Chapter XXVIII: Introduction (4)

Oregon and California. Best at high altitudes (above 4000 feet), central and northern California.

Features of Tree.

One hundred to occasionally three hundred feet in height, fifteen to sometimes twenty feet in diameter. Cones ten to eighteen inches in length, edible seeds. Sweetish exudations. A great tree.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood pinkish brown, sapwood cream-white. Coarse, straight-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, easily worked, resembles white pine (_Pinus strobus_).

Representative Uses of Wood.

Carpentry, interior finish, doors, blinds, sashes, etc.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

22.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,120,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

8400.

Remarks.

Grows at as high elevations as five thousand feet or more above tide-water. Forms extensive forests with Balsam Fir (_Abies concolor_). [p137]

WHITE PINE. _Pinus monticola Dougl._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

White Pine (Cal., Nev., Oreg.).

Mountain Pine, Finger Cone Pine (Cal.).

Little Sugar Pine, Soft Pine (Cal.).

Western White Pine.

Mountain Weymouth Pine.

Locality.

Montana, Idaho, Pacific States, and British Columbia.

Features of Tree.

Eighty to one hundred feet in height. Two to three feet in diameter, sometimes larger. Foliage resembles, but is denser than, white pine. Long smooth cones.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light brown or red, sapwood nearly white. Straight-grained, compact, suggests white pine (_Pinus strobus_).

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, not strong.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Lumber.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

24.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,350,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

8600.

Remarks.

Found at elevations of seven thousand to ten thousand feet. Common and locally used in northern Idaho. [p138]

GEORGIA PINE, HARD PINE, YELLOW PINE, LONGLEAF PINE. _Pinus palustris Mill._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Turpentine Pine.

Rosemary Pine.

N. Carolina Pitch Pine.

Southern Pine.

Longleaved Yellow Pine.

Longleaved Pitch Pine.

Long Straw Pine.

Pitch Pine.

Fat Pine.

Heart Pine.

Brown Pine.

Florida Yellow Pine.

Florida Pine.

Florida Longleaved Pine.

Southern Pitch Pine.

Southern Hard Pine.

Southern Heart Pine.

Southern Yellow Pine.

Georgia Pitch Pine.

Georgia Longleaved Pine.

Georgia Heart Pine.

Georgia Yellow Pine.

Texas Yellow Pine.

Texas Longleaved Pine.

Locality.

South Atlantic and Gulf States, Virginia to Alabama, intermittently.

Features of Tree.

Fifty to ninety feet or more in height, one to three feet in diameter. Tufts of three leaves, ten to fifteen inches long, in long sheath.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood orange, sapwood lighter. Coarse-grained, compact structure, conspicuous medullary rays.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Hard, heavy, tough, strong, elastic, durable, resinous.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Heavy constructions, ship-building, cars, docks, beams, ties, flooring, house-trim, many uses.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

38 (U. S. Division of Forestry).[76]

43.

Modulus of Elasticity.

2,070,000 (average of 1230 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[76]

2,110,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

12,600 (average of 1160 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[76]

16,300.

Remarks.

Finer and has less sapwood than Cuban pine. One of the best woods for car-building. Principal lumber tree of the Southeast. [p139]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 76: See page 6.]

"Southern Pine." U. S. Forestry Circular No. 12. (Dr. B. E. Fernow, Chief.)

"Timber Pines of Southern States." U. S. Forestry Bul. No. 13. (Dr. B. E. Fernow, Chief.)

CUBAN PINE. _Pinus heterophylla Sudw._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Cuban Pine, Slash Pine (local and common names).

Pitch Pine, She Pine, She Pitch Pine (Ga., Fla.).

Swamp Pine (Fla., Miss.).

Bastard Pine, Meadow Pine, Spruce Pine.

Locality.

Coast region, South Carolina to Florida and Louisiana.

Features of Tree.

Fifty to eighty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Resembles longleaf pine.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Similar to those of longleaf pine, from which it is seldom separated.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

39 (U. S. Forestry Div.).[77]

Modulus of Elasticity.

2,370,000 (average of 410 tests by U. S. Div. of Forestry).[77]

Modulus of Rupture.

13,600 (average of 410 tests by U. S. Div. of Forestry).[77]

Remarks.

Resembles and is marked longleaf pine (_Pinus palustris_). [p140]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 77: See page 6.]

"Southern Pine." U. S. Forestry Circular No. 12. (Dr. B. E. Fernow, Chief.)

"Timber Pines of Southern States." U. S. Forestry Bul. No. 13. (Dr. B. E. Fernow, Chief.)

SHORTLEAF PINE, YELLOW PINE. _Pinus echinata Mill._ _Pinus mitis Michx._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Common Yellow Pine, Hard Pine.

Spruce Pine (Del., Miss., Ark.).

Bull Pine (Va.).

Shortshat Pine (Del.).

Pitch Pine (Mo.).

Poor Pine (Fla.).

Shortleaved Yellow Pine (N. C.).

Rosemary Pine (N. C.).

Virginia Yellow Pine.

North Carolina Yellow Pine.

North Carolina Pine.

Carolina Pine.

Slash Pine.

Old Field Pine.

