Chapter M: M. J. SUTHERLAND, D.Sc., F.I.C (8)

DOUBS (d[:o]), a department of France, having Switzerland on its eastern frontier. Its surface is traversed by four chains of the Jura. The temperature is variable, and the climate somewhat rigorous. About a third of the land is arable, but much the greater part is covered with forests. Maize, potatoes, hemp, flax are the principal crops. Much dairy produce is made into Gruy[`e]re cheese. The minerals include iron, lead, and marble. Pop. 284,975.--The River Doubs rises in the department to which it gives its name, flows first north-east, then north-west till it joins the Sa[^o]ne at Verdun-sur-Sa[^o]ne; length, 250 miles.

DOUCHE (d[:o]sh), a jet or current of water or vapour directed upon some part of the body; employed in bathing establishments. When water is applied, it is called the _liquid douche_, and when a current of vapour, the _vapour douche_.

DOUGLAS (dug'las), a family distinguished in the annals of Scotland. Their origin is unknown. They were already territorial magnates at the time when Bruce and Baliol were competitors for the crown. As their estates lay on the borders they early became guardians of the kingdom against the encroachments of the English, and acquired in this way power, habits, and experience which frequently made them formidable to the Crown. We notice in chronological succession the most distinguished members of the family. James, son of the William Douglas who had been a companion of Wallace, and is commonly known as the Good Sir James, early joined Bruce, and was one of his chief supporters throughout his career, and one of the most distinguished leaders at the battle of Bannockburn. He was called 'Black Douglas' from his swarthy complexion. He fell in battle with the Moors while on his way to the Holy Land with the heart of his master, in 1331.--Archibald, youngest brother of Sir James, succeeded to the regency of Scotland in the infancy of David. He was defeated and killed at Halidon Hill by Edward III in 1333.--William, son of the preceding, was created first earl in 1357. He recovered Douglasdale from the English, and was frequently engaged in wars with them. He fought at the battle of Poitiers and died in 1384.--James, the second earl, who, like his ancestors, was constantly engaged in border warfare, was killed at the battle of Otterburn in 1388. After his death the earldom passed to an illegitimate son of the Good Sir James, Archibald the Grim, Lord of Galloway.--Archibald, son of Archibald the Grim and fourth earl, was the Douglas who was defeated and taken prisoner by Percy (Hotspur) at Homildon 14th Sept., 1402. He was also taken prisoner at Shrewsbury 23rd July, 1403, and did not recover his liberty till 1407. He was killed at the battle of Verneuil, in Normandy, in 1427. Charles VII created him Duke of Touraine, which title descended to his successors. He was surnamed 'The Tyneman', or loser, on account of his many misfortunes in battle.--William, sixth earl, born 1422, together with his only brother David was assassinated by Crichton and Livingstone at a banquet to which he had been invited in the name of the king, in Edinburgh Castle, on 24th Nov., 1440. Jealousy of the great power which the Douglases had acquired from their possessions in Scotland and France was the cause of this deed.--William, the eighth earl, a descendant of the third earl, restored the power of the Douglases by a marriage with his cousin, heiress of another branch of the family; was appointed Lord-Lieutenant of the kingdom, and defeated the English at Sark. Having entered into treasonous league, he was invited by James II to Stirling and there murdered by the king's own hand, 22nd Feb., 1452.--James, the ninth and last earl, brother of the preceding, took up arms with his allies to avenge his death, but was finally driven to England, where he continued an exile for nearly thirty years. He entered Scotland on a raid in 1484, but was taken prisoner and confined in the abbey of Lindores, where he died in 1488. His estates, which had been forfeited in 1455, were bestowed on the fourth Earl of Angus, the 'Red Douglas', the representative of a younger branch of the Douglas family, which continued long after to flourish. The fifth Earl of Angus, Archibald Douglas, was the celebrated 'Bell-the-Cat', one of whose sons was Gawin Douglas the poet. He died in a monastery in 1514. Archibald, the sixth earl, married Queen Margaret, widow of James IV, attained the dignity of regent of the kingdom, and after various vicissitudes of fortune, having at one time been attainted and forced to flee from the kingdom, died about 1560. He left no son, and the title of Earl of Angus passed to his nephew David. James Douglas, brother of David, married the heiress of the Earl of Morton, which title he received on the death of his father-in-law. His nephew, Archibald, eighth Earl of Angus and Earl of Morton, died childless, and the earldom of Angus then passed to Sir William Douglas of Glenbervie, his cousin, whose son William was raised to the rank of Marquess of Douglas. Archibald, the great-grandson of William, was raised in 1703 to the dignity of Duke of Douglas, but died unmarried in 1761, when the ducal title became extinct, and the marquessate passed to the Duke of Hamilton, the descendant of a younger son of the first marquess. The line of Angus or the Red Douglas is now represented by the Houses of Hamilton and Home, who both claim the title of Earl of Angus.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: David Hume of Godscroft, _A History of the House of Douglas and Angus_; Sir H. Maxwell, _A History of the House of Douglas_.

DOUGLAS, Gawin, an early Scottish poet of eminence. He was the son of Archibald, fifth Earl of Angus, and was born at Brechin about 1474. He received a liberal education, commenced at home and completed at the University of Paris. On returning to Scotland he took orders in the Church, and ultimately became Bishop of Dunkeld, through the influence of his nephew, the sixth Earl of Angus, who married Queen Margaret, widow of James IV. He died of the plague in 1522 in London, where he had been obliged to take refuge on account of political commotions. He translated Virgil's _Aeneid_ into verse with much spirit and elegance, prefixing original prologues to the different books of the original. This was the first poetical translation into English of any classical author. It was written about 1512, and first published in 1553. He also wrote _The Palace of Honour_ and _King Hart_, both allegorical poems.--Cf. J. H. Millar, _Literary History of Scotland_.

