Chapter XXVI: Introduction (2)

Silver Maple, Soft Maple (local and common names).

Swamp Maple (W. Va., Md.).

Water Maple (Pa., W. Va.).

River Maple (Me., N. H., R. I., W. Va., Minn.).

White Maple (Me., Vt., R. I., N. Y., N. J., Pa., W. Va., N. C, S. C., Ga., Fla., Ala., Miss., La., Ky., Mo., Ill., Ind., Kans., Nebr., Minn.).

Locality.

New Brunswick to Florida, westward intermittently to Dakota and Indian Territory. Best development in lower Ohio River basin.

Features of Tree.

Forty to ninety feet in height, occasionally higher. Three to five feet in diameter. Fine shape, sometimes suggests elm. Fruit or "maple-key" with long, stiff, more than right-angled wings ripens in early summer. Leaves whitish beneath, turn showing yellow, but little or no red, in autumn.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood ivory-white, fine grain, compact structure. Fibres sometimes twisted, waved, or curly.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, brittle, easily worked, moderately strong; receives high polish. Not durable when exposed.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Woodenware, turned work, interior decoration, flooring, fuel.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

32.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,570,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

14,400.

Remarks.

Waved, spiral, or curly figure pronounced in this species, very real resemblance to lights and shadows on planed surfaces. Small quantities of sugar present in sap, occasionally utilized. [p044]

RED MAPLE, SWAMP MAPLE. _Acer rubrum Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Red Maple, Swamp Maple (local and common names).

Soft Maple (Vt., Mass., N. Y., Va., Miss., Mo., Kans., Neb., Minn.).

Water Maple (Miss., La., Tex., Ky., Mo.).

White Maple (Me., N. H.).

Red Flower (N. Y.).

Locality.

New Brunswick and Florida, westward intermittently to Dakota and Texas. Wide range.

Features of Tree.

Sixty to eighty feet and more in height, two and one-half to four feet in diameter. Red twigs and flowers in early spring.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood brown tinged with red, sapwood lighter, close-grained, compact structure. Red blossoms, twigs, and stems. Leaves turn scarlet in autumn.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Easily worked, heavy, hard, not strong, elastic, qualities between those of silver and sugar maple.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Largely used in cabinet-making, turnery, woodenware, gun-stocks, etc.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

38.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,340,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

15,000.

Remarks.

Occasionally shows "curly" figure. Trees are occasionally tapped and small quantities of sugar are obtained from the sap. [p045]

OREGON MAPLE. _Acer macrophyllum Pursh._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Oregon Maple (Oreg., Wash.).

White Maple (Oreg., Wash.).

Maple (Calif.).

Broad-leaved Maple (Central Calif., Willamette Valley, Oreg.).

Locality.

Alaska to California. Best in rich bottom lands of southern Oregon.

Features of Tree.

Seventy to one hundred feet in height, three to five feet in diameter. Beautiful appearance.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Reddish brown, sapwood whitish, close-grained, compact structure, occasionally figured.

Structural Qualities.

Light, hard, strong; receives polish.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Locally used for tool-handles, turned work, and furniture.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

30.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,100,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

9720.

Remarks.

Ornamental tree has been introduced into Europe. Said to be one of the most valuable Pacific coast broadleaf woods. [p046]

BOXELDER, ASH-LEAVED MAPLE. _Acer negundo Linn._ _Negundo aceroides Moench._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Boxelder, Ash-leaved Maple (local and common name).

Red River Maple, Water Ash (Dak.).

Cut-leaved Maple (Colo.).

Stinking Ash (S. C).

Negundo Maple (Ill.).

Three-leaved Maple (Fla.).

Black Ash (Tenn.).

Sugar Ash (Fla.).

Locality.

Atlantic Ocean westward intermittently to Rocky Mountains, Mexico.

Features of Tree.

Forty to seventy feet in height, one and one-half to three feet in diameter. Wings to keys are straight or incurved. Leaves sparingly and coarsely toothed, show yellow but little or no red in autumn.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Thin heartwood, cream-white; sapwood similar; close-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, not strong, soft.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Woodenware, cooperage, etc., paper-pulp (largely), occasionally interior finish.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

26.

Modulus of Elasticity.

82,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

7500.

Remarks.

A rapid grower. Withstands severe climatic changes. A good tree to plant in naturally treeless sections. Sugar is sometimes obtained from the sap of this species. The "Boxelder" is a true maple. [p047]

WALNUT. (_Juglans_.)

The English or Royal Walnut (_Juglans regia_), a native of Persia, was the only available species of this genus until the introduction of the nearly similar Black Walnut of North America.[29] As oak gave way first to soft woods for construction, so it gave way first to walnut for cabinet purposes. The wood soon became very fashionable, and exorbitant prices were paid for it. Walnut was extremely popular in the United States until about 1880, when oak began to resume its place as the popular cabinet wood. The nuts of the English or Persian walnut are better than those of the American species, but the wood of the latter is superior.

The use of walnut wood for gun-stocks began in Europe, the demands early becoming so great that, until the general peace following the battle of Waterloo, the greater part of the French product was diverted for that purpose, while prices rose in England so that six hundred pounds sterling is reported to have been paid for a single tree. In spite of the innumerable woods that have since been introduced, this one is yet regarded as best for gun-stocks.[30] Walnut is a firm, hard, chocolate-colored wood, with pores not arranged in rings but scattered somewhat irregularly. The sombre, although rich, color has been objected to for some positions. Large excrescences or "burrs" are common on foreign trees, particularly those near the Black Sea and in Italy. The grain in such growths is beautifully irregular, and the wood, known as "burl," is prized for veneers. Trees are very scarce, and walnut is now seldom seen save in cabinet work or gun-stocks. The related White Walnut or Butternut (_Juglans cinerea_) affords a less-prized and [p048] lighter-tinted wood. The nuts of the walnuts are a source of profit.

Black walnut trees seldom form forests by themselves, but occur generally in mixed growth. They grow quickly, but the heartwood for which the tree is valued begins to form only when the tree is at a considerable age, so that a number of years must elapse before a tree can produce wood of the desired quality. Trees one hundred years old furnish the best quality of wood.

Walnut trees may be known by their nuts, the husks or pods of which adhere unbroken, instead of loosening, completely divide into four sections, as with the hickories. Juglans is from _Jovis_, signifying Jove's, and _glans_, signifying acorn. This nut, not the fruit of the oak, was the acorn of the ancients.[31] [p049]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 29: About the middle of the seventeenth century.]