Locality.

Connecticut to Florida, westward intermittently to Kansas and Texas.

Features of Tree.

Sixty to sometimes ninety feet in height, two to sometimes four feet in diameter. A large erect tree; small cones have minute weak prickles. Leaves usually in twos from long sheaths.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Resembles longleaf pine.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Variable, usually hard, tough, strong, durable, resinous, lighter than longleaf pine.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Lumber, construction, similar to longleaf pine.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

32 (U. S. Forestry Div.).[78]

30.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,680,000 (average of 330 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[78]

1,950,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

10,100 (average of 330 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[78]

14,700.

Remarks.

Affords considerable pitch and turpentine, and is the principal species of Northern Arkansas, Kansas, and Missouri. [p141]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 78: See page 6.]

"Southern Pine." Mohr U. S. Forestry Circular No. 12.

"Timber Pines of Southern States." U. S. Forestry Bul. No. 13. (Dr. B. E. Fernow, Chief.)

LOBLOLLY PINE. _Pinus tæda Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Old Field Pine.

Torch Pine.

Rosemary Pine.

Slash Pine.

Longshat Pine.

Longshucks.

Black Slash Pine.

Frankincense Pine.

Shortleaf Pine.

Bull Pine.

Virginia Pine.

Sap Pine.

Meadow Pine.

Cornstalk Pine (Va.).

Black Pine.

Foxtail Pine.

Indian Pine.

Spruce Pine.

Bastard Pine.

Yellow Pine.

Swamp Pine.

Longstraw Pine.

Locality.

Delaware to Florida and westward intermittently to Texas.

Features of Tree.

Fifty to one hundred feet or more in height, two to sometimes four feet in thickness. Leaves in twos and threes. Scales or cones have short straight spines. A large tree.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Resembles longleaf pine.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Resembles longleaf pine.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Resembles longleaf pine.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

33 (U. S. Forestry Div.).[79]

33.

Modulus of Elasticity.

2,050,000 (average of 660 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[79]

1,600,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

11,300 (average of 650 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[79]

12,500.

Remarks.

Grows naturally on deforested land, whence the name of Old Field Pine. [p142]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 79: See page 6.]

"Southern Pine." U. S. Forestry Circular No. 12. (Dr. B. E. Fernow, Chief.)

"Timber Pines of Southern States." U. S. Forestry Bul. No. 13. (Dr. B. E. Fernow, Chief.)

BULL PINE, YELLOW PINE, WESTERN YELLOW PINE. _Pinus ponderosa Laws._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Big Pine.

Longleaved Pine.

Red Pine.

Pitch Pine.

Southern Yellow Pine.

Heavy-wooded Pine.

Western Pitch Pine.

Heavy Pine (Calif.).

Foothills Yellow Pine.

Montana Black Pine.

Locality.

Rocky Mountains, westward intermittently to Pacific Ocean.

Features of Tree.

One hundred to sometimes three hundred feet in height, six to sometimes twelve feet in diameter. Thick, deeply furrowed bark. Leaves in tufts of threes.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Thin heartwood is light red, sapwood nearly white. Rather coarse grain, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Variable, heavy, hard, strong, brittle, not durable.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Lumber, railway ties, mine timbers, fuel, etc.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

29.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,260,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

10,200.

Remarks.

Ponderosa, signifying "heavy," refers to great size. [p143]

NORWAY PINE, RED PINE. _Pinus resinosa Ait._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Norway Pine, Red Pine (local and common names).

Hard Pine (Wis.).

Canadian Red Pine (Eng.).

Locality.

Southern Canada, northern United States from Maine to Minnesota, Pennsylvania.

Features of Tree.

Sixty to ninety feet in height, one to three feet in diameter. Reddish blossoms and bark on branchlets. Leaves in twos from long sheaths. A tall, straight tree.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Thin heartwood light red, sapwood yellow to white. Numerous pronounced medullary rays.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, hard, elastic, not durable, resinous.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Piles, telegraph poles, masts, flooring, and wainscoting.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

31 (U. S. Forestry Div.).[80]

30.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,620,000 (average of 100 tests by U. S. Forestry Division).[80]

1,600,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

9,100 (average of 95 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[80]

12,500.

Remarks.

Sometimes commercially handled with white pine. Unimportant as regards turpentine and resin, in spite of specific name, which signifies resinous. Long sheaths enable children to make chains of leaves. [p144]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 80: See page 6.]

PITCH PINE. _Pinus rigida Mill._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Pitch Pine (local and common name).

Longleaved Pine, Longschat Pine (Del.).

Hard Pine (Mass.).

Yellow Pine (Pa.).

Black Pine (N. C.).

Black Norway Pine.

Rigid Pine, Sap Pine.

Locality.

Atlantic coast, Canada to Georgia, Kentucky.

Features of Tree.

Forty to sometimes eighty feet in height, one to sometimes three feet in diameter. Rigid flattened leaves in threes from short sheaths.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light brown or red, thick sapwood yellow to nearly white. Coarse conspicuous grain, compact structure, very resinous.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, not strong, brittle.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Coarse lumber, fuel, charcoal.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

32.

Modulus of Elasticity.

820,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

10,500.