DOUGLAS, Sir Howard, Baronet, G.C.B., a British general, born in 1776, the son of Admiral Sir Charles Douglas. He served in Spain in the Peninsular War, and acquired much reputation by his writings on military subjects, especially by his _Military Bridges and the Passage of Rivers_ (1816), and _Treatise on Naval Gunnery_ (1819). From 1823 to 1829 he was Governor of New Brunswick, and from 1835 to 1840 Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian Islands. He attained the rank of general in 1851, and died in Nov., 1861.

DOUGLAS, Stephen Arnold, American politician, born in Vermont, 1813, died 1861. Having gone to Jacksonville, Illinois, he became an attorney, was appointed Attorney-General for the State, and in 1843 was elected a member of the United States House of Representatives. In 1847 he was elected to the Senate, and by re-election was a member of this body till his death. He was especially prominent in connection with the question as to the extension of slavery into new states and territories, which he maintained was a matter to be settled by the people of the respective states or territories, and not by Congress. He was a presidential candidate in 1860, when Lincoln was elected.

DOUGLAS, Sir William Fettes, painter, born in Edinburgh 1822, died in 1891. He was educated at the High School in that city, spent ten years in a bank before finally deciding (in 1847) upon the artist's profession. In 1851 he was elected an Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy, and three years later a full member. In 1877 he became Curator of the National Gallery of Scotland, resigning the post in 1882 on his election as president of the Royal Scottish Academy. Among the finest of his early pictures are: _Bibliomania_ (1852, in the National Gallery), _The Ruby Ring_ (1853), _The Alchemist_ (1855), _Hudibras and Ralph visiting the Astrologer_ (1856), and _The Rosicrucian_ (1856), many of these showing much of the Pre-Raphaelite spirit, with abundance of detail. After 1870 he devoted himself rather to landscape, and his _Stonehaven Harbour_ and _A Fishing Village_ (1874-5) are perhaps his masterpieces. He was knighted in 1882.

DOUGLAS (dug'las), capital of the Isle of Man, is situated on the south-east coast, on a beautiful semicircular bay. It is frequented by immense numbers of visitors during the summer. Among the objects of interest are the House of Keys, the custom-house, the extensive breakwater, and the promenade. Pop. 21,192.

DOUGLASS, Frederick, American lecturer and journalist, was born at Tuckahoe, in Maryland, about 1817. His father was a white man, but his mother being a negro slave, he was, according to the law, reared as a slave. In 1832 he was purchased by a Baltimore shipbuilder, but made his escape in 1838. As he had taught himself to read and write, and showed talent as an orator, he was employed by the Anti-slavery Society as one of their lecturers. In 1845 he published his autobiography, and afterwards made a successful lecturing tour in England. In 1870 he started a journal entitled _The New National Era_; in 1871 he was appointed secretary of the Commission to Santo Domingo; in 1877 Marshal for the district of Columbia, then Commissioner of Deeds, and eventually Minister to Hayti. He died in 1895.

DOULTON (d[=o]l'tun), Sir Henry, 'the greatest potter of the nineteenth century', born in Lambeth in 1820, died in 1897. On leaving University College School, in 1835, he joined his father, who had carried on a small pottery since 1815, and began by perfecting himself in all the mechanical processes then used by potters. He scored his first distinct success in 1846 with glazed drain-pipes, and in 1851 and 1862 the firm obtained medals for stoneware vessels and chemical apparatus. At the South Kensington Exhibition in 1871 a striking display was made of the new Doulton artistic ware. Doulton exhibited at Vienna in 1873, and at Paris five years later, when he was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He then established a school of artists in connection with his manufactory, with the object of promoting originality in design. He received the Albert gold medal of the Society of Arts in 1885, and was knighted at the Jubilee two years later.

DOUM PALM (d[=o]m), a palm tree, _Hyphaene thebaica_. It is remarkable, like the other species of the genus, for having a repeatedly branched stem. Each branch terminates in a tuft of large fan-shaped leaves. The fruit is about the size of an apple; it has a fibrous mealy rind, which tastes like gingerbread (whence the name _gingerbread tree_ sometimes applied to this palm), and is eaten by the poorer inhabitants of Upper Egypt, where it grows. An infusion of the rind is also used as a cooling beverage in fevers. The seed is horny, and is made into small ornaments. Ropes are made of the fibres of the leaf-stalks.

DOUNE (d[:o]n), a police borough in W. Perthshire, Scotland, on the River Teith, 9 miles north-west of Stirling, once famous for its manufacture of Highland pistols and sporrans. The old ruined castle--an imposing structure now partially repaired--is described in Scott's _Waverley_. Pop. 890.

DOURO (d[:o]'r[=o]), one of the largest rivers of the Spanish Peninsula, which, flowing west, traverses about one-half of Spain and the whole of Portugal, and, after a course of 500 miles, falls into the Atlantic 3 miles below Oporto. It is navigable for small vessels for about 70 miles.

DOVE. See _Turtle-dove_ and _Pigeon_.

DOVE (d[=o]v), a river, England, Derbyshire, which, after a course of 39 miles through highly picturesque scenery, falls into the Trent.

DOVE-COTES. Pigeon-keeping to provide a food-supply is a practice of considerable antiquity, and dove-cotes are found in many quarters of the world. Those introduced into Britain by the Normans were modelled on the Roman _columbarium_, a massive circular structure, lined with nest-holes, and having a domed roof. A fine example of this type, built 1326, survives at Garway, Herefordshire. Till towards the end of the sixteenth century, these buildings, numbering some 26,000, formed items of manorial privilege in England, and were long confined to Scottish baronies. About this period square and octagonal forms became common, a fine brick specimen of the latter style remaining at Whitehall, Shrewsbury. In Scotland typical 'doo'-cots' exist in the Edinburgh suburbs of Liberton and Corstorphine. That at Liberton, a type common in Scotland but rare in England, is oblong, with lean-to roof and two compartments--probably to avoid disturbing the whole flock when 'squabs' were taken from the nests. Dove-cotes fell generally into disuse when the introduction of 'roots' insured the winter feeding of farm-stock and a consequent steady supply of fresh meat; but their antiquarian interest and frequent beauty call for the careful preservation of existing specimens.

DOVE DEITIES. The cult of the dove is of great antiquity. In Crete and at Mycenae, and in the area of Hittite control in Asia Minor, it was connected with the Mother-goddess. The bird appears in archaic clay figurines from Phoenicia, Rhodes, Delos, Athens, and Etruria. Whether or not the dove cult originated in Crete or Asia Minor is uncertain. Some think it is of Egyptian origin, but there is no trace of a dove goddess in Nilotic art. In the love poems found in Egyptian tombs, however, the dove is referred to, being in one case addressed by a lover, who asks it if love is to be denied to her; she then tells the dove that she has found her chosen one and is happy by his side. The pigeon was protected in Egypt, and is still regarded as a 'luck bird', and it may have been connected with ancient folk religion. In Babylonia and Assyria the dove was associated with the goddess Ishtar, but not specially during the earlier periods. The Allatu bird is, however, referred to in the Gilgamesh epic, and Pinches has translated the suggestive reference in an Ishtar hymn, _Like a lonely dove I rest_. In another hymn the worshipper moans like a dove. According to Diodorus, the famous Assyrian Queen Semiramis, who was abandoned after birth, was protected and fed by doves. In Crete two forms of the Great Mother-goddess, who was an Aphrodite in one of her phases, were the snake goddess and the dove goddess. Two doves appear on a model of a Mycenaean shrine. The dove is associated with the Hittite goddess at Marash, Yarre, and Fraktin. It is sometimes found with the nude Syrian goddess. Lucian states, in reference to a Syrian cult, that the dove is the holiest bird (_De Dea Syria_, chapter liv), and that there was a golden dove in the temple, but nothing was known regarding its origin, some referring it to Dionysus, some to Deukalion, and some to Semiramis (a name said to mean mountain dove) (chapter xxxiii). Aelian tells that the dove was the sacred companion of Astarte (_Hist. Nat._, iv, 2). Like the Egyptians, the Semites regarded the pigeon with veneration. The Hebrews sacrificed it on special occasions (_Num._ vi, 10; _Lev._ xiv, 4, 49). Noah sent out a dove from the ark (_Gen._ viii, 8). A prophet mourns as a dove (_Is._ xxxviii, 14). The dove is 'silly' (_Hos._ vii, 11). Doves were sold in the temple (_Mark_, xi, 15). The Spirit of God appears as a dove (_Matt._ iii, 16). According to Herodotus, the Persians drove away white pigeons, connecting them with leprosy (_Book I_, 139). At Dodona, the famous sanctuary in Epirus, auguries were taken from the moaning of doves in the tree-tops, and the priestesses of Zeus were called doves (_Peleiai_). Doves and pigeons were mystical birds in the British Isles. In England it was believed that one could not die on a bed of pigeon feathers, and the dying person had, therefore, to be removed from one so that the suffering might not be prolonged. The early Christian saints reverenced the dove. St. Gregory the Great is shown with a dove on his shoulder, and the emblem of St. Remigius is a dove with an oil-cruse in its beak. A snow-white dove with golden bill was wont to sit on the head of St. Mungo, the patron saint of Glasgow. Stories used to be told of sick persons recovering on seeing a white dove on an altar. In the folk lore attached to the memory of Michael Scott, the dove is connected with heaven, and the raven with hell. St. Columba's name signifies 'Dove'. Dove-cotes were connected with old churches, especially in England.

DO'VER, a municipal borough of England, county of Kent, 67 miles south-east of London. It lies on the coast of the Straits of Dover, and is 21 miles distant from Calais on the French coast. It is an important railway terminus, and as a port for mail and packet service with the Continent has a large passenger traffic. Ship-building, sail-making, and fisheries are carried on. There are two docks and a tidal harbour; an outer harbour of 70 acres, enclosed by a new pier and the extended Admiralty Pier, completed in 1871. Very extensive harbour improvements, begun in 1893, were carried out in subsequent years. The celebrated castle stands on a high chalk cliff. Dover is the chief of the Cinque Ports, and has extensive barracks. A parliamentary borough till 1918, Dover now gives its name to a parliamentary division of Kent. Dover was frequently raided by German aviators during the European War. Pop. 43,645.

DOVER, a city of the United States, in New Hampshire. It is situated on both sides of the Cochecho, which has here a fall of over 30 feet, affording abundant water-power for the large iron and cotton manufactories. Pop. 13,247.

DOVER, STRAITS OF, the narrow channel between Dover and Calais which separates Great Britain from the French coast. At the narrowest part it is only 21 miles wide. The depth of the channel at a medium in the highest spring-tides is about 25 fathoms. On both the French and English sides the chalky cliffs show a correspondency of strata which leaves no room for doubt that they were once united, a fact which is clearly shown by many other proofs.

DOVER'S POWDER, a preparation frequently used in medical practice to produce perspiration. It consists of 1 grain of opium, 1 of ipecacuanha, and 8 of sulphate of potash in every 10 grains, which constitute a full dose. It is named after Thomas Dover, an English physician of the eighteenth century.

DOVRE-FJELD (d[=o]-vre-fyel), an assemblage of mountain masses in Norway, forming the central part of the Scandinavian system, and extending as a plateau 2000 feet high E.N.E. from lat. 62deg N. to lat. 63deg. It is generally composed of gneiss and mica schist. One of the mountains belonging to it is Snehaetta, 7620 feet.

DOW, Gerard, an eminent painter of the Dutch school, was the son of a glazier, and born at Leyden in 1613. He studied under Rembrandt, and united his master's manner in chiaroscuro with the most minute finish and delicacy. Among his pictures, generally of small size and mostly scenes of family life, are: _The Evening School_, _Young Mother_, _Woman Sick with Dropsy_, and _The Bible Reader_. Dow died in 1675.

DOWDEN, Edward, English critic, historian, and educator, was born at Cork in 1843, died in 1913. He studied at Queen's College, Cork, and Trinity College, Dublin, where he gained great distinction, especially in English and Philosophy; and in 1867 he was elected to the professorship of English literature in the university. He was the first Taylorian lecturer at Oxford University in 1889, and held the Clark lecturership in English literature at Trinity College, Cambridge, from 1893 to 1896. Besides contributing to periodicals, Professor Dowden published various works on literary subjects, in particular: _Shakspere: his Mind and Art_ (1875); _Shakspere Primer_; _Studies in Literature_; _Southey_; _Southey's Correspondence with Caroline Bowles_; _Life of Shelley_ (2 vols., 1886), the chief authority on the poet's life, being founded on papers in the possession of the Shelley family; _Wordsworth's Poetical Works_ (1892-3); _Introduction to Shakspere_ (1893); _New Studies in Literature_ (1895); _The French Revolution and English Literature_ (lectures delivered at Princeton College, New Jersey, in 1896); _History of French Literature_ (1897); _Robert Browning_ (1904); _Michel de Montaigne_ (1905); _Essays, Modern and Elizabethan_ (1910). A volume of poems by him appeared in 1876, and his collected _Poetical Works and Letters_ appeared in 1914.

DOWER (Fr. _douaire_, Lat. _dos_, dower), in English law, is the right which a wife (not being an alien) has in the freehold lands and tenements of which her husband dies possessed and undisposed of by will. By common law this right amounts to one-third of his estate during her life; by local custom it is frequently greater. Where the custom of _gavelkind_ prevails, the widow's share is a half, and that of _free-bench_ gives her the whole or a portion of a copyhold, according to the custom of the manor. The term is also applied to the property which a woman brings to her husband in marriage, but this is more correctly _dowry_.

DOWIE, John Alexander, religious impostor, born at Edinburgh in 1847, died in 1907. Educated at the university of his native town, he joined his family in Sydney, Australia, and entered the ministry as clergyman of the Congregational denomination. In 1878 he started evangelistic work, maintaining that it was wrong to take a minister's salary. In 1882 he established a tabernacle at Melbourne, and began to practise faith-healing. He then came to the United States, where he organized his own Church, establishing it in 1901 at Zion City, 42 miles from Chicago, on the shore of Lake Michigan. He styled himself 'Elijah II', and 'the First Apostle of the Lord Jesus Christ, and General Overseer of the Catholic Apostolic Church'. Suspended in 1906 by his congregation of Zion City, who accused him of tyranny, polygamy, and misuse of funds, he died shortly afterwards.

DOWLAIS, a town of South Wales, Glamorganshire, included in the parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil, from which it is distant 1 1/2 miles north-east, with important iron- and steelworks. Pop. 18,112.

DOWLAS, a kind of coarse linen formerly much used by working people for shirts; this use of it is now generally superseded by calico.--Cf. Shakespeare, _1st Henry IV_, iii, 3.

DOWLETABAD. See _Daulatabad_.

DOWN, a county of Ireland, in Ulster, bounded on the north by Belfast Lough and on the east by the Irish Sea; area, 610,730 acres, of which over five-sixths are productive. Down is copiously watered by the Rivers Bann, Lagan, and Newry, and has numerous small lakes. The surface is very irregular, and in parts mountainous, Slieve Donard, in the Mourne Mountains, being 2796 feet high. Agriculture is in a flourishing condition, oats, wheat, flax, turnips, and potatoes being the principal crops. The native breed of sheep is small, but valued for the delicacy of its mutton and the fine texture of its wool. The principal manufactures are linen and muslin. The fisheries on the coast, principally cod, haddock, and herring, are considerable. The county has five parliamentary divisions, each returning a member. The county town is Downpatrick; others are Newry, Newtownards, Bangor, and Banbridge. Pop. 204,303.

DOWNING COLLEGE, one of the colleges of the University of Cambridge, chartered in 1800 and opened in 1821. Its founder was Sir George Downing, a Cambridgeshire gentleman.

DOWNING STREET, a street in London, leading from Whitehall. The name is used as a synonym for the British Government, the Foreign Office and Colonial Office being located in it. No. 10 is the official residence of the Prime Minister, and No. 11 that of the Chancellor of the Exchequer.

DOWNPAT'RICK, a market town of Ireland, county town of Down, 21 miles S.E. of Belfast. It is the seat of the diocese of Down, Connor, and Dromore, has a cathedral, and is celebrated as the supposed burial-place of St. Patrick. Pop. 3200.

DOWNS, a term given to undulating grassy hills or uplands, specially applied to two ranges of undulating chalk hills in England, extending through Surrey, Kent, and Hampshire, known as the North and South Downs. The word is sometimes used as equivalent to _dunes_ or sand-hills.

DOWNS, THE, a celebrated roadstead for ships, extending 6 miles along the east coast of Kent in England, protected on the seaward side by the Goodwin Sands.

DOWNTON, a town of England, in Wilts., on the Avon, 6-1/2 miles S.S.E. of Salisbury; an ancient place, with a large cruciform church in the Norman and later styles, an old earthwork mound called 'the Moat', and an agricultural college. Pop. 1933.

DOXOL'OGY (from Gr. _doxa_, praise, glory, and _logos_), a set form of words giving glory to God, and especially a name given to two short hymns distinguished by the title of _greater_ (Glory be to God on high, &c.) and _lesser_ (Glory be to the Father, &c.). Both the doxologies have a place in the Church of England liturgy, the latter being repeated after every psalm, and the former used in the communion service.

DOYEN, Eug[`e]ne Louis, famous French surgeon, born at Rheims in 1859, died at Paris in 1916. He made numerous discoveries in gynaecological surgery, and in 1895 established a private clinic, where many French and foreign surgeons came to study under him. His surgical methods were adopted, although his claim to have discovered the germ of cancer has been disputed. In 1898 he received the degree of LL.D. from the University of Edinburgh, where he introduced the method of teaching surgery by means of the cinematograph. His works include: _La maladie et le m['e]decin_ and _Le Cancer_.

DOYLE, Sir Arthur Conan, English novelist, a nephew of Richard Doyle, born at Edinburgh, 1859, studied medicine, and for some years practised, but gave up the profession for that of literature. In 1887 he produced _A Study in Scarlet_, in which he created the detective Sherlock Holmes. Among his other books are: _Micah Clarke_, _The Sign of Four_, _The White Company_, _The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes_, _Brigadier Gerard_, _The Great Boer War_, _The Crime of the Congo_, _The Lost World_, _The Poison Belt_, _The British Campaign in France and Flanders_, _The New Revelation_, and _The Vital Message_.

DOYLE, Sir Francis Hastings Charles, English poet, born 21st Aug., 1810, died 8th June, 1888, was the son of Major-General Sir Francis Hastings Doyle, first baronet, succeeding his father in the title in 1839. Educated at Eton and Oxford, he graduated with first-class honours in classics in 1832, and held a fellowship at All Souls' from 1835 to 1844. After some years' work as a barrister, he became Receiver-General, and in 1869 Commissioner of Customs, having two years previously been elected professor of poetry at Oxford in succession to Matthew Arnold, a position to which he was re-elected for a second term five years later. He had already published _Miscellaneous Verses_ (1840); _The Two Destinies_ (1844); _The Return of the Guards and other Poems_ (1866); and subsequently printed his _Oxford Lectures_ (1869 and 1877) and _Reminiscences and Opinions, 1813-85_ (1886).

DOYLE, Richard, an artist, born in London in 1824, died in 1883. He was long well known as a constant contributor of satirical designs to _Punch_, and also showed much talent in illustrations to Leigh Hunt's _Jar of Honey_, Thackeray's _Newcomes_ and his _Rebecca and Rowena_, and Ruskin's _King of the Golden River_. Afterwards he devoted himself to water-colour painting.

DOZY (d[=o]'zi), Reinhart, Dutch Orientalist and historian, born 1820, died 1883. He was thoroughly versed in most of the Semitic tongues, and spoke and wrote almost all the European languages with facility. Among his works (sometimes in Dutch, sometimes in French) are: _Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne de 711-1110_, _G['e]ographie d'Edrisi_, _De Israelieten te Mekka_, _Het Islamisme_], _Supplements aux Dictionnaires Arabes_.

DRAA, or WADY DRAA, a river, or rather water-course, of Morocco, rising in the Atlas Mountains and flowing generally south-east, until, after penetrating the Anti-Atlas range and passing several oases, it suddenly turns westwards, and forms the shallow lagoon El Debaia. From this point until it enters the ocean it is a wady, and forms the southern boundary of Morocco.

DRACAE'NA, a genus of endogenous evergreen plants, nat. ord. Liliaceae. It includes the dragon tree of Teneriffe (_D. Draco_), celebrated for producing the resin called dragon's blood. Several species of Dracaena are cultivated in greenhouses for the beauty of their foliage, but many of the fine plants known by this name belong strictly to other genera.

DRACHENFELS (dr[:a]'_h_en-fels; 'dragon rock'), "the castled crag of Drachenfels", as Byron calls it, a hill in Rhenish Prussia, about 8 miles south-east of Bonn, rising 900 feet above the Rhine, and crowned by the old castle of Drachenfels.

DRACHMA (drak'ma), the unit of weight and of money among the ancient Greeks. It was the principal Greek coin, was made of silver, and was worth (the Attic drachma) about 9-3/4d. As a weight amongst the Greeks it was about 2 dwt. 7 grains troy. The monetary unit of modern Greece is also called a drachma. Since 1867 its value has been equivalent to that of the franc of the Latin Monetary Union. It is divided into 100 _lepta_.

DRACO, a legislator of Athens, about 620 B.C., whose name has become proverbial as an inexorable and bloodthirsty lawgiver, and whose laws were said to have been written in blood, not ink. Suidas says that he met his death at Aegina, being unintentionally suffocated by the caps and cloaks thrown at him by some of his enthusiastic supporters.

DRACO, the Dragon, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, consisting of a long and straggling line of stars, coiled about Ursa Minor, the Lesser Bear. The Pole of the Ecliptic, or earth's orbital plane, is in this constellation, and round that point the Pole of the Equator, at present close to [alpha] Ursae Minoris (the 'Pole Star'), travels in a circle in about 26,000 years. Some 4000 years ago [alpha] Draconis was pole-star.

DRAG, (1) a long coach or carriage, generally uncovered and seated round the sides; (2) an apparatus for retarding or stopping the rotation of one wheel or of several wheels, in carriages especially; (3) an apparatus, consisting of a frame of iron with a bag-net attached, used to recover articles lost in the water.

DRAG-NET, a net drawn along the bottom of a river or pond to catch fish. The use of drag-nets is usually prohibited in rivers where fish breed, as it takes all indiscriminately.

DRAGO DOCTRINE, a doctrine formulated by L. M. Drago, an Argentinian jurist and Minister for Foreign Affairs, and asserting the principle that no power had a right to impose itself by force of arms upon any of the Spanish American nationalities. Drago first advanced his doctrine in 1902, when the British, German, and Italian fleets were blockading the Venezuelan coast to compel President Castro to pay certain claims made upon his government.

DRAGOMIROV, Mikhail Ivanovitch, Russian general, born in 1830, died in 1905. He became known as lecturer on military tactics, and was appointed chief of the Russian general staff at Kiev. During the Russo-Turkish War he distinguished himself at the crossing of the Danube at Sistova, and was wounded at the Shipka Pass. Retired from active service, he was director of the War Academy at St. Petersburg, Governor-General of Kiev from 1898 to 1902, and member of the Council of the Empire. His works include: _The Austro-Prussian War_, _A Study on the Novel 'War and Peace'_, _The French Soldier_, _War is an Inevitable Evil_, and _Duels_.

DRAGOMIROV, Vladimir, son of the former, was prominent as a commander during the European War, and took part in the offensive in Galicia in 1916. In 1919 he was president of General Denikin's Political Council, and Governor of Kiev.

DRAGON (Gr. _drakon_, 'the seeing one', a serpent). This 'composite wonder beast' is prominent not only in fairy lore and mediaeval romances, but in ancient religious systems. In the mythical history of the East the dragon is the symbol of anarchy and destruction, and the idea was taken over by Christianity, which looked upon the dragon as an emblem of the devil. In Ancient Egypt certain of the deities had serpentine forms, as have still some of the dragons of India, China, and Japan. The Egyptian 'fiery flying serpent' is a dragon, as is also the Apep serpent of night and death, through which the sun-barque of Ra was supposed to pass each night. Biblical references to it as the 'worm' include: "Their worm shall not die" (_Is._ lxvi, 24); "The worm shall eat them like wool" (_Is._ li, 8); "In that day the Lord, with his sore, and great, and strong sword, shall punish leviathan the piercing serpent," &c. (_Is._ xxvii, 1); "The great dragon was cast out, that old serpent, he that is called the Devil and Satan" (_Rev._ xii, 9). See also _Ps._ lxxxvii, 4, and lxxxix, 10; _Amos_, ix, 3; and _Is._ li, 9. Osiris, as the Nile, was a dragon on which were human heads. In the Pyramid Texts he is addressed as "the Great Green" (the Mediterranean Sea), and the one who is "round as the Great Circle (Okeanos)." On the sarcophagus of Seti I he is "Osiris encircling the Nether World." Set, who slew him, had a 'roaring serpent' form and hid in a hole; he resembled Typhon. The Babylonian dragon Tiamat was the Great Mother of all the deities, and was slain by her descendant Marduk (Merodach), who formed the earth and sky from her body; her blood ran as the flooded rivers to the sea. In India the drought-demon is a water confiner. When slain by Indra with the thunderbolt, the rainy season ensues. The Naga serpent-gods are dragons who may assume human or half-human, half-reptile forms. They guard treasure and chiefly pearls. Early pearl-fishers believed that the shark was the owner and guardian of pearls. Among the Chinese dragons is the lion-headed shark. All the Chinese dragons have pearls in their mouths, and are supposed to spit out pearls. Dragon deities are connected with the moon, which is 'the night-shining pearl,' and in Mexico 'the pearl of heaven'. The Mexican dragon resembles the Chinese, Indian, and Babylonian dragons. The Indian wonder-beast, the _Makara_, the vehicle of the sea-god Varuna, is similar to the dragon of the Babylonian mother-goddess Ishtar seen on the famous Ishtar gate of Babylon. _Makara_ forms include the lion-headed dolphin, the crocodile-headed fish, and the ram-headed fish so like the 'goat fish' or 'antelope fish' of the Babylonian sea-god Ea, and resembling the Greek horse-headed, dog-headed, and man-headed fish (Tritons). Japanese dragons are serpentine 'water fathers', which are prayed to in time of drought. The Chinese dragons are rain-bringers which sleep during the winter (the season of drought) in pools and rise to fight and thunder in spring. They are hatched from stones as snakes, or from sea-plants, or are transformed fish, or are born from aged pine trees. They are coloured according to their attributes, and may assume human forms or be horse-headed with a snake's tail. That the composite dragon-god is a mixture of several ancient animal-gods is evident by the following description of one class of dragon by a Chinese writer: "His horns resemble those of a stag, his head that of a camel, his eyes those of a demon, his neck that of a snake, his belly that of a clam, his scales those of a carp, his claws those of an eagle, his soles those of a tiger, his ears those of a cow." Dragons may transform themselves into fishes, snakes, crows, dogs, rats, cows, sharks, whales, crocodiles, &c., as well as human beings. The 'will o' wisp' is the 'dragon lantern', and the dragon pearl is the 'jewel that grants all desires' in India, China, and Japan. Dragon herbs cure diseases and prolong life. Dragons carry souls to the Celestial regions, or draw vehicles in which souls stand. This Far Eastern belief existed in Ancient Crete too. On a Cretan sarcophagus is a chariot drawn by two griffins (forms of the dragon) in which stands a woman, probably a goddess, and a swathed pale figure, the deceased. Shakespeare has interesting dragon references, including:

The dragon wing of night o'erspreads the earth,...

(_Troilus and Cressida_, V, 8, 17.)

Swift, swift, you dragons of the night, that dawning
May bare the raven's eye.

(_Cymbeline_, ii, 2, 49.)

It is believed that the treasure-guarding dragon of the romances had origin in mixed memories regarding the pearl-guarding shark, the fiery flying serpent, and the ancient serpent and crocodile demons of destruction, flood, darkness, and death. The whole idea of dragons may have originated from traditions about the pterodactyls which lived in the Mesozoic period.

The dragon being a symbol of destruction and a power of evil, the slaying of a dragon was considered a great achievement of mediaeval heroes, such as King Arthur, Beowulf, Siegmund, and Tristram.--Cf. G. Elliot Smith, _The Evolution of the Dragon_; M. W. de Visser, _The Dragon in China and Japan_.

A, Larva of dragon-fly. B, Dragon-fly escaping from chrysalis. C, The perfect insect.]

DRAGON, or DRAGON-LIZARD, a name for several species of lizards inhabiting South-East Asia. The common flying lizard (_Draco volans_), the best type of the genus, is about 10 or 12 inches in length, the tail being extremely long in proportion to the body. The sides are furnished with peculiar extensions of the skin, resembling wings, which help to support it in the air as it springs from branch to branch. These wing-like processes are borne by prolongations of five or six of the hindermost ribs, and can be folded up. Its food consists almost exclusively of insects.

DRAG'ONET, the common name of small marine fishes constituting a special family (Callionymidae). The gemmeous dragonet (_Callionymus lyra_) is found in the British seas. The female is dull brown and much smaller than the male, which is brilliantly coloured with spots and bars of blue on a yellow ground. His first dorsal fin is large and drawn out into a long filament.

DRAGON-FLY, the common name of members of a family (Odonata or Libellulidae) of neuropterous insects. They have a large head, large eyes, and strong horny mandibles. They are beautiful in form and colour, and are of very powerful flight. The great dragon-fly (_Aeschna grandis_) is about 4 inches long, and the largest of the British species. They live on insects, and are remarkable for their voracity. The dragon-fly deposits its eggs in the water, where the wingless nymphs live on aquatic insects. The nymph stage lasts for a year. The family is of very wide distribution. The small blue Agrion is a common European form, but the familiar Libellula is the most extensively distributed. See _Demoiselle_.

DRAGONNADES, or DRAGONADES, the name given to the persecutions directed against the Protestants, chiefly in the south of France, during the reign of Louis XIV, shortly before the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. Bands of soldiers, headed by priests, marched through the villages, giving the Protestant inhabitants the alternative of renouncing their faith or being given over to the extortions and violence of the soldiery. The dragoons were conspicuous in these expeditions, to which they gave their name. The Dragonnades drove thousands of French Protestants out of France.--Cf. Tylor, _The Huguenots in the Seventeenth Century._

DRAGON'S BLOOD, or GUM DRAGON, a resinous juice, usually obtained by incision from various tropical plants, as _Cal[)a]mus Draco_, _Dracaena Draco_, _Pterocarpus Draco_, &c. It varies in composition, and is often much adulterated. It is opaque, of a reddish-brown colour, brittle, and has a smooth shining conchoidal fracture. It is soluble in alcohol and oil, but scarcely so in water. It is used for colouring varnishes, for staining marble, leather, and wood, and for tooth tinctures.

1, Fruiting branchlet. 2, Flowers.]

DRAGON TREE (_Dracaena Draco_), a tree-like liliaceous plant, with a stem simple or divided at top, and in old age often much branched. It is a native of the Canaries, and yields the resin known as dragon's blood. It is often grown in greenhouses.

DRAGOON', a kind of mounted soldier, so called originally from his musket (_dragon_) having on the muzzle of it the head of a dragon. At one time dragoons served both as mounted and foot soldiers, but now only as the former. In the British army there are _heavy_ and _light dragoons_. The first dragoon regiment, the Scots Greys, was formed in 1681.

DRAGUIGNAN (dr[.a]-g[=e]-ny[:a]n),a town of Southern France since 1793, capital of the department of Var, in a beautiful valley, 41 miles north-east of Toulon. It has some interesting buildings, and manufactures of silk, soap, and leather. Pop. 9974.

DRAINAGE. The term comprises the drainage of areas of country by rivers and streams, the reclamation of areas from the sea, and country formerly marshy, and the provision of culverts and pipe-drains to buildings and towns.

The Fens in Lincolnshire are a notable example of a comprehensive system of drainage by means of open ditches (locally called 'drains'), into which the surplus water is lifted by means of wind- and steam-pumps.

Low-lying or flat country often requires a considerable amount of drainage, which is carried out by means of a regular system of earthenware pipes, laid 2 to 3 feet deep, and from 15 to 35 feet apart. These pipes are porous, from 2 to 3 inches in diameter, laid with butt joints, and lead into larger mains, and thence by open ditches to streams.

A method recently introduced consists in drawing a pointed cylindrical tool, 2 inches in diameter, through the ground at the required depth. This tool is dependent from a thin steel plate, which connects it with the carriage above, so that it can be drawn underground in any desired direction. This system is economical in first cost, but its useful life is considerably less than that of a piped drain, and its use is obviously confined to soils of the heavier variety.

In considering the provision of drainage to water-logged or low-lying land, every care should first be taken to improve the existing natural means of drainage, such as deepening and cleaning out streams and ditches, and removing obstructions.

It should be borne in mind that the object of land drainage is not only to remove the surplus water, but to promote a free and natural circulation of water in the soil, and to allow the mineral constituents of the water to reach the plant roots.

In the drainage of buildings, glazed socketed stoneware pipes are used, varying in diameter from 3 to 9 inches, laid straight in plan and in longitudinal section, and laid to falls, calculated to give a minimum velocity of 3 feet per second when flowing half full. These are laid in trenches, with inspection chambers at all changes in direction, and should be laid on and surrounded with concrete. In bad ground, or under dwelling houses, cast-iron pipes are employed, with special turned and bored joints. In towns these drains lead into the public sewers, which are similar stoneware pipes from 6 to 18 inches in diameter, larger sizes being constructed in brickwork or concrete, and either circular or egg-shaped form. In populous areas these sewers attain very large dimensions, the northern outfall sewers of London consisting of five parallel sewers, each 9 feet in diameter. See _Draining_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. S. Mitchell, _Handbook of Land Drainage_; Moore and Silcock, _Sanitary Engineering_; Gilbert Thomson, _Modern Sanitary Engineering_.

DRAINAGE TUBES are fenestrated india-rubber tubes used in surgery to effect the gradual removal of the contents of a suppurating cavity. The inner end of the tube is in the cavity, and the outer end projects above the skin surface, and is usually fixed by a stitch or safety-pin, and covered with suitable dressings.

DRAINING, in agriculture, a method of improving the soil by withdrawing the superfluous water from it by means of channels that are generally covered over. Plants cannot thrive unless there is free circulation of air and water round their roots. The successful practice of draining in a great measure depends on a proper knowledge of the superficial strata, of their situation, relative degrees of porosity, &c. Some strata allow water to pass through them, while others more impervious force it to run or filtrate along their surfaces till it reaches more level ground below. In general, where the grounds are in a great measure flat and the soils of materials which retain the excess of moisture, they require artificial means of drainage to render them capable of yielding good crops whether of grain or grass. The wetness of land, which makes it inferior for agricultural purposes, may appear not only as surface-water but as water which flows through the lower strata, and to draw off these there are the two distinct operations of surface-draining and under-draining. The rudest form of open drains are the deep furrows lying between high-backed ridges, and meant to carry off the surplus water after the soil is completely saturated, but in doing so they generally carry off also much of the best of the soil and of the manure which has been spread upon it. The ordinary ditch is a common form of water-course useful in certain cases, as in hill pastures. But covered drains at a depth of 4 feet or so are the common forms in draining agricultural lands. They are generally either _stone-drains_ or _tile-drains_. Stone-drains are either formed on the plan of open culverts of various forms, or of small stones in sufficient quantity to permit a free and speedy filtration of the water through them. The box-drain, for instance, is formed of flat stones neatly arranged in the bottom of the trench, the whole forming an open tube. In tile-drains, tiles or pipes of burnt clay are used for forming the conduits. They possess all the qualities which are required in the formation of drains, affording a free ingress to water, while they effectually exclude earth, as well as other injurious substances, and vermin. Drainage tiles and pipes have been made in a great variety of forms, the earliest of which, since the introduction of thorough draining, was the horse-shoe tile, so called from its shape. These should always rest on soles, or flats of burned clay. Pipe tiles, which combine the sole and cover in one piece, have been made of various shapes, but the best form appears to be the cylinder. An important department of draining is the draining off of the waters which are the sources of springs. The judicious application of a few simple drains, made to communicate with the watery layers, will often dry swamps of great extent, where large sums of money, expended in forming open drains in the swamp itself, would leave it but little improved. In the laying out of drains the first point to be determined is the place of outfall, which should always afford a free and clear outlet to the drains, and must necessarily be at the lowest point of the land to be drained. The next point to be determined is the position of the minor drains. In the laying out of these the surface of each field must be regarded as being made up of one or more planes, as the case may be, for each of which the drains should be laid out separately. Level lines are to be set out a little below the upper edge of each of these planes, and the drains must then be made to cross these lines at right angles. By this means the drains will run in the line of the greatest slope, no matter how distorted the surface of the field may be. All the minor drains should be made to discharge obliquely into mains or submains, and not directly into an open ditch or water-course. As a general rule, there should be a main to receive the waters of the minor drains from every 5 acres. The advantages of drainage are obvious. In the first place it brings the soil into a more suitable condition for the growth of plants, aiding in producing the finely divided and porous state which allows the roots and rootlets to spread themselves at will in order to obtain the needed supplies of food, air, and moisture. It also allows the sun's rays to produce their full effect on the soil and plants. In the presence of stagnant water a great part of this effect would be lost. See _Drainage_.

DRAIN-TRAP, a contrivance to prevent the escape of foul air from drains, while allowing the passage of water into them. They are of various forms. In the traps represented below it will be seen that there must always be a certain quantity of water maintained to bar the way against the escape of the gas from the drain or sewer. When additional liquid is conveyed to the trap, there is, of course, an overflow into the drain. In older types of drains the gas was prevented from escaping by a metal plate thrown obliquely over the drain mouth and dipping into the water in the vessel beyond it.

DRAKE, Sir Francis, an English navigator, born at Tavistock, in Devonshire, in 1539, or according to some authorities in 1545. He served as a sailor in a coasting vessel, and afterwards joined Sir John Hawkins in his last expedition against the Spaniards (1567), losing nearly all he possessed in that unfortunate enterprise. Having gathered a number of adventurers round him, he contrived to fit out a vessel in which he made two successful cruises to the West Indies in 1570 and 1571. Next year, with two small ships, he again sailed for the Spanish Main, captured the cities of Nombre de Dios and Vera Cruz, and took a rich booty which he brought safely home. In 1577 Drake made another expedition to the Spanish Main, having this time command of five ships. On this the most famous of his voyages Drake passed the Straits of Magellan, plundered all along the coasts of Chile and Peru, sacked several ports, and captured a galleon laden with silver, gold, and jewels, to the value of perhaps L200,000. He then ran north as far as 48deg N. lat., seeking a passage to the Atlantic, but was compelled to return to Port San Francisco on account of the cold. He then steered for the Moluccas, and holding straight across the Indian Ocean doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived at Plymouth 3rd Nov., 1580, being thus the first of the English circumnavigators. As there was no war between England and Spain, the proceedings of Drake had a somewhat dubious character, but the queen maintained that they were lawful reprisals for the action of the Spaniards, and showed her favour to Drake by knighting him on board his own ship. Five years afterwards Drake was again attacking the Spaniards in the Cape Verde Islands and in the West Indies, and in 1588 particularly distinguished himself as vice-admiral in the conflict with the Spanish Armada. In 1593 he represented Plymouth in Parliament. His later expeditions, that in 1595 against the Spanish West Indies and that to Panama, were not so successful, and his death, which took place on 28th Jan., 1596, at sea off Porto Bello, was hastened by disappointment.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. S. Corbett, _Sir Francis Drake_ (English Men of Action Series), and _Drake and the Tudor Navy_.

DRAKENBERG MOUNTAINS, a range of South Africa forming the western frontier of Natal, and rising to the height of 11,000 feet, a continuation of the Quathlamba range.

DRAMA (Gr. _drama_, action, from _dr[=a]n_, to act or do), a form of art which imitates action by introducing real persons to represent the fictitious characters, and to carry on the story by means of action and dialogue.

Man is naturally an imitative animal, and some crude form of drama must have been in existence in very early times. We can see the origins of drama in many of the games played by children, where important events such as war, marriage, and sacrifice are represented in song and dance. In Greece, the cradle of drama as of everything that is good, there must have been in prehistoric times war-dances which formed the basis of tragedy, and rough vintage revel dances which formed the basis of comedy.