[Footnote 30: France used twelve thousand trees in 1806. (Stevenson's "Trees of Commerce," p. 77.)]

[Footnote 31: The ancients considered the shade of the walnut as harmful to all life. It is certain some vegetation is affected, probably by properties in fallen leaves.]

BLACK WALNUT. _Juglans nigra Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Black Walnut (local and common name).

Walnut (N. Y., Del., W. Va., Fla., Ky., Mo., Ohio, Ind., Ia.).

Locality.

Ontario and Florida, westward intermittently to Nebraska and Texas.

Features of Tree.

Ninety to one hundred and twenty-five feet in height, three to eight feet in diameter. A tall handsome tree with rough brownish, almost black, bark. Large, rough-shelled nuts.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood dark, rich, chocolate-brown. Thin sapwood much lighter, rather coarse-grained.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Heavy, hard, strong, easily worked, durable, susceptible to high polish.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Cabinet-making, gun-stocks, also formerly furniture and decoration.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

38.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,550,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

12,100.

Remarks.

[p050]

FOOTNOTE

The English, Royal, or Persian Walnut (_Juglans regia_) affords nearly similar wood. Widely distributed over Europe. Italian trees furnish best, French next, and English least desirable, paler and coarser wood. Occasional trees in Eastern United States, as New York; very plentiful in California.

BUTTERNUT, WHITE WALNUT. _Juglans cinerea Linn._

Nomenclature.

Butternut, White Walnut (local and common names).

Oil Nut (Me., N. H., S. C.).

Walnut (Minn.).

White Mahogany.

Locality.

New Brunswick to Georgia, westward to Dakota and Arkansas. Best in Ohio River basin.

Features of Tree.

Medium size, sometimes seventy-five feet or over in height, two to four feet in diameter. Branches widespread; large-sized oblong edible nuts.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light gray-brown, darkening with exposure; sapwood nearly white, coarse-grained compact structure, attractive.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, not strong, easily worked. Susceptible of high polish.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Interior finish, cabinet-work. Inner bark furnishes yellow dye.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

25.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,150,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

8400.

Remarks.

The sap contains sugar and is occasionally mixed with maple-sap in the manufacturing of "maple" sugar. [p051]

HICKORY. (_Hicoria_ or _Carya_.)

The Hickories occur only in the eastern part of North America. They produce woods in which the qualities of toughness, elasticity, and resilience are unusually pronounced, and since these qualities are greatest in the sapwood, hickories are peculiar in that the sapwood is more valuable than the heart. Second-growth wood is much prized, since, being younger, it contains more of the pliable sapwood.[32]

Hickory is not durable when exposed and is more or less subject to attack by boring-insects. It is used for implements, machinery, carriages, and the like; hickory axe-helves have no superiors. The nuts of the shagbark or white hickory are a source of considerable profit. The pecan (_Hicoria pecan_) affords wood so inferior as to be little used in construction, although it makes an excellent fuel. Pecans are planted in many of the Southern States because of the nuts, for which a considerable demand exists.

The Hickories are known by their nuts, the husks or pods of which loosen completely from the nut in four pieces, instead of adhering unbroken as in the case of the walnuts. The nine species are American trees, eight of them being natives of the United States. _Carya_ was the Greek name of the common walnut. Hickory is said to be derived from the Indian _powcohicora_, a liquor once obtained from the nuts of the hickory. [p052]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 32: See Second-growth Ash.]

SHAGBARK HICKORY, SHELLBARK HICKORY. _Hicoria ovata Mill._ _Carya alba Nutt._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Shellbark or Shellbark Hickory (local and common name).

Scalybark Hickory (W. Va., S. C., Ala.).

Shellbark (R. I., N. Y., Pa., N. C.).

Shagbark (R. I., Ohio).

Hickory (Vt., Ohio).

Upland Hickory (Ill.).

White Hickory (Ia., Ark.).

Walnut (Vt., N. Y.).

Sweet Walnut (Vt.).

Shagbark Walnut (Vt.).

Locality.

Maine to Florida, westward intermittently to Minnesota and Texas. Wide range, best in Ohio valley.

Features of Tree.

Seventy-five to ninety feet in height, occasionally higher; two and one-half to three feet in diameter. Shaggy bark, thin-shelled edible nuts.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light brown, sapwood ivory- or cream-colored. Close-grained, compact structure. Annual rings clearly marked. Medullary rays numerous but thin.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Very heavy, very hard, strong, exceptionally tough and flexible, not durable when exposed.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Largely used for agricultural implements, wheels, and runners, axe-handles, baskets, fuel.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

51 (U. S. Forestry Div.).[33]

52.

Modulus of Elasticity.

2,390,000 (average of 137 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[33]

1,900,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

16,000 (average of 137 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[33]

17,000.

Remarks.

The nuts form an important article of commerce. "Shagbark" refers to the shaggy appearance of the bark. [p053]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 33: See page 6.]

PIGNUT (HICKORY). _Hicoria glabra Mill._ _Carya porcina Nutt._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Pignut (local and common name).

Black Hickory (Miss., La., Ark., Mo., Ind., Ia.).

Brown Hickory (Del., Miss., Tex., Tenn., Minn.).

Bitternut (Ark., Ill., Ia., Wis.).

White Hickory (N. H., Ia.).

Broom Hickory (Mo.).

Hardshell (W. Va.).

Red Hickory (Del.).

Switchbud Hickory (Ala.).

Locality.

Ontario to Florida, westward intermittently to southern Nebraska and eastern Texas.

Features of Tree.

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, occasionally higher; Two to four feet in diameter. Rather smooth bark. Large thick-shelled nuts, kernels often astringent or bitter.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light and dark brown, thick sapwood, lighter, nearly white. Close-grained.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Heavy, hard, flexible, tough, strong.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Similar to those of shagbark hickory.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

56 (U. S. Forestry Div.).[34]

51.

Modulus of Elasticity.

2,730,000 (average of 30 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[34]

1,460,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

18,700 (average of 30 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[34]

14,800.

Remarks.

Nuts are devoured by pigs, whence the name _porcina_. [p054]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 34: See page 6.]

MOCKER NUT (HICKORY). _Hicoria alba Linn._ _Carya tomentosa Nutt._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Mocker Nut, Whiteheart Hickory (local and common names).

Bullnut (N. Y., Fla., Miss., Tex., Mo., Ohio., Ill., Minn.).

Black Hickory (Tex., Miss., La., Mo.).

Hickory (Ala., Tex., Pa., S. C., Neb.).

Big-bud, Red Hickory (Fla.).