Remarks.

Rigida refers to rigid leaves. The name "Pitch Pine" is sometimes applied to all of the Southern pines. The name is yet more widely applied in foreign markets. Sometimes called Fat Pine. [p145]

NORTHERN PINE, SCOTCH PINE, DANTZIC PINE. _Pinus sylvestris Linn._

Nomenclature.

Dantzic Fir (from place of shipment).

Rigi Fir (from place of shipment).

Memel Fir (from place of shipment).

Stettin Fir (from place of shipment).

Swedish Fir.

Scots or Scottish Fir.

Northern Fir.

Redwood, Yellowwood.

Deal (Local).

Locality.

Widespread in Europe, as Scotland, Germany, and Russia; also Asia. Naturalized in United States.

Features of Tree.

Fifty to one hundred feet in height, two to five feet in diameter; sometimes larger.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood reddish white to yellowish white, sapwood similar. Even straight grain (varies with locality).

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Moderately light, hard, tough, and elastic, easily worked (varies with locality).

Representative Uses of Wood.

Carpentry, construction, planks, beams, masts, heavy timber.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

34 (Lazlett[81]) (varies with locality).

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,680,000 (Lazlett) (varies with locality).

1,800,000 (Thurston).

Modulus of Rupture.

7000 (Thurston) (varies with locality).

Remarks.

Principal soft wood of Europe. Widely distributed; local peculiarities once thought to denote different species. Fields tributary to Dantzic and Rigi afford best wood. Wood "equal to Dantzic Fir" sometimes specified. [p146]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 81: Table CLXVII, p. 418.]

KAURI PINE. (_Dammara_.)

This New Zealand tree affords one of the best substitutes for northern pine. Although not true pine, it belongs to the same family as the pine and other conifers. The light, strong, durable, elastic wood is obtainable in large-sized pieces suitable for masts.

The species is universally noted for its resin, which possesses the quality of uniting more perfectly than others with linseed oil.[82] Kauri gum is thus one of the most valuable constituents of good varnish.[83] The best gum occurs as a fossil, and is collected by digging over areas known to be fruitful but from which trees have long since disappeared. The pieces, varying in size from small pebbles to lumps as large as eggs, are scraped and otherwise cleansed by natives in the fields.[84] [p147]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 82: It unites with linseed oil at lower temperatures than other gums of its kind.]

[Footnote 83: Fossil Kauri gum has sold for one thousand to fifteen hundred dollars per ton.]

[Footnote 84: One mass of two hundred and twenty pounds has been reported (R. Ingham Clark, F.R.G.S.: "Notes on Fossil Resins," published by C. Letts & Co., London).]

Correspondence Professor Alvah H. Sabin, New York City; Messrs. Pratt & Lambert, New York City.

KAURI PINE. _Dammara australis._

Nomenclature.

Kauri Pine (local and general).

Cowdie Pine (New Zealand and many localities).

Locality.

New Zealand.

Features of Tree.

Ninety to one hundred feet in height, three to four feet in diameter, occasional specimens much larger. Small leaves resembling those of box. A tall handsome tree.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood straw-colored, fine, close, straight grain.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Moderately hard, light, elastic, strong, seasons well, works readily, receives high polish.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Carpentry, masts.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

33 (Lazlett[85]) (varies with locality).

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,810,000 (Lazlett).

Modulus of Rupture.

Remarks.

The species is widely known by reason of its gum. [p148]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 85: Table CLXXI, p. 426.]

SPRUCE. (_Picea_.)

The spruces form forests in Europe and North America. The black spruce (_P. nigra_) and the white spruce (_P. alba_) predominate in eastern United States, while the white spruce (_P. engelmanni_) is important in the West. The Norway spruce, or white fir (_P. excelsa_), is the chief European species. American trees prefer Northern ranges characterized by short summers and long winters.

The soft, light, clean woods resemble and are probably the best substitute for soft pine. They are apt to warp and twist in seasoning and so are not good for posts and trusses. Spruce is the principal wood in New England for studding and floor-joists. The product is divided commercially and according to appearance, but irrespective of species, into white and black spruce. These terms depend sometimes, at least, on the wide and narrow rings of the black spruce (_P. nigra_). It should be remembered that spruce and fir woods are often confused with one another, and that there are trees, as the Douglas spruce and Kauri pine or spruce, that are called, but are not, true spruces. European spruce is often locally known as white deal.

Spruce trees have single, sharp-pointed, short leaves, pointing everywhere, and keeled above and below so as to appear four-sided; the cones hang down. Spruce may be distinguished from the pines, firs, and hemlocks by the fact that pine leaves are longer and in clusters, that hemlock leaves are flat, blunt, and two-ranked, and that fir cones point upward. The genus picea has twelve species, five of which are North American. The resins of the black and red spruce are used as confections. [p149]

The following table sets forth the primary distinctions between the spruces and the pines, firs, and hemlocks:

Pines (_Pinus_)
Arrangement of Leaves. In tufts or clusters.
Shape of Leaves. Comparatively long.
Cones.
Spruce (_Picea_)
Arrangement of Leaves. Single, scattered, point in all directions.
Shape of Leaves. Short, sharp ends, keeled above and below.
Somewhat four-sided.
Cones. Hang down, 1 to 6 inches long.
Fir (_Abies_)
Arrangement of Leaves. Single, scattered, appear somewhat as in
two ranks.
Shape of Leaves. Short, blunt ends, flat.
Cones. Stand erect, 2 to 4 inches long.
Hemlock (_Tsuga_)
Arrangement of Leaves. Single, scattered, appear as in two ranks.
Shape of Leaves. Short, blunt ends, flat.
Cones. Hang down, 3/4 to 1 inch long.

[p150]

BLACK SPRUCE. _Picea nigra Link._ _Picea mariana Mill._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Spruce (Vt.), Yew Pine, Spruce Pine (W. Va.).

Double Spruce (Me., Vt., Minn.).

Blue Spruce (Wis.).

White Spruce (W. Va.).

He Balsam (Del., N. C.).

Water Spruce (Me.).

Locality.

Pennsylvania to Minnesota, Alleghany Mountains to North Carolina. Best in Canada.

Features of Tree.

Forty to eighty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. Conical shape with straight trunk. Dark foliage. Cones remain for several years, being thus distinct from white spruce.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood reddish, nearly white; sapwood lighter. Straight grain, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, not strong, elastic, resonant.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Lumber, flooring, carpentry, ship-building, piles, posts, railway ties, paddles, oars, "sounding-boards," paper-pulp.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

28.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,560,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

10,600.

Remarks.

A substitute for soft pine. Resin is used as a confection. [p151]

FOOTNOTE

It is often difficult to distinguish between black and white spruce trees. The foliage of the former is darker as a whole, and there are differences in shape and persistence of cones. The names double spruce and single spruce are without evident foundation. Woods exhibit similar qualities and are classed together by lumbermen. Red Spruce (_Picea rubens_) resembles, and is sometimes considered a variety of, black spruce.

WHITE SPRUCE. _Picea alba Link._ _Picea canadensis Mill._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Single Spruce (Me., Vt., Minn.).

Bog Spruce, Cat Spruce (N. Eng.).

Skunk Spruce (Wis., New Eng.).

Spruce, Double Spruce (Vt.).

Pine (Hudson Bay).

Locality.

Northern United States, Canada to Labrador and Alaska.

Features of Tree.

Fifty to one hundred feet in height, one to two feet in diameter, occasionally larger. Compact, symmetrical, conical shape. Foliage lighter than black spruce. Cones fall sooner than those of black spruce. Whitish resin.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light yellow, sapwood similar. Straight-grained, numerous prominent medullary rays. Compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, not strong (similar to Black Spruce).

Representative Uses of Wood.

Lumber, flooring, carpentry, etc. (similar to Black Spruce).

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

25.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,450,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

10,600.

Remarks.

Notable as resident of high latitudes. Chief tree of arctic forests. Wood, used similarly to black spruce, is substituted for white pine. [p152]

WHITE SPRUCE. _Picea engelmanni Engelm._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

White Spruce (Ore., Col., Utah, Idaho).

Balsam, Engelmann's Spruce (Utah).

White Pine (Idaho), Mountain Spruce (Mont.).

Locality.

Rocky Mountain region, Montana to Mexico, Washington, Oregon, and British Columbia (high elevations).

Features of Tree.

Frequently seventy-five to one hundred feet in height and sometimes higher, two to three feet in diameter, sometimes low shrub.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood pale reddish yellow, sapwood similar. Close, straight grain, compact structure, conspicuous medullary rays.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, not strong.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Lumber, charcoal, fuel. Bark rich in tannin, sometimes used for tanning.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

21.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,140,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

8100.

Remarks.

Notable as resident of high altitudes, extensive forests occurring at eight to ten thousand feet above sea-level. A valuable tree of the central and southern Rocky Mountain region. [p153]

SITKA SPRUCE. _Picea sitchensis Trautv. and Mayer._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Sitka Spruce (local and common name).

Tideland Spruce (Cal., Oreg., Wash.).

Menzies Spruce.

Western Spruce.

Great Tideland Spruce.

Locality.

Pacific coast region, Alaska to central California. Extends inland about fifty miles; prefers low elevations.

Features of Tree.

One hundred and fifty feet or more in height, three feet or more in diameter. Flat-pointed pyramidal needles, oval cylindrical cones, thick scaly reddish-brown bark.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood nearly white. Coarse-grained, satiny.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, not strong.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Construction, interior finish, fencing, boat-building, cooperage.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

2626.

Modulus of Elasticity.

Modulus of Rupture.

10,400.

Remarks.

A giant among spruces. Forms an extensive coast-belt forest. [p154]

DOUGLAS SPRUCE. (_Pseudotsuga_.)

The Douglas or Red Pine, Spruce, or Fir, of the Pacific coast is neither true pine, spruce, nor fir, but a sort of bastard hemlock. The name "pseudotsuga" is from _pseudo_, or false, and _tsuga_, or hemlock. The trees are among the greatest known. The wood resembles larch or hard pine in properties, appearance, and applications. Trees have been successfully planted in the Adirondacks. The species was earlier classed as Pinus taxifolia and as Abies taxifolia. [p155]

DOUGLAS SPRUCE, DOUGLAS FIR. _Pseudotsuga taxifolia Lam._ _Pseudotsuga Douglasii Carr._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Oregon Pine (Cal., Wash., Oreg.).

Red Fir, Yellow Fir (Oreg., Wash., Idaho, Utah, Mont., Col.).

Douglas Tree, Cork-barked Douglas Spruce.

Spruce, Fir (Mont.).

Red Pine (Utah, Idaho, Col.).

Puget Sound Pine (Wash.).

Locality.

Pacific coast region, Mexico to British Columbia. Best in western Oregon and Washington.

Features of Tree.

One hundred and seventy-five to sometimes three hundred feet in height, three to five and sometimes ten feet in diameter. Older bark rough-gray, often looking as though braided.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light red to yellow, sapwood nearly white.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Variable, usually hard, strong, difficult to work, durable.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Heavy construction, dimension timbers, railway ties, piles, fuel.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

32 (U. S. Forestry Div.).[86]

36 (average of 20 specimens by Soulé).[87]

32.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,680,000 (average of 41 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[86]

1,862,000 (average of 21 specimens by Soulé).[87]

1,824,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

7,900 (average of 41 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[86]

9,334 (average of 21 specimens by Soulé).[87]

12,500.

Remarks.

Used similarly to hard pine. Lumbermen divide into red and yellow woods, the former dark and coarse, the latter fine, lighter, and more desirable. These distinctions probably due to age. One of the world's greatest trees. [p156]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 86: See page 6.]

[Footnote 87: Professor Frank Soulé, University of California. Trans. Am. Inst. M. E., p. 552, Vol. XXIX.]

FIR. (_Abies_.)

Several of the fir-trees of the western United States attain to very great size. The silver fir (_Abies grandis_) and the white fir (_Abies concolor_) supply much wood in the section in which they grow. The balsam fir (_Abies balsamea_) of the Eastern States is of some commercial importance.

Fir wood resembles spruce in appearance and in structural qualities. It may be told from spruce as well as from pine and larch by the fact that fir has no resin-ducts. The balsam fir is distinguishable by clear liquid resin which appears in blisters in the bark. The coarse, weak wood is cleaner than the bark would indicate. Spruce and fir woods are often confused in the United States, while pine, spruce, and fir are similarly confounded in Europe.

Fir trees have flat, scattered, evergreen leaves, and cones that stand erect (see footnote under spruce). [p157]

BALSAM FIR, COMMON BALSAM FIR. _Abies balsamea Mill._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Balsam (Vt., N. H., N. Y.).

Fir Tree (Vt.).

Balm of Gilead (Del.).

Canada Balsam (N. C.).

Balm of Gilead Fir (N. Y., Pa.).

Blister Pine, Fir Pine (W. Va.).

Single Spruce, Silver Pine (Hudson Bay).

Locality.

Minnesota to Virginia, northward intermittently into Canada.

Features of Tree.

Fifty to seventy feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. Sometimes low shrub. Blisters in smooth bark contain thick balsam. Erect cones.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood white to brownish, sapwood lighter. Coarse-grained, compact structure, satiny.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Soft, light, not durable or strong, resinous, easily split.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Occasionally used as inferior lumber.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

23.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,160,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

7300.

Remarks.

Scattered throughout Northern pineries. Cut when of sufficient size and sold with pine or spruce. Cultivated in gardens. Exudations known as Canada Balsam used in medicine. The poplar (P. balsamifera) is also called Balm of Gilead. [p158]

GREAT SILVER FIR, WHITE FIR. _Abies grandis Lindl._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Silver Fir (Mont., Idaho).

Oregon White Fir, Western White Fir (Cal.).

Yellow Fir (Mont., Idaho).

Lowland Fir.

Locality.

Vancouver region, northwestern United States. Best in west Washington and Oregon.

Features of Tree.

Two hundred to sometimes three hundred feet in height, two to five feet in diameter. Leaves deep green above, silvery below, usually curved. A handsome tree.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter. Coarse-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, not strong.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Lumber, interior finish, packing-cases, cooperage.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

22.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,360,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

7000.

Remarks.

Forms important part of local mountain forests and furnishes much lumber locally. [p159]

WHITE FIR, BALSAM FIR. _Abies concolor Parry._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth).

Silver Fir, Balsam (Cal.).

California White Fir (Cal.).

Black Gum, Bastard Pine (Utah).

White Balsam (Utah).

Balsam Tree (Idaho).

Colorado White Fir, Concolor White Fir.

Locality.

Rocky Mountains and coast ranges, high elevations.

Features of Tree.

Seventy to one hundred and fifty feet in height, three to five feet in diameter. Pale green or silvery foliage. Bark blisters filled with clear pitch.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light brown to nearly white, sapwood same or darker. Coarse-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, not strong, without odor.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Butter-tubs, packing-boxes, lumber.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

22.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,290,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

9900.

Remarks.

Not always distinguished from the species Abies grandis. [p160]

RED FIR. _Abies magnifica Murr._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

California Red Fir, California Red-bark Fir (Cal.).

Magnificent Fir, Golden Fir (Cal.).

Shasta Fir (Cal.).

Locality.

California, vicinity of Mount Shasta.

Features of Tree.

One hundred to two hundred and fifty feet in height, six to ten feet in diameter. Large erect cones. Beautiful form.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood reddish, sapwood distinguishable. Rather close-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, not strong, durable when exposed, liable to injury in seasoning.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Construction, sills, lumber, fuel.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

29.

Modulus of Elasticity.

940,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

9900.

Remarks.

Magnifica or magnificent refers to appearance and size of tree. [p161]

RED FIR, NOBLE FIR. _Abies nobilis Lindl._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Noble Silver Fir, Noble Red Fir.

Larch (Oreg.).

Bigtree, Feather-cone, Red Fir (Cal.).

Locality.

Northwestern United States. Cultivated in East.

Features of Tree.

One to two hundred feet in height, six to nine feet in diameter. Leaves curved. Large, beautiful tree.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood darker. Rather close-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, hard, strong, elastic.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Fitted for house-trimmings.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

28.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,800,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

22,200.

Remarks.

Grows at high elevations (3000 and 4000 feet). With other fir forms extensive forests. Sold as larch. [p162]

FOOTNOTE

Peters, "Forestry and Irrigation," Vol. VIII, No. 9 (Sept. 1902), pp. 362, 366.

HEMLOCK. (_Tsuga_.)

The hemlocks are distributed over northern United States from Maine to Michigan, in the Rocky Mountains, and on the Pacific coast. They generally mingle with broad-leaved and other needle-leaved species, but occasionally form pure forests by themselves.

The wood is coarse, often crossed-grained, perishable, brittle, liable to wind-shakes, hard to work, and apt to warp and splinter. It holds nails firmly and is used for coarse lumber, dimension pieces, paper-pulp, and latterly for cheap finish. It should not be relied upon to receive shocks. The bark is used in tanning.

Hemlock trees may be known by their blunt, flat, evergreen leaves, appearing two-ranked and whitened beneath (see foot-note under Spruce). Red inner bark. [p163]

HEMLOCK. _Tsuga canadensis._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Hemlock (local and common name).

Spruce (Pa., W. Va.).

Hemlock Spruce (Vt., R. I., N. Y., Pa., N. J., W. Va., N. C., S. C.).

Spruce Pine (Pa., Del., Va., N. C., Ga.).

Locality.

Eastern and central Canada, southward to North Carolina and Tennessee.

Features of Tree.

Sixty to eighty or more feet in height, two or three feet in diameter. Short leaves, green above and white beneath. Straight trunk, beautiful appearance.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood distinguishable. Coarse, pronounced, usually crooked grain.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, not strong or durable, brittle, difficult to work, retains nails firmly, splintery.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Coarse lumber, joists, rafters, plank walks, laths, railway ties.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

26.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,270,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

10,400.

Remarks.

Canadensis refers to Canada, the locality where tree excels. [p164]

FOOTNOTES

The Southern or Carolina Hemlock (_T. caroliniana_) resembles Hemlock. The Western Hemlock (_T. heterophylla_, Alaska to California) attains height of 180 feet, diameter of 9 feet, and is said to afford heavier and better wood. This tree is known by the following names (Sudworth):

Western Hemlock, Hemlock Spruce (Cal.).

Hemlock (Oreg., Idaho, Wash.).

Alaska Pine (Northwestern Lumberman).

Prince Albert's Fir, Western Hemlock Fir, California Hemlock Spruce (England).

"The Western Hemlock." Allen, U. S. Forestry Bureau Bulletin No. 33.

LARCH. TAMARACK. (_Larix_.)

Larch was well known in the older time, and was prized in Europe and the Orient. The two principal American species are also called tamarack and hackmatack. The Eastern larch or tamarack (_L. americana_) prefers peculiar low, wet areas known as tamarack swamps. The Western tree (_L. occidentalis_) resembles the European species and prefers dry places.

Larch wood has always been regarded as very durable. It is noted by Pliny and other ancient authors.[88] Vitruvius mentions a bridge that, having burned, was replaced by one of larch, because that wood would not burn as readily.[89] The foundation-piles of Venice are said to be of larch.[90] It should be remembered that the identities of ancient woods are not always beyond question. American larch resembles, if it does not equal, true foreign wood. The trees are tall and straight, but so slender as to be seldom cut into lumber, almost the entire supply being demanded for posts, ties, and poles. The exceedingly durable wood resembles spruce in structure, and hard pine in weight and appearance.

Larch trees are marked by the fact that their foliage is deciduous. The little leaves, gathered in tufts or bundles, are of a bright pea-green when fresh in the springtime. The appearance of tamarack trees when divested of foliage in the winter is very gloomy.

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 88: Pliny, XVI, 43-49 and XVI, 30.]

[Footnote 89: Vitruvius, II, 9.]

[Footnote 90: Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 310.]

TAMARACK, LARCH. _Larix americana Michx._ _Larix laricina (Du Roi) Koch._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Tamarack, Larch, American Larch (local and common names).

Hackmatack (Me., N. H., Mass., R. I., Del., Ill., Mich.).

Black Larch, Red Larch (Minn., Mich.).

Juniper (Me., Canada).

Locality.

Northern United States and southern Canada, east from Great Lakes.

Features of Tree.

Seventy to ninety feet high, one to three feet in diameter. Short pea-green deciduous leaves in tufts. A slender tree, winter aspect gloomy.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light brown, sapwood nearly white. Coarse conspicuous grain, compact structure, annual layers pronounced.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Heavy, hard, very strong, durable, resembles spruce.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Railway ties, fence-posts, sills, ship timbers, telegraph poles, flagstaffs, etc.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

38.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,790,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

12,800.

Remarks.

Practically all (tall thin) trunks required for railway ties, posts, masts, etc. Seldom cut into lumber in consequence. Grows in light swamps often extensive and known as tamarack swamp. (Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Engineers, Vol. XXIX, page 157). [p166]

TAMARACK LARCH. _Larix occidentalis._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Tamarack, Larch (local and common names).

Hackmatack (Idaho, Wash.).

Western Larch, Great Western Larch, Red American Larch.

Western Tamarack (Cal.).

Locality.

Washington and Oregon, intermittently to Montana.

Features of Tree.

Ninety to one hundred and twenty-five feet high, two and one-half to four feet in diameter. A large tree.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light red, thin sapwood lighter. Coarse-grained, compact structure, annual rings pronounced.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Hard, heavy, strong, durable.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Posts, railway ties, fuel, limited quantity of lumber, similar to L. americana.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

46.

Modulus of Elasticity.

2,300,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

17,400.

Remarks.

A valuable tree of the Columbian basin. Differs from L. americana in that it grows on dry ground, often at high elevations. [p167]

CEDAR. (_Cedrus, Thuya, Chamæcyparis, Libocedrus, Juniperus_.)

Cedar was a name first applied to the true or Lebanon cedars (_Cedrus_) of the Eastern continent, but later to certain Arborvitæs (_Thuya_), Junipers (_Juniperus_), and Cypresses (_Chamæcyparis_), and other trees (see "Spanish Cedar," page 122) from which durable, fine-grained, more or less fragrant woods, known as cedar, are obtained. Cedar was highly prized by the ancients, who employed it in costly constructions, such as the temples of Solomon and of Diana at Ephesus.[91][92] Woods known as cedar are divided into so-called Red and White Cedars.

Red Cedar is very fine-grained, soft, light, durable, fragrant, and of a pinkish-red color. Much wood is derived from the Red Cedars, _Juniperus virginiana_, _Juniperus scopulorum_, and _Juniperus barbadensis_, of the Eastern, Western, and Southern States respectively. Although seen in construction, red cedar is chiefly used in chests, closets, lead-pencils, and cigar-boxes. One hundred and twenty-five thousand trees (125,000)[93] are annually required for lead-pencils alone. The waste is often converted into shavings and used instead of camphor to protect woolens. The demand is greater than the supply. Trees are easily grown on almost any soil. Trees and wood are subject to fungus diseases which apparently cease after trees have been felled; the wood is then durable.[94]

White Cedar is best defined as all cedar that is not "red cedar," [p168] and is obtained from several valuable trees.[95] The arborvitæs (_T. occidentalis_) vary in size from large bushes used in hedging and ornamentation to small-sized trees gathered for wood. They are most vigorous on cold, wet areas known as cedar swamps.[96] The giant arborvitæ (_T. gigantea_), noted for its great girth, and the yellow and Lawson Cypresses, are important Pacific coast species. The incense cedar, while much subject to fungus trouble, is also prized.[97] White cedar wood is durable, plentiful, and employed in exposed positions as ties and shingles.

Arborvitæs (_Thuya_) have very small overlapping leaves that form flat rods or fan-like sprays. The cones are oblong, less than one-half inch in length, and all of their six or eight scales separate or open when ripe. The cypresses (_Chamæcyparis_) exhibit similar foliage, but their tiny cones are simple, roughened, close, or solid globules. The Junipers (_Juniperus_) often, but not always, bear bluish-black berries powdered with a whitish-blue bloom. The true cedars (_Cedrus_) differ from the others in that they have simple needle leaves, an inch, more or less, in length, together with cones erect and several inches in length. The Deodar or cedar of India is of this genus. The principal American red and white cedars are as follows:

Red Cedar. Red Cedar (_Juniperus virginiana_). Red Cedar (_Juniperus scopulorum_). Red Cedar (_Juniperus barbadensis_).

Spanish Cedar. (See page 99.)

White Cedar. Arborvitæ (_Thuya occidentalis_). Canoe Cedar (_Thuya gigantea_). White Cedar (_Chamæcyparis thyoides_). Port Orford Cedar (_Chamæcyparis lawsoniana_). Yellow Cedar (_Chamæcyparis nutkaensis_). Incense Cedar (_Libodecrus decurrens_).

[p169]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 91: It is probable that the ancients also used the word Cedar somewhat generally.]

[Footnote 92: Pliny, 16, 213 and 16, 216.]

[Footnote 93: Notes on Red Cedar, Mohr. Bul. 31, U. S. Division Forestry (Gifford Pinchot, Forester).]

[Footnote 94: Several of the fungoid parasites cause swellings known as "cedar apples." The branches usually die. Professor von Schrenk recognizes two diseases of the wood, white rot (_Polyporus juniperus_ Schrenk) and red rot (_Polyporus carneus_). (Bulletin No. 21, Division Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Dept. Agriculture.)]

[Footnote 95: Heartwood often light grayish brown.]

[Footnote 96: Trunks of considerable size often grow surrounding, but apart from, such swamps. Vigorous lower branches impede progress through swamps, which are often as thick as to resemble immense cultivated hedges. (Trans. Am. Inst. M. E., Vol XXIX, p. 157.)]

[Footnote 97: Von Schrenk, Contribution No. 14, Shaw School of Botany, St. Louis.]

RED CEDAR. _Juniperus virginiana Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Red Cedar (local and common name).

Cedar (Conn., Pa., N. J., S. C., Ky., Ill., Ia., Ohio).

Pencil Cedar, Cendre (La.).

Savin (Mass., R. I., N. Y., Pa., Minn.).

Juniper, Red Juniper, Juniper Bush (local).

Locality.

Atlantic coast, Canada to Florida, westward intermittently to Mississippi River in the North, and Colorado River in the South.

Features of Tree.

Fifty to eighty feet in height, two to three feet in diameter. Sometimes low shrubs. Dark-green foliage, loose ragged outer bark.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood dull red, thin sapwood nearly white. Close, even grain, compact structure, annual layers easily distinguishable.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, weak, brittle, easily worked, durable, fragrant.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Ties, sills, posts, interior finish, pencil-cases, chests, cigar-boxes.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

30

Modulus of Elasticity.

950,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

10,500.

Remarks.

Fragrance of wood utilized as insecticide. The Western Red Cedar (_J. scopulorum_) and the Southern Red Cedar (_J. barbadensis_) afford similar wood. [p170]

JUNIPER. _Juniperus occidentalis Hook._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Juniper (Oreg., Cal., Col., Utah, Nev., Mont., Idaho, N. M.).

Cedar, Yellow Cedar, Western Cedar (Idaho, Col., Mont.).

Western Red Cedar, Western Juniper (local).

Locality.

California, Washington, and Oregon.

Features of Tree.

Twenty-five to fifty feet in height, two to four feet in diameter, often smaller. Long straight trunk in West.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood reddish-brown, sapwood nearly white. Very close-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, durable, receives high polish.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Fencing, railway ties, posts, and fuel.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

35.

Modulus of Elasticity.

Modulus of Rupture.

Remarks.

Rarely found below an altitude of 6000 feet. Fruit said to be eaten by Indians. [p171]

WHITE CEDAR, ARBORVITÆ. _Thuya occidentalis Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

White Cedar, Arborvitæ (local and common names).

Cedar (Me., Vt., N. Y.).

Atlantic Red Cedar (Cal.).

Vitæ (Del.).

Locality.

Northern States eastward from Manitoba and Michigan. Northward, also occasionally southward, as in mountain region of North Carolina and eastern Tennessee.

Features of Tree.

Thirty to sixty feet high, one to three feet or more in diameter, often smaller. Bruised leaves emit characteristic pungent odor, rapidly tapering trunk.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light brown, darkening with exposure, thin sapwood, nearly white. Even, rather fine grain, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Soft, light, weak, brittle, durable, inflammable. Permits spikes to work loose.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Railway ties, telegraph poles, posts, fencing, shingles, and boats.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

19.

Modulus of Elasticity.

750,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

7200.

Remarks.

Trunks so shaped as to be seldom sawn for lumber. Often used for telegraph or other poles, or else thin upper ends are used for posts, and lower section flattened into ties. [p172]

CANOE CEDAR, ARBORVITÆ. GIANT ARBORVITÆ. _Thuya plicata Don._ _Thuya gigantea Nutt._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Canoe Cedar, Giant Arborvitæ (local and common names).

Red Cedar, Giant Red Cedar, Pacific Red Cedar (Wash., Oreg., Cal., Idaho).

Cedar, Giant Cedar, Western Cedar (Oreg., Cal.).

Shinglewood (Idaho).

Locality.

Coast region, California to Alaska, Idaho to Montana.

Features of Tree.

One hundred to two hundred feet in height, two to eleven feet in diameter. Four-sided leaves closely overlapping in sprays.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood dull reddish brown, thin sapwood nearly white. Coarse-grained, compact structure, annual layers distinct.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Soft, weak, light, brittle, easily worked, very durable.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Shingles, fencing, cooperage, interior finish, canoes (coast Indians).

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

23.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,460,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

10,600.

Remarks.

Large trees are often hollow at the bottom. [p173]

WHITE CEDAR. _Chamæcyparis thyoides L._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

White Cedar (local and common name).

Post Cedar, Swamp Cedar (Del.).

Juniper (Ala., N. C., Va.).

Locality.

Maine to Florida, Gulf coast to Mississippi, best in Virginia and North Carolina.

Features of Tree.

Sixty to eighty feet in height, three to four feet in diameter. Shaggy rugged bark. A graceful tree.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood pinkish to darker brown, sapwood lighter. Close-grained, compact structure, conