them being known as Kaffir corn.

D[:U]RRENSTEIN (d[.u]r'en-st[=i]n), a village in Lower Austria, on the Danube, 41 miles west by north of Vienna. Here are the ruins of the castle in which Leopold, Duke of Austria, imprisoned Richard Coeur-de-Lion on his return from Palestine, 1192.

DURUY (d[.u]-r[.u]-[=e]), Victor, French historian and educationist, born at Paris 1811, died in 1894. His father was a workman in the Gobelins tapestry works, and the boy did not begin his education until he was grown up. He was admitted to the ['E]cole Normale Sup['e]rieure in 1830, graduated in 1833, and was appointed successively teacher of history in the Lyc['e]e Henri IV, then at the Normal School and the Polytechnic School, inspector of the Academy of Paris, inspector-general of secondary education, and Minister of Public Instruction (1863-9). He is author of _G['e]ographie Politique de la R['e]publique Romaine et de l'Empire_, _G['e]ographie Historique du Moyen Age_, _Histoire Romaine_, _Histoire de France_, _Histoire Grecque_, _Histoire Populaire Contemporaine_, &c. Some of these are simply school-books, but his _Histoire des Romains_ (translated into English) and his _Histoire de la Gr[`e]ce Ancienne_ (translated into English) are extensive and important works, the former especially.

DUSE, Eleonora, Italian actress, born at Vigevano, near Venice, in 1859. At the age of thirteen she made her first appearance on the stage, and in 1883 she acted at Rome, when she was recognized as one of the greatest Italian, and even one of the greatest living actresses. From that time her career was one of uninterrupted success, and she gained a world-wide reputation. Duse is one of the dramatic artists who discard the customary mannerisms of the stage, and all that is conventional but unreal in modern acting. Some of d'Annunzio's best plays were specially written for her. Among her most remarkable impersonations are those of Francesca da Rimini, Marguerite Gautier in _La Dame aux Cam['e]lias_, Magda, La Tosca, Paula in _The Second Mrs. Tanqueray_, and Nora in Ibsen's _A Doll's House_. She appeared for the first time in London in 1897.

D[:U]SSELDORF (d[.u]s'sel-dorf), a town of Germany, in the Rhine province, beautifully situated among villas and gardens on the right bank of the Rhine, 22 miles N.N.W. of Cologne, one of the handsomest towns in the valley of the Rhine. It is a great focus of railway and steamboat communication, and has a number of handsome public buildings, and several remarkable churches. Among the public institutions particular notice is due to the Academy of Art, founded in 1767, by the Elector Theodore, and afterwards directed by Cornelius, Schadow, and Bendemann. It has the honour of having founded a school of painting, which takes the name of D[:u]sseldorf, and has had a large number of distinguished pupils. The industries embrace iron, machinery, railway plant, cotton, leather, chemicals, and beer, and the trade is large. Pop. 358,728.

DUST, solid matter in a fine state of division. Spores of plants, bacteria, &c., are found in the atmosphere, but in general organic particles are numerous only over thickly populated districts. Inorganic particles are derived from various sources. Where the soil is dry, dust is whirled aloft by the winds, this cause giving rise to the great sand-storms of tropical desert regions. Volcanoes in eruption eject large quantities of dust. It is estimated that millions of meteors are encountered by the earth per day. Most of these are excessively minute. They are speedily disintegrated, and generally entirely reduced to dust at high levels. Evaporation is almost always proceeding over seas and oceans, and from foam thrown up and swept along by the winds the dissolved salts are liberated as solid particles. Again vast quantities of dust are produced in the consumption of fuel.

The late Dr. John Aitken, F.R.S., of Falkirk, Stirlingshire, contrived a means of gauging the dust contents of the atmosphere. This consists of a glass box about a centimetre in thickness. Two pieces of wet filter paper inside serve to keep the contained air damp. The bottom of the box is a micrometer plate, divided rectangularly in millimetres. It can be examined from above by a lens. An air-pump can withdraw definite volumes of air as desired. When the air is partially withdrawn, the expansion of the remainder produces cooling. The dust particles form nuclei for condensation of the vapour. They are thus precipitated on the plate, and counted, leaving the air dust-free. A measured quantity of the air to be tested is next drawn in and shaken up. Further operation of the air-pump causes its expansion, and the deposition of its dust particles, which can then be counted. Dr. Aitken found the proportion of dust on Ben Nevis to vary at different times from under 100 particles to over 14,000 per cubic centimetre. Over oceans the numbers were from about 500 on the Indian to 2000 on the Atlantic. But over cities 100,000 per cubic centimetre are frequently present. A puff of cigarette smoke was estimated to contain 4,000,000,000 particles.

Many phenomena are connected with the existence of dust in the atmosphere. As a result of Dr. Aitken's discoveries the belief largely prevailed that the formation of fog, of rain, and other varieties of precipitation, was necessarily dependent on dust particles as nuclei of condensation. Though they certainly function to a preponderating extent, it has been shown that gaseous particles can act similarly, particularly when air is ionized. Dust is the main cause of the scattering of the sun's rays which produces twilight, the blue of the sky, the gorgeous red and golden hues of sunrise and sunset, and the purple lights of advancing dusk. After the great Krakatoan eruptions of 1883, dust was carried in the upper atmosphere several times round the earth, and caused extraordinary colour effects. To a lesser degree similar phenomena followed the West Indian eruptions of 1902. The unusual sunlessness of the summer of 1912 was attributed to dust expelled in the preceding great eruptions at Katmai, Alaska.

DUTCH CLOVER, _Trifolium repens_, commonly called white clover, a valuable pasture plant. It has a creeping stem; the leaflets are broad, obovate, with a horse-shoe mark in the centre; the white or pinkish flowers are in a globular head.

DUTCH EAST INDIES, forming a large and important colonial possession of the Netherlands Government, lie between 6deg N. and 11deg S., and 95deg E. and 141deg E. The colony includes Java and Madura, with the 'Outposts', which comprise Sumatra, the south-east and west portions of Borneo, Banca, Billiton, Celebes, the Timor and Riau-Lingga Archipelagos, the smaller Sunda Islands, and the north and west of New Guinea. The total area is about 735,000 sq. miles; the population of about 47,000,000 is composed of 46,000,000 natives of Malay race, 832,000 Arabs, Chinese, and other Orientals, and some 80,000 whites. The origin of the colony may be traced to the treaty made by the Dutch with the Sultan of Bantam in Sumatra (1595), which was followed by the formation of the Dutch East India Company (1602), the establishment of Batavia (1619) on the ruins of the native town of Jacatra, and the settlement in Sumatra (1677). The Dutch East India Company was dissolved in 1798, since which date the colony has been administered from the Netherlands by a Governor-General, who, assisted by a Council of five members nominated by the queen, has the power to pass laws, subject to the general regulations adopted in 1854. Some of the outlying islands are, however, administered by their native princes under the 'advice' of a Netherlands Resident. Batavia (population about 234,000), a town in the province of the same name on the north-west coast of Java, is the administrative capital and an important centre of trade. Java and Sumatra, containing about three-fourths of the total population of the colony, are self-supporting as regards food, besides producing for European consumption large quantities of tobacco, tea, coffee, sugar, cinchona, tin, rubber, and copra. The colonial army numbers some 1200 officers and 40,000 men; compulsory service for white men within certain age-limits was adopted in 1918. There is also a small naval force.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bemmelen and Hooyer, _Guide to the Dutch East Indies_; W. Cool, _With the Dutch in the East_; J. M. Brown, _The Dutch East_.

DUTCH METAL, an alloy containing 84.5-84.7 per cent of copper and 15.5-15.3 per cent of zinc, with a fine golden-yellow colour, ductile, malleable, and tenacious. When beaten out by a process analogous to that for gold-leaf, until the sheets are less than 1/50,000th part of an inch thick, it constitutes Dutch leaf or Dutch foil, and is used as a cheap substitute for gold-leaf for ornamental purposes.

DUTCH PINK, a bright yellow colour used in distemper, for staining paper-hangings, and for other ordinary purposes. It is composed of chalk or whiting coloured with a decoction of birch leaves, French berries, and alum.

DUTCH RUSH, _Equis[=e]tum hyem[=a]le_, one of the plants known as horse-tails, with a firm texture and so large an amount of silica in the cuticle that it is employed as a fine sand-paper for polishing delicate woodwork. The plant is found in marshes and woods in Britain, but for economic use it is imported from Holland, whence its popular name.

DUTROCHET (d[.u]-tro-sh[=a]), Ren['e] Joachim Henri, a French physiologist, born in Poitou in 1776, died at Paris in 1847. He served for some time as medical attendant to Joseph Bonaparte during the Spanish campaign 1808-9; but afterwards returned to France, and retired to the estate of Ch[^a]teaurenault, where he devoted himself exclusively to physical and physiological studies. His chief works have been published in a collective form with the title _M['e]moires pour servir [`a] l'Histoire Anatomique et Physiologique des V['e]g['e]taux et des Animaux_ (1837, 2 vols.).

DVINA, NORTHERN, a Russian river formed by the union of two small streams in the government of Vologda. It flows in a north-westerly direction, and falls by four mouths into the White Sea. At Archangel, before it divides, it is 4 miles broad. It is navigable as far as Suchona, and is connected with the Volga and Neva by canal.

DVO[VR]['A]K (dvor-sh[:a]k'), Anton, a Bohemian musical composer, born in 1841, died in 1904. He studied at the Prague Conservatoire, and composed several operas on national Bohemian subjects, songs, orchestral arrangements of Bohemian dances, several symphonies, a _Stabat_ _Mater_, a cantata (_The Spectre Bride_), and an oratorio (_St. Ludmila_). In 1892 he was director of the New York National Conservatory, and after 1895 he lived in Prague, where he wrote, in 1889, the opera _Der Teufel und die wilde K[:a]tze_.

DWARF, a term applied to any animal or plant greatly below the usual size of its kind, particularly to a human being of small dimensions. Strictly speaking, the term should be used with reference to individuals and not to races. When a whole population consists of people of small stature, the proper term to apply to them is pigmies, not dwarfs. Accounts of pigmy tribes have been common from early times, such tribes being located especially in Africa; and it would appear from the accounts of Du Chaillu, Schweinfurth, and other travellers that there are several pigmy tribes throughout this continent. The Obongo, a race of dwarfs, are described as living in woods near the Okanda River, in wretched huts made of branches. Other races are the Mabongo, and the Akka dwarfs of Central Africa (see _Akkas_); and a race exists in the Congo State, not as a distinct community, however, but mixed with other tribes. Individual dwarfs occur in all races, and were formerly a fashionable appendage to the courts of princes and the families of nobles. Jeffery Hudson, the favourite dwarf of Charles I, at the age of thirty is said to have been only 18 inches high, though he afterwards grew to 3 feet 9 inches. B['e]b['e], the celebrated dwarf of Stanislas of Poland, was 33 inches; Wybrand Lolkes, a Dutch dwarf, when sixty years of age was only 27 inches; Charles H. Stratton, 'General Tom Thumb', was 31 inches high at the age of twenty-five; Francis Flynn, 'General Mite', was only 21 inches at sixteen. In most of the extreme cases the dwarfing is the result of some defect in the ductless glands which regulate the normal growth of the body. Stories of dwarfs and brownies are to be found in the folk-lore of many tribes on earth.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. J. Wood, _Giants and Dwarfs_; E. Tyson, _Philological Essay concerning Pygmies of the Ancients_.

DWARFING, the process of training up trees or shrubs for ornament in houses so as to cause them never to reach more than a very small size, by keeping them in poor soil, giving them little water, pinching off strong shoots, &c. It is much practised among the Chinese and Japanese.

DWIGHT (dw[=i]t), Timothy, American divine, born in Massachusetts 1752, died 1817. His father was Colonel Timothy Dwight, and his mother was a daughter of Jonathan Edwards. He served as chaplain in the revolutionary army, and ultimately became president of Yale College. His _Theology Explained and Defended_ (1818) was for long a standard work both in Britain and in America.

DY'AKS, the aborigines of Borneo, chiefly inhabiting the interior of the island. They are a finely formed race, of a yellow complexion, and are described as docile, industrious, and superior to the Malays. The more advanced of them practise agriculture and dwell in neatly-constructed and tolerably comfortable houses. In Sarawak they have made considerable advances in civilization. The practice of head-hunting (hunting their enemies to make trophies of their heads) is practised among them, but has been abolished where European influence prevails.--Cf. Hose and McDougall, _The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_ (2 vols.).

DYAUS (dyous), the god of the sky in the older mythology of the Hindus. His name is etymologically connected with that of the Greek Zeus.

DYCE (d[=i]s), Alexander, Shakespearean editor, born at Edinburgh 30th June, 1798, died 15th May, 1869. He was educated at Edinburgh and Oxford, but in 1827 settled in London, where most of his life was passed. He first became known by his editions of Collins, Peele, Webster, Marlowe, and Skelton, accompanied by notes and biographies of the authors. His chief work was an edition of Shakespeare in six volumes, with notes (1853-8).

DYCE, William, painter, born at Aberdeen in 1806, died near London, 1864. He studied in London and Rome, and practised his art in Edinburgh. In 1840 he became director of the School of Design in London, and in 1844 was appointed professor of fine art in King's College, London. He was elected a Royal Academician in 1848. Amongst his chief works are: _Francesca da Rimini_ (1837): _Joash shooting the Arrow of Deliverance_ (1844); _King Lear in the Storm_ (1851); _Christabel_ (1855); _The Good Shepherd_ (1856); _The Baptism of Ethelbert_, a large fresco for the Houses of Parliament, and a series of frescoes illustrative of the legends relating to King Arthur, for the same. He also executed for the Prince Consort, at Osborne, the fresco _Neptune giving the Empire of the Sea to Britannia_.

DYEING is the art of colouring textile and other materials in such a way that the colours are not readily removed by the action of light, washing, &c. Like spinning and weaving, it was originally a home industry, as it still is in many places. The natural dyes formerly employed are now largely displaced by dyes derived from coal-tar products, the first discovery of which was made by Perkin in 1856; a few mineral colours are employed in cotton dyeing. Before dyeing, the materials have generally to be cleansed or bleached to get rid of undesirable colouring matters or impurities; and frequently a textile material is subjected to some subsidiary treatment in order to obtain special effects. For example, cotton yarn may be subjected to the action of strong caustic soda ('mercerizing' process) while in a state of great tension, in order to give it a permanent silky lustre. Dyeing is not only an art, it is also a branch of applied chemistry. One fundamental principle is, that the colouring matter and other necessary substances must be applied in a state of solution, and while in direct contact with the fibre they must be rendered insoluble, so that they are precipitated within or upon the fibre and fixed permanently. The method of effecting this varies greatly, according to the fibre and the colouring matter employed. As a rule, the vegetable and the animal fibres are dyed by very different methods. The affinity of the animal fibres for certain colouring matters is often so great that they are readily dyed by simple immersion in hot colour solutions; but this simple process is not generally sufficient. According to the method of their application in dyeing, the following groups of dye-stuffs may be distinguished: _Acid Dyes_, _Basic Dyes_, _Direct Dyes_, _Developed Dyes_, _Mordant Dyes_, _Vat Dyes_. A dye is _substantive_ to a particular fibre when it dyes that fibre directly, and _adjective_ when the presence of a third substance known as a _mordant_ is necessary.

The _acid dyes_ are so called because they are of an acid character and are applied in an acid dye-bath. As a rule, they are only suitable for dyeing the animal fibres, e.g. wool and silk, also leather, horn, feathers, &c., and they are substantive to these materials. The purple vegetable dyestuff _orchil_ belongs to this class. The acid dyes derived from coal-tar are very numerous, and yield a great variety of hues--red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, brown, and black. The _basic dyes_ are so called because their essential constituents, to which they owe their dyeing power, are organic bases. The bases themselves are colourless and too insoluble in water to be of use, hence they are employed in the form of their soluble coloured salts, usually the hydrochlorides of the colour-bases. Their solutions are precipitated by tannic acid, because it combines with the colour-bases to form insoluble tannates. Wool, silk, and animal substances generally have a direct attraction for colour-bases, and hence these fibres are readily dyed by simple immersion in hot aqueous solutions of the basic dyes. Cotton and linen, on the other hand, are not dyed so readily; they need first to be mordanted or impregnated with the _mordant_ tannic acid. Most of the colours of this class are fugitive to light, and all but one, viz. _barberry root_, are derived from coal-tar products.

The _direct dyes_ are so called because they dye cotton without the aid of any mordanting process. The first of this class derived from coal-tar was _congo red_, discovered in 1884; at present this group includes a very great variety of fast colours, and forms, indeed, one of the most important and valuable series of dye-stuffs employed. Cotton, linen, and the vegetable fibres generally are dyed in the simplest possible manner by merely boiling them in a solution of the dye-stuff, with or without the addition of a little soap, carbonate or sulphate of soda, &c. Wool and silk are frequently dyed in the same manner as cotton. Very few vegetable dye-stuffs belong to the direct colours, e.g. _Safflower_, _Turmeric_, _Saffron_, _Annatto_ (see the articles). They are all fugitive, and are now of little or no importance to the dyer. The coal-tar colours of this class, on the other hand, are extremely numerous. The _developed dyes_ are formed _in situ_ upon the fibre by the successive application of two or more substances. They include _aniline black_, a permanent black produced by the oxidation of aniline, and the _ice colours_, which are _azo dyes_ derived from certain coal-tar products containing nitrogen.

The _mordant dyes_ form one of the most important classes of colouring matters, for they include not only most of the vegetable dye-stuffs, e.g. madder, logwood, fustic, &c., but also many valuable fast coal-tar colours, commonly known as the _alizarin dyes_, after their typical representative, alizarin. These mordant dyes have by themselves very little colouring power, as a rule, and if employed alone in dyeing give little or no result. If applied, however, in conjunction with metallic salts, notably those of chromium, aluminium, iron, tin, and copper, they each yield a variety of colours, according to the metallic salt employed. In employing them two distinct operations are usually involved: first, that of applying the metallic salt or _mordant_, called the _mordanting process_; and second, that of _dyeing_ proper, in which the mordanted material is boiled in a solution or decoction of the dye-stuff. During the dyeing operation the colouring principle of the dye-stuff combines with the metallic salt already upon the material, and the colour is thus produced and fixed upon the fibre. The method of mordanting varies with the fibre and the metallic salt employed. The vegetable dye-stuffs of this class include _Madder_, _Sapanwood_, _Camwood_, _Barwood_, _Old Fustic_, _Young Fustic_, _Quercitron Bark_, _Persian Berries_, _Weld_, _Logwood_ (see these separate articles). _Madder_ was formerly the most important and highly valued of the dye-stuffs of this class, being especially employed to produce the fine 'Turkey-red' dye; but it is now entirely superseded by the coal-tar colour alizarin. Similarly, the employment of _cochineal_ (an insect dye) has also greatly diminished through the introduction of the cheaper colours. _Camwood_ and _barwood_ are almost entirely used in wool-dyeing, either in conjunction with the indigo-vat or for the purpose of dyeing various shades of brown. _Old fustic_ is the most important of the yellow mordant dye-stuffs, and the colours are fast although not very brilliant. _Quercitron bark_ is an excellent dye-stuff employed by wool-dyers for the production of bright orange and yellow colours. _Persian berries_ and _weld_, a species of wild mignonette, are both excellent dye-stuffs, but their employment is now limited. _Logwood_ is largely employed by wool, silk, and cotton dyers for dyeing black and dark-blues, which, although fast to washing, are only moderately so towards light. The important vegetable dye _catechu_ (q.v.) is used in dyeing cotton and wool brown. On wool, catechu yields _khaki_ browns in single bath by using copper sulphate as the mordant. On silk, it is largely employed for weighting purposes in the process of dyeing black. Although dyewoods are still much employed, they are being steadily replaced by coal-tar colours. The _vat dyes_ are insoluble in water, but yield reduction products which are soluble in aqueous alkali, and can be readily reoxidized to the dye-stuff. In this class may be included the _sulphur dyes_, substances of uncertain composition obtained by fusing certain compounds containing nitrogen with sulphur and sodium sulphide, which are now extensively and increasingly employed, especially as direct dyes for cotton. _Indigo_, a typical vat dye, is prepared both artificially and from natural sources. It is a dark-blue powder quite insoluble in water, but when reduced it yields _indigo-white_ which dissolves in aqueous alkali, the solution thus obtained being called an _indigo-vat_. Cotton, wool, or silk steeped for some time in the clear yellow solution of such a vat, and then exposed to the oxidizing influence of the air, is dyed a permanent blue. The indigo-white absorbed by the fibre loses its acquired hydrogen, and thus insoluble indigo-blue is regenerated within and upon the fibre.

In the classification adopted above, the following _mineral colours_ employed in cotton dyeing belong to the group of developed dyes, since they are formed on the fibre: _chrome yellow_, obtained by immersing cotton successively in solutions of acetate of lead and bichromate of potash; _iron buff_ (oxide of iron), produced by the successive application of sulphate of iron and carbonate of soda; _Prussian blue_, developed by passing the buff-dyed cotton through an acidified solution of potassium ferrocyanide; _manganese brown_ (oxide of manganese), deposited similarly to iron buff. The mineral colours are very useful for certain purposes, and are very fast to light.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Crookes, _A Practical Handbook of Dyeing and Calico-printing_; W. P. Dreaper, _Chemistry and Physics of Dyeing_; Knecht, Rawson, and Loewenthal, _Manual of Dyeing_; Rawson, Gardner, and Laycock, _A Dictionary of Dyes, Mordants, &c._

DYER, John, English poet, born in Carmarthenshire about 1700, died in 1758. Educated at Westminster School, he became a painter, but, not succeeding in that vocation, took orders and was appointed to a small living. In 1727 he published his poem of _Grongar Hill_, in 1740 _The Ruins of Rome_, and in 1757 _The Fleece_, a didactic poem in five books.

DYER'S-BROOM, a European and now also N. American shrub (_Genista tinctoria_), formerly used with woad for dyeing green.

DYER'S-WEED, _Res[=e]da Lute[)o]la_, a British plant of the same genus as mignonette, otherwise called _Yellow-weed_, _Weld_, or _Woad_, nat. ord. Resedaceae. This plant grows in waste ground; it affords a beautiful yellow dye, and is cultivated for that purpose.--_Dyer's Greenweed_ is _Genista tinctoria_.

DYING DECLARATION, a deposition made by one who is in prospect of death. Such declarations are as a general rule admissible as evidence only in criminal and not in civil cases, and must be made, according to English, though not Scottish law, in the full consciousness of the danger of death.