Common Hickory (N. C.).

White Hickory (Pa., S. C.).

Hickory Nut (Ky., W. Va.).

Hog Nut (Del.).

Hard bark Hickory (Ill.).

Locality.

Ontario to Florida, westward intermittently to Missouri and Texas. Wide range.

Features of Tree.

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, two and one-half to three and one-half feet in diameter. A tall slender tree with rough, but not shaggy, bark. Thick shell, edible nut.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood rich dark brown, thick sapwood nearly white, close-grained.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Very heavy, hard, tough, strong, and flexible.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Similar to those of shellbark hickory.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

53 (U. S. Forestry Div.).[35]

51.

Modulus of Elasticity.

2,320,000 (average of 75 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[35]

1,630,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

15,200 (average of 75 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[35]

16,000.

Remarks.

The most generally distributed species of the genus in the South. Mocker nut or moker nut is said (Britton) to be from a Dutch word meaning hammer, or else (Keeler) from disappointing quality of nuts. [p055]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 35: See page 6.]

PECAN, (HICKORY). _Hicoria pecan Marsh._ _Carya olivæformis Nutt._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Pecan (local and common name).

Pecan Nut, Pecan-tree, Pecanier (La.).

Locality.

Valley of Mississippi, southward to Louisiana, Texas, and Mexico.

Features of Tree.

Ninety to one hundred feet in height, sometimes higher. Two and one-half to five feet in diameter. A tall tree, smooth-shelled oblong edible nuts.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light brown, tinged with red, sapwood lighter brown. Close-grained and compact, medullary rays numerous but thin.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Heavy, hard, not strong, brittle.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Fuel, seldom used in construction.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

49 (U. S. Forestry Div.).[36]

44.

Modulus of Elasticity.

2,530,000 (average of 37 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[36]

940,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

15,300 (average of 37 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[36]

8,200.

Remarks.

Grows on borders of streams in low rich soil. Largest and most important tree of western Texas. The sweet edible nuts form an important article of commerce. [p056]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 36: See page 6.]

CHESTNUT, CHINQUAPIN. (_Castanea_.)

The chestnut is found in the temperature regions of central and southern Europe, northern Africa, China, Japan, and eastern North America. The wood is valued in construction, and the much-prized nuts are regarded as a food rather than a confection. European chestnut wood was once high in favor, although examination of structures in which it was supposed to have been used indicates that in some instances oak had been mistaken for it and had been employed in its place.

The North American chestnut affords a weak, brittle, but easily worked and very durable wood, such as is admirably adapted for beams, ties, and sills, where lightness and durability rather than much transverse strength are required. Trees in Europe have attained to great size and age. Micheaux mentions one thirty feet in circumference six feet from the ground and said to have been standing for a thousand years. The famous Mt. Etna chestnut[37] is reported to have measured two hundred and four feet in circumference. Large trunks are apt to be hollow, affording brittle, useless wood. The botanical relation between the American and European chestnuts is not distinct. Some consider the former a distinct species, others a variety only. The name "Chinquapin" applies to two distinct botanical species, one, the Castanea pumila, closely related to the common chestnut; the other, Castanopsis chrysophylla, belonging to the same family (Cupuliferæ), but to quite another genus. Both afford woods resembling, but heavier than, chestnut.

The chestnut may be known by its large prickly burr, [p057] containing from one to three thin-shelled, triangular, wedge-shaped nuts. Both chinquapins have prickly burrs containing one, or sometimes two, sweet edible nuts. Three of the four known species of the genus Castanea grow in North America, one the common chestnut (_Castanea vulgaris_); another the Chinquapin (_Castanea pumila_); the third a plant never attaining to the size of a tree. The Chinquapin (_Castanopsis chrysophylla_) is the only North American representative of a genus including twenty-five species. Keeler says that Castanea is from a town of that name in Thessaly, or from another town of that name in Pontus. [p058]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 37: "Castagno di cento cavalli," so called from having sheltered 100 mounted cavaliers, measured by Brydon in 1770. It had the appearance of five distinct trees, but was probably one trunk. (G. B. Emerson, "Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts," Vol. I, page 192.)]

CHESTNUT. _Castanea dentata (Marsh) Borkh._ _Castanea vesca var. americana Michx._ _Castanea vulgaris var. americana A. de C._

Nomenclature.

Chestnut (local and common name).

Locality.

New England, New York to Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Kentucky, Missouri, Michigan. Best on western slope of Alleghany Mountains.

Features of Tree.

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, five to twelve feet in diameter. Fine characteristic shape, not easily distinguished from Red Oak in winter. Blossoms in midsummer. Prickly burrs contain three thin-shelled nuts.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood brown, sapwood lighter, coarse-grained.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, not strong, liable to check and warp in drying. Easily split. Very durable in exposed positions.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Cabinet-making, railway ties, posts, fencing, sills.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

28.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,200,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

9800.

Remarks.

The nuts of the foreign species (_C. vesca_) as well as those of the domestic species are much prized. The former are larger and the latter sweeter. One of the latest trees to blossom. [p059]

CHINQUAPIN. _Castanea pumila (Linn.) Mill._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Chinquapin (Del., N. J., Pa., Va., W. Va., N. C., S. C., Ga., Ala., Fla., Miss., La., Tex., Ark., Ohio, Ky., Mo., Mich.).

Locality.

Pennsylvania to Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Ohio, Kentucky, Missouri, Michigan.

Features of Tree.

A small tree, sometimes forty-five feet in height, one to two feet or over in diameter. Sometimes reduced to low shrub. Small prickly burr with single small chestnut-colored nut.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood dark brown, sapwood hardly distinguishable. Coarse-grained, annual layers marked by rows of open ducts.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Rather heavy, hard, strong. Durable in exposed positions. Liable to check in drying.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Posts, rails, railway ties, etc.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

36.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,620,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

14,000.

Remarks.

[p060]

FOOTNOTE

The Chinquapin Castanopsis chrysophylla, is a tree with characteristics between oak and chestnut. Its wood is nearly similar to that of the Chinquapin Castanea pumila, and is sometimes used for implements.

BEECH. IRONWOOD. (_Fagus_.) (_Carpinus, Ostrya, etc._)

Beech is well known on the eastern continent. The common beech (_Fagus atropunicea_) is the only American representative. Eastern species have figured in literature since the time of Virgil. The northern nations early wrote upon thin tablets of beechwood, and _boc_, _bok_, and _buche_, the northern names for beech, finally gave origin to the word book.[38] American Indians believed that the beech was proof against lightning.

Beechwood is hard, heavy, strong, not durable when exposed, and somewhat subject to attack by insects. European engineers employ it to a considerable extent in construction, but it is seldom used in America save for indoor finish, furniture, handles, flooring, and the like. The small edible nuts, known as beech-mast, are pressed abroad for a fixed oil, resembling and used in place of that from the olive. They are seldom gathered in this country, but are devoured by animals. Beech-trees have smooth, light-colored bark, and are very attractive in their winter appearance. They may be recognized earlier in the season by their small prickly burrs, each containing two triangular, sharp-edged nuts. There are fifteen or more species known to belong to this genus. _Fagus_ is from _phago_, to eat, and refers to the nut.

The name Ironwood has been applied to Blue Beech (_Carpinus caroliniana_), to the Hornbeam (_Ostrya virginiana_), and to at least eight other North American species affording unusually hard and heavy woods, such as are used for handles [p061] and implements.[39] Trunks of trees affording these woods are generally small and the weight of the woods is so great as to prevent their use in construction. [p062]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 38: _Liber_, the Latin for book, is from _liber_, the inner bark of a tree, while _papyrus_, the Latin for paper, is from an Egyptian reed of that name. The words "book," "library," and "paper" are thus drawn from trees and plants.]

* Keeler notes experiments made to prove resistance on part of beechwood.

[Footnote 39: Prosopis juliflora, Olneya tesota, Guajacum sanctum, Cliftonia monophylla, Cyrilla racemiflora, Exothea paniculata, Bumelia tenax, Bumelia lycioides. (Sudworth.)]

BEECH. _Fagus atropunicea (Marsh.) Sudworth._ _Fagus ferruginea Ait._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Beech (local and common name).

Red Beech (Me., Vt., Ky., Ohio.).

White Beech (Me., Ohio., Mich.).

Ridge Beech (Ark.).

Locality.

Nova Scotia to Florida, westward intermittently to Wisconsin and Texas.

Features of Tree.

Sixty to eighty feet, occasionally higher; two to four feet in diameter. Small rough burr contains two thin-shelled nuts.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood reddish, variable shades, sapwood white. Rather close-grained, conspicuous medullary rays.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Hard, strong, tough, not durable when exposed. Takes fine polish. Liable to check during seasoning.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Shoe-lasts, plane-stocks, ship-building, handles, and fuel. Carpentry (abroad), wagon-making, etc.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

42.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,720,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

16,300.

Remarks.

The nuts are seldom gathered in the United States, nor is the wood there often utilized in carpentry. This is sometimes divided commercially into Red and White Beech, according to color of wood. Such division has no botanical basis. [p063]

IRONWOOD, BLUE BEECH. _Carpinus caroliniana Walt._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Ironwood, Blue Beech (local and common name).

Water Beech (R. I., N. Y., Pa., Del., W. Va., Ohio, Ill., Ind., Mich., Minn., Nebr., Kans.).

Hornbeam (Me., N. H., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., N. C., S. C., Ala., Tex., Ky., Ill., Kans., Minn.).

Locality.

Quebec to Florida, westward intermittently to Nebraska and Texas.

Features of Tree.

Thirty to fifty feet in height. Six inches to occasionally two feet in diameter. A small tree, dark bluish-gray; bark resembles that of beech save in color.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light brown, thick sapwood nearly white, close-grained.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Very hard, tough, strong, heavy, very stiff, inclined to check during seasoning, not durable when exposed.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Levers, tool-handles, etc.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

45.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,630,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

16,300.

Remarks.

Prized by wheelwrights in Europe. Resemblance of bluish bark to light-gray bark of beech gave rise to name. [p064]

IRONWOOD, HOP HORNBEAM. _Ostrya virginiana Willd._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Ironwood, Hop Hornbeam (local and common names).

Leverwood (Vt., Mass., R. I., N. Y., Pa., Kans.).

Hornbeam (R. I., N. Y., Fla., S. C., La.).

Hardhack (Vt.).

Locality.

Nova Scotia to Florida, westward intermittently to Dakota and Texas.

Features of Tree.

Thirty to forty feet in height, one foot or less in diameter. The bark exhibits long vertical rows of small squares. Small fruit resembles hops. Leaves resemble those of birch.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood reddish brown, sometimes white, sapwood lighter or white. Close-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Very strong, hard, heavy, tough, durable when exposed.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Posts, levers, tool-handles, axe-helves, mill-cogs, wedges.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

51.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,950,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

16,000.

Remarks.

Trees over twelve inches in diameter are often hollow. [p065]

SYCAMORE. (_Platanus_.)

The name Sycamore applies to a maple (_Acer pseudo-platanus_) in Europe, to a fig-tree (_Ficus sycomorus_) in the Orient,[40] and to the buttonball or plane tree (_Platanus_) in North America. Of the plane trees (_Platanus_) the common or Oriental plane (_Platanus orientalis_) is a native of Europe; the plane, buttonball, or sycamore tree (_Platanus occidentalis_) is a native and common tree in eastern North America; and the California plane, buttonball, or sycamore (_Platanus racemosa_) is a native of western North America.

The sycamore stands for curiosity, because of its Biblical association with Zaccheus. Many European sycamores were planted by religious persons during the middle ages because of the belief that they were the trees thus referred to in the Bible.

The woods afforded by the American sycamores have unusually complicated, cross-grained, but beautiful structures, difficult to work, but standing well and valued for cabinet work and small articles. American trees are often very large.

American buttonball or sycamore trees are distinguished by rough balls which remain hanging on long stems throughout the winter. The bark also is shed to an unusual extent; flakes of the outer cover drop away, exposing smooth inner surfaces so white as to appear as if painted. Six or seven species are included in the genus; three occur in North America. _Platanus_ is from _platus_, signifying broad, and refers to the shape of the leaves. [p066]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 40: Brockhaus, Konversations-Lexicon (B. 15, p. 536).]

SYCAMORE. BUTTONWOOD. BUTTONBALL-TREE. _Platanus occidentalis Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Sycamore, Buttonwood, Buttonball Tree (local and common names).

Buttonball (R. I., N. Y., Pa., Fla.).

Plane Tree (R. I., Del., S. C., Kans., Nebr., Ia.).

Water Beech (Del.).

Platane cotonier, Bois puant (La.).

Locality.

Maine to Florida, westward intermittently to Nebraska and Texas. Best in bottom lands of Ohio and Mississippi River basins.

Features of Tree.

Ninety to over one hundred feet in height, six to sometimes twelve feet in diameter. Inner bark exposed in white patches. Large rough balls or fruit.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood lighter, close-grained, compact structures, satiny conspicuous medullary rays. Attractive when quartered.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Heavy, hard, difficult to work, not strong, stands well when not exposed.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Tobacco-boxes, ox-yokes, butcher-blocks, cabinet-work.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

35.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,220,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

9000.

Remarks.

Some specimens rank among the largest of American deciduous trees. These are usually hollow. The remarkably rigid bark does not stretch to accommodate the growth and is thus discarded to an unusual degree. [p067]

CALIFORNIA SYCAMORE. _Platanus racemosa Nutt._

Nomenclature.

Sycamore, Buttonwood, Buttonball Tree, Buttonball (California).

Locality.

California.

Features of Tree.

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, occasionally higher; three to four feet in diameter. The bark exfoliates in irregular patches.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood lighter, close-grained, compact structure, medullary rays numerous and conspicuous. Beautiful when quartered.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Brittle, very difficult to split and to season. Qualities similar to those of P. occidentalis.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Decoration, furniture, similar to P. occidentalis.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

30.

Modulus of Elasticity.

800,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

7900.

Remarks.

Hough mentions[41] a tree twenty-nine feet seven inches in circumference. [p068]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 41: "American Woods," Part 6, p. 36.]

BIRCH. (_Betula_.)

The birches grow in Europe, Asia, and North America, their ranges on the latter continent extending far into the north.[42] Their history is remote and probably began with attention to the bark rather than to the wood.

Birch-bark is smooth, pliable, water-tight, and by reason of its resinous oils so durable that it often remains intact long after the wood inside of fallen trees has disappeared. It is separable into thin layers and was early employed as a writing material.[43] Houses have been covered by it and it has been used for cordage, utensils, "damp courses," and even rude clothing. The American Indians employed it for canoes, tents, troughs, and buckets. The wood is hard, heavy, strong, fine-grained, and beautiful. It shrinks in seasoning, works easily, stands well when not exposed. It is used for spools, woodenware, and other small articles, as well as for interior finish and cabinet work. Figured birch is one of the most beautiful of American cabinet woods.[44] Birch is often stained so as to imitate cherry and mahogany; the best imitations of the latter wood are of birch. Birch is commercially divided, according to the quantity of heartwood present, into white birch and red birch. The wood is "white" when the amount is small, and as heartwood increases with age the same tree might at one time afford white and at another red wood.

Birch trees may be known by their more or less laminated bark with its peculiar long horizontal lenticles or dashes. The [p069] leaves of the several birches differ but little, but the decided colors exhibited by their barks give names and serve to distinguish the species. Nine of the twenty-four known species of birch occur in North America; six are trees and the others low shrubs. _Betula_ is said to be derived from bitumen. [p070]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 42: Birch forms large forests in the North.]

[Footnote 43: Pliny and Plutarch agree that the famous books of Numa Pompilius, written 700 years before Christ, were upon birch-bark. (Keeler.)]

[Footnote 44: The banquet-hall of the famous Auditorium Hotel in Chicago is finished in birch. (Kidder.)]

WHITE BIRCH. _Betula populifolia Marsh._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

White Birch (local and common name).

Gray Birch (Me., R. I., Mass.).

Oldfield Birch, Poverty Birch (Me.).

Poplar-leaved Birch, Small White Birch (Vt.).

Locality.

Atlantic coast, Canada to Delaware.

Features of Tree.

Twenty to forty feet in height, about one foot in diameter. Durable, laminated, smooth, white bark on large branches and on trunk, save near ground; is not very easily detached from tree. Tremulous leaves.

Color, Grain, or Appearance of Wood.

Heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter, close-grained.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Soft, light, not strong or durable.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Clothes-pins, shoe-pegs, tooth-picks, paper-pulp.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

35.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,036,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

11,000.

Remarks.

The white bark is distinct from that of the paper birch in that it does not cover the whole trunk and in that it remains more perfectly intact. [p071]

PAPER BIRCH, WHITE BIRCH. _Betula papyrifera Marsh._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Paper Birch, White Birch (local and common names).

Silver Birch (Minn.).

Large White Birch (Vt.).

Boleau (Quebec).

Canoe Birch (Me., Vt., N. H., R. I., Mass., N. Y., Pa., Wis., Mich., Minn.).

Locality.

Northern United States, northward into Canada, valley of the Yukon in Alaska.

Features of Tree.

Fifty to seventy feet in height, one and one-half to two and one-half feet in diameter. Smooth white exterior bark on large limbs and trunks away from ground. Brown or orange inner surfaces of bark. Splits freely into thin paper-like layers.

Color, Grain, or Appearance of Wood.

Heartwood brown tinged with red, sapwood nearly white. Very close-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Strong, hard, tough, not durable.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Spools, shoe-lasts, pegs, paper-pulp, fuel, bark used in canoes.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

37.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,850,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

15,000.

Remarks.

Starch is said to be manufactured from inner bark by Northern Indians. Reaches higher latitude than any American deciduous tree. Forms forests. The name White Birch is because of the color of the bark. [p072]

RED BIRCH. _Betula nigra Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Red Birch (local and common name).

Black Birch (Fla., Tenn., Tex.).

River Birch (Mass., R. I., N. J., Del., Pa., W. Va., Ala., Miss., Tex., Mo., Ill., Wis., Ohio).

Birch (N. C., S. C, Miss., La.).

Water Birch (W. Va., Kans.).

Blue Birch (Ark.).

Locality.

Massachusetts to Florida, westward intermittently to Minnesota and Texas. Best development in south Atlantic and lower Mississippi valley regions.

Features of Tree.

Thirty to eighty feet in height, one to three feet in diameter, sometimes larger. Dark red brown scaly bark on trunk. Red to silvery-white bark on branches. Bark separates in thin paper-like scales curling outward.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light brown, sapwood yellowish white. Close-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, rather hard and strong.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Furniture, woodenware, shoe-lasts, ox-yokes. Inferior cask-hoops from branches.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

35.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,580,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

13,100.

Remarks.

Dark brown bark, whence name Red Birch. Prefers moist bottoms, whence name River Birch. [p073]

YELLOW BIRCH. _Betula lutea Michx. f._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Yellow Birch (local and common name).

Gray Birch (Vt., R. I., Pa., Mich., Minn.).

Swamp Birch (Minn.).

Silver Birch (N. H.).

Merisier, Merisier Rouge (Quebec).

Locality.

Newfoundland to North Carolina, westward intermittently to Minnesota and Texas. Best developed north of the Great Lakes.

Features of Tree.

Sixty to eighty feet or more in height, two to four feet in diameter. A medium-sized tree. Bark on trunk silvery gray to silvery yellow, branches green to lustrous or dull brown. Bark exfoliates, causing a rough, ragged appearance.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood nearly white, close-grained, compact structure, satiny.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Heavy, very strong, and hard, tough, susceptible of high polish. Qualities suggest those of maple. Not durable when exposed.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Furniture, buttons, tassel-moulds, pill-boxes, spools, and wheel-hubs.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

40.

Modulus of Elasticity.

2,290,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

17,700.

Remarks.

Occasional trees have thin outer bark ruptured, and exhibit inner bark of almost metallic yellow. Lutea, signifying yellow, alludes to color of bark. Inner bark has pungent, pleasant flavor. [p074]

SWEET BIRCH, CHERRY BIRCH. _Betula lenta Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Sweet Birch, Cherry Birch (many localities).

Black Birch (N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Pa., W. Va., Ga., Ill., Ind., Mich., Ohio).

Mahogany Birch (N. C., S. C.).

River Birch (Minn.).

Mountain Mahogany (S. C.).

Locality.

Newfoundland intermittently to Illinois, southward intermittently along Alleghanies to Kentucky, Tennessee, and Florida.

Features of Tree.

Fifty to eighty feet in height, three to four feet in diameter, dark reddish-brown bark, resembling that of cherry; does not separate into layers as paper-birch. Leaves, bark, and twigs sweet, spicy, and aromatic.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood dark brown tinged with red, sapwood light brown or yellow, close-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Heavy, very strong, hard, receives stains and high satin-like polish.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Woodenware, furniture, ship-building (Canada), fuel.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

47.

Modulus of Elasticity.

2,010,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

17,000.

Remarks.

A common tree in Northern States. Wood often stained so as to resemble cherry and mahogany. Essences suggest wintergreen, contain much salicylic acid, and are used in medicine. The name "cherry" is because bark resembles that of cherry. "Sweet" is because of essences. [p075]

LOCUST, MESQUITE. (_Robinia, Gleditsia, Prosopis_.)

The name Locust applies to species of three distinct genera, all of which belong to the family Leguminosæ. The black locust (_Robinia pseudacacia_), the honey locust (_Gleditsia triacanthos_), and the Mesquite or honey locust (_Prosopis juliflora_) are principal representatives of their respective kinds. The first-named genus is North American, the other two have species on both continents.

Black locust wood is tough, durable, unequalled for torsional strength and resilience, and is in every way in the first rank of American woods. It is fitted not only for exposed constructions, but for finer articles; hubs, pins, bolts, and trenails having no superiors. Trees develop rapidly when young, heart wood forming as early as the third year. Later growth and ultimate commercial value in the United States are much affected by insect borers, which practically limit the usefulness of the species. The black locust may be known by its clusters of large pea-blossom-shaped flowers, its bean-shaped pods, three to six inches in length, and by the prickles on the bark. The genus has six species, four of which are natives of the United States.[45] _Robinia_ is from Robin, the name of an early French botanist. [p076] The black locust has been extensively introduced into Europe, both for ornamentation and for wood.[46]

The wood of the honey locust resembles that of the black locust, but is seldom used or appreciated save for fencing and similarly unimportant purposes. Trees grow rapidly and are not subject to the attacks of insects, so that they frequently attain to normal proportions. The flowers are much smaller than those of the black locust, but the pods are several times as long (twelve to eighteen inches). These often curl in drying and are thus rolled to some distance by the wind. Thorns or spines are present on some individuals and are often from three to six inches in length. The foliage resembles but is more delicate than that of the black locust. There is at least one other American species. _Gleditsia_ is from Gleditsch, the name of a botanist.

Mesquite, also called honey locust, affords wood that is hard, heavy, and almost indestructible in exposed positions. The tree grows in the desert where vegetation would often seem to be impossible. The roots are developed to great size by their search for water, and are gathered and burned in the absence of other fuel. The trunks are small, but afford posts and ties. There are pods filled with rich edible pulp. Sixteen or more species belong to this genus, prosopis, of which one other, the screw-pod mesquite (_Prosopis odorata_), is found in the United States. [p077]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 45: Three of the four United States species are trees; the other species of this genus grow in Mexico. No one is approximately as important or well known as the Black Locust.]

[Footnote 46: Black Locust was introduced into Europe early in the seventeenth century, being first cultivated by the son of Jean Robin, for whom the genus is named. Few American species have received such attention abroad.]

LOCUST, BLACK LOCUST, YELLOW LOCUST. _Robinia pseudacacia Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Locust, Black Locust, Yellow Locust (local and common names).

False Acacia (S. C., Ala., Tex., Minn.).

Pea-flower Locust, Post Locust (Md.).

Red Locust, Green Locust (Tenn.).

Honey Locust (Minn.).

White Locust (R. I., N. Y., Tenn.).

Acacia (La.).

Locality.

Southern Alleghany region, widely cultivated in United States east of Rocky Mountains.

Features of Tree.

Fifty to seventy feet in height, two to three feet or over in diameter. Leaves curl or close at night. Long spikes or briers on young branches.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood brownish, thin sapwood, light-greenish yellow. Close-grained and compact. Annual layers clearly marked.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Heavy, very hard, strong, and durable under extreme conditions of wet and dry.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Long wooden bolts or pins called treenails. Posts, ties, construction, turnery, ship-ribs, ornamentations, fuel.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

45.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,830,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

18,100.

Remarks.

Often a low shrub. Extensively planted, particularly in West, but subject to attack by borers. One of the most valuable of American timber trees. Heartwood is formed very early in this species. Pseudacacia means false acacia or imitation of acacia. [p078]

HONEY LOCUST. _Gleditsia triacanthos Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Honey Locust (local and common name).

Thorn or Thorny Locust Tree or Acacia (N. Y., N. J., Ind., Tenn., La.).

Three-thorned Acacia (Mass., R. I., La., Tex., Neb., Mich.).

Black Locust (Miss., Tex., Ark., Kans., Neb.).

Honey or Honeyshucks (R. I., N. J., Va., Fla., Iowa).

Honeyshucks Locust (Ky.).

Sweet Locust (S. C., La., Kans., Nebr.).

Piquant Amourette (La.).

Confederate Pintree (Fla.).

Locust (Nebr.).

Locality.

Pennsylvania to Florida, westward intermittently to Nebraska and Texas. Best in lower Ohio River basin.

Features of Tree.

Seventy to ninety feet or more in height, two to four feet in diameter. Frequent long thorns.[47] Light thin foliage. Brown pods contain sweet pulp.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood bright brown or red, sapwood yellowish, annual layers strongly marked, coarse-grained, medullary rays conspicuous.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Heavy, hard, strong, very durable in contact with soil.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Fence-posts, rails, wagon-hubs, rough construction, etc.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

42.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,540,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

13,100.

Remarks.

Widely cultivated for landscape effect. Young trees used for forming hedges. [p079]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 47: Thorns plentiful on some individuals, but absent on others.]

MESQUITE. _Prosopis juliflora (Swartz) de C._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Mesquite (Tex., N. M., Ariz., Cal.).

Algaroba (Tex., N. M., Ariz., Cal.).

Honey Pod or Honey Locust (Tex., N. M.).

Ironwood (Tex.).

Locality.

Texas, west to San Bernardino Mountains, California. Also Colorado, Utah, and Nevada and northern Mexico.

Features of Tree.

Forty to fifty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. Sometimes low shrub. Roots often very large. Pods with sweet pulp.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood rich dark brown, often red. Sapwood clear yellow. Close-grained, compact structure, distinct medullary rays.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Weak, difficult to work, heavy, hard, very durable.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Posts, fencing, ties, house-beams, fuel, charcoal.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

47.

Modulus of Elasticity.

820,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

6800.

Remarks.

A locally important tree. Trees sometimes stunted by fires have numerous roots. Large roots used for fuel. [p080]

FOOTNOTE

Holsinger, "Forestry and Irrigation." Vol. VIII, No. 11, p. 447.

WHITEWOOD OR TULIP-TREE WOOD, POPLAR OR COTTONWOOD, (_Liriodendron_.) (_Populus_.)

CUCUMBER-TREE WOOD, BASSWOOD. (_Magnolia_.) (_Tilia_.)

These trees are not related, but are all noted for woods with soft, fine qualities, such as fit them for carvings, woodenware, and paper-pulp. No one of the woods is durable when exposed, and all are used for boxes because they nail without splitting. The names are commercially interchangeable.

The whitewood or tulip tree (_Liriodendron tulipifera_) is a native of America and an acclimated tree in Europe. It is the sole surviving species of its genus. The wood is soft, stiff, clean, fine, straight-grained, and obtainable in large-sized pieces. Much whitewood is made into lumber, the wood standing among those of the broadleaf series as white pine does among the conifers. Whitewood is particularly suitable for carvings. In spite of its name it is largely greenish yellow. It is often divided commercially, according to color, into "white poplar" and "yellow poplar." Trunks often attain to a very large size. Matthews mentions a specimen[48] thirty-three feet in circumference. The species may be known by its large tulip-shaped flower. _Liriodendron_ is from two Greek words meaning lily and tree.

The poplars, sometimes called cottonwoods because of their seeds covered with a cotton-like down, are represented on both continents. The wood was made into shields by the [p081] ancients, because it was light and tough and would indent without breaking. The wood is often substituted for whitewood, but is less desirable, although valuable as a basis for paper-pulp. The trees may be known by the long drooping catkins that appear early in the spring before the leaves, and that are followed by white downy seeds that soon escape to whiten the surrounding ground. The poplars are noted for foliage more or less constantly in agitation. This peculiarity, so pronounced in the aspen (_Populus tremuloides_), is due to the very long petioles or leaf-stems. The cottonwoods abound in many otherwise arid regions of American Western deserts.

The cucumber trees are of the magnolia family and grow in many of the Eastern States. The wood resembles and is probably often mistaken for whitewood, for which it is a fair substitute. The trees may be known by their fruit, which resembles vegetable cucumbers. Magnolia is from Magnol, a botanist of the seventeenth century.

Basswood is a name applied to trees known in Europe and America as limes, lime trees, lind, linden, tiel, tiel trees, bass, and basswood trees. The trees and their wood were early esteemed, the first for their shade and appearance, and the last for their working qualities, which resemble, but are inferior to, whitewood.[49] The trees are characterized by their dense foliage and clusters of small cream-colored fragrant flowers, so attractive to bees as to have originated the further name bee-tree. _Tilia_ arises from the ancient name for these trees. [p082]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 48: F. Schuyler Matthews, "Familiar Trees" (Appleton, 1901), p. 39.]

[Footnote 49: The carvings of Gibbons, a famous English artist, are said to have been made entirely of linden, no other available wood being so even-grained and free from knots. (Keeler.)]

TULIP TREE, WHITEWOOD, YELLOW POPLAR. _Liriodendron tulipifera Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Tulip Tree, Whitewood, Yellow Poplar (local and common names).

Poplar (R. I., Del., N. C., S. C., Fla., Ohio).

Tulip Poplar (Del., Pa., S. C., Ill.).

Hickory Poplar (Va., W. Va., N. C.).

Blue Poplar (Del., W. Va.).

Popple (R. I.).

Cucumber Tree (N. Y.).

Canoewood (Tenn.).

Locality.

New England to Florida, westward intermittently to Michigan and Mississippi.

Features of Tree.

Ninety to one hundred and fifty feet in height, six to twelve feet in diameter. Tulip-shaped flowers in spring. Greenish cones dry and remain after leaves have fallen.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light yellow or greenish brown, thin sapwood, nearly white. Close, straight-grained, compact structure, free from knots.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, moderately strong, brittle, easily worked, durable. Hard to split, shrinks little, resembles white pine, stands well.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Lumber, interior finish, shingles, boat-building, pumps, woodenware, shelves, the bottoms of drawers.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

26.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,300,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

9300.

Remarks.

Very large trees formerly common. Indians hollowed logs into boats. "Some large enough to carry twenty or thirty persons" (Hough), whence name canoewood. Tulipifera, signifying turbans and to bear, refers to flowers. One of the largest as well as most useful of American deciduous trees. [p083]

POPLAR, LARGETOOTH ASPEN. _Populus grandidentata Michx._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Poplar, Largetooth Aspen (local and common names).

Largetooth Poplar (N. C.).

Large Poplar (Tenn.).

White Poplar (Mass.).

Popple (Me.).

Large American Aspen (Ala.).

Locality.

Nova Scotia and Delaware, westward intermittently to Minnesota, Alleghany Mountains to Kentucky and Tennessee.

Features of Tree.

Sixty to eighty feet high, two feet or more in diameter. Irregular points or teeth on margins of leaves. Smooth gray bark.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood brownish, sapwood nearly white, close-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Soft, light, weak.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Paper-pulp and occasionally woodenware.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

28.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,360,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

10,200.

Remarks.

The several "poplars" are much prized for paper-pulp. The quaking aspen (_P. tremuloides_) has long leaf-stalks flattened vertically to the leaf-surface, so that leaves tremble in slight winds. [p084]

COTTONWOOD. _Populus deltoides Marsh._ _Populus monilifera Ait._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Cottonwood (local and common name).

Carolina Poplar (Pa., Miss., La., N. M., Ind., Ohio).

Yellow Cottonwood (Ark., Ia., Neb.).

Big Cottonwood (Miss., Neb.).

Whitewood (Ia.).

Cotton Tree (N. Y.).

Necklace Poplar (Tex., Col.).

Broadleaved Cottonwood (Colo.).

Locality.

Canada to Florida, westward intermittently to Rocky Mountains.

Features of Tree.

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, four to five feet in diameter, occasionally much larger. Long catkins distribute cotton-like fibres.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Thin heartwood, dark brown, sapwood nearly white, close-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, weak, liable to warp, difficult to season.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Greatly valued in manufacture of paper-pulp, also packing-boxes, fence-boards, fuel.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

24.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,400,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

10,900.

Remarks.

_Monilifera_ is from the Latin _monolinum_, a necklace, and _fero_, to bear, and refers to the long necklace or catkin. [p085]

BLACK COTTONWOOD. _Populus trichocarpa Torr. and Gr._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Black Cottonwood (Oreg., Cal.).

Balsam Cottonwood, Balm (Oreg.).

Cottonwood (Oreg., Cal.).

Balm Cottonwood (Cal.).

Locality.

Pacific coast region, Alaska to California.

Features of Tree.

A large tree sometimes one hundred and fifty feet in height and four to six feet in diameter.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light dull brown, sapwood nearly white, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, weak.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Staves, woodenware (local).

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

23.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,580,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

8400.

Remarks.

Largest deciduous tree of Puget Sound district (Sargent). [p086]

CUCUMBER TREE. _Magnolia acuminata Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Cucumber Tree (R. I., Mass., N. Y., Pa., N. C., S. C., Ala., Miss., La., Ark., Ky., W. Va., Ohio, Ind., Ill.).

Mountain Magnolia (Miss., Ky.).

Black Lin, Cucumber (W. Va.).

Magnolia (Ark.).

Locality.

New York to Illinois, southward through Kentucky and Tennessee to Gulf (intermittently).

Features of Tree.

Fifty to occasionally one hundred feet in height, two to four feet in diameter. A large, handsome, symmetrical tree, with cones resembling cucumbers.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood brownish yellow, sapwood nearly white, close-grained, compact structure. Satiny, thin medullary rays.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, not strong, durable. Qualities similar to whitewood.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Cabinet-making, cheap furniture, flooring, pump-logs, troughs, crates, packing-boxes. Used similarly to L. tulipifera.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

29.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,310,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

9500.

Remarks.

Wood resembles and is often sold for tulip-tree wood. [p087]

BASSWOOD, LINN, LINDEN. _Tilia americana Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Basswood, Linn, Linden, American Linden (local and common names).

Limetree (R. I., N. C., S. C., Ala., Minn., La., Ill.).

Black or Smooth-leaved Limetree (Tenn.).

Whitewood (Vt., W. Va., Ark., Minn.).

Yellow Basswood, Lein (Ind.).

Beetree (Vt., W. Va., Wis.).

White Lind (W. Va.).

Wickup (Mass.).

Locality.

New Brunswick to Georgia, westward intermittently to Nebraska and Texas. Wide range.

Features of Tree.

Sixty to ninety feet in height, two to four feet in diameter, occasionally larger. Large smooth leaves.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light or reddish brown, thick sapwood nearly similar, very straight and close-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, easily worked, tough, not strong nor durable.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Sides and backs of drawers, bodies of carriages, woodenware, paper-pulp.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

28.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,190,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

8300.

Remarks.

Basswood refers to the inner bark or "bast," sometimes utilized for cordage. The flowers attract bees, whence the name bee-tree. White Basswood, (_Tilia heterophylla_,) is not distinguished commercially. [p088]

WILLOW. (_Salix_.)

The willows are very widely distributed over both continents, and their history extends back over a very considerable period. Pliny states that Britons used to make voyages in boats of willow. The willow mentioned in the Bible was the Salix babylónica, or weeping willow, later acclimated in this country.

The principal experience with the tough, light, workable, elastic wood has been in Europe. The ancients used it for shields, because it was one of the woods that would indent without breaking. Lazlett states that it is used for cart-linings because it will not splinter when struck by stones. It has been used for lap-boards, cricket-bats, keels, paddles, and water-wheels. It resists heat and friction and is therefore used for lining friction-brakes. Willow charcoal ignites readily and is highly esteemed in the manufacture of the finer kinds of gunpowder. The bark is used in tanning. The little branches have long been associated with baskets and woven work. American trees are seldom cut up into lumber, but are valued for shade and appearance, and are often planted along the banks of streams to prevent erosion.

Willows grow very rapidly and have a characteristic and attractive appearance. They usually prefer low moist places. There are so many hybrids and peculiar species as to render classification in all cases difficult.[50] Black willow is the native species, oftenest attaining to tree size in North America. The White, Crack, Bedford, and Goat Willows (_Salix alba_, _S. fragilis_, _S. russeliana_, and _S. caprea_) are said to afford good wood. _Salix_ is said to be from the Celtic _sal_, meaning near, and _lis_, water. Salicylic acid is abundantly present in the bark of some species. [p089]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 50: About 140 species and varieties of the willow family have been enumerated.]

BLACK WILLOW. _Salix nigra Marsh._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Black Willow (local and common name).

Swamp Willow (N. C., S. C.).

Willow (N. Y., Pa., N. C., S. C., Miss., Tex., Cal., Ky., Mo., Neb.).

Locality.

New Brunswick to Florida, westward intermittently to Dakota, Arizona, and California, Mexico.

Features of Tree.

Forty to fifty feet in height, two to four feet in diameter. Long narrow leaf, characteristic appearance.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood brown, sapwood nearly white, close-grained.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Soft, light, weak, checks badly in drying, readily worked. Dents without splitting.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Lap-boards, basket-making, fuel, charcoal.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

27.

Modulus of Elasticity.

550,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

6000.

Remarks.

Prefers borders of rivers and bottom lands. Many varieties of willow grow in the United States. No one is used to any extent in construction. [p090]

CATALPA. (_Catalpa_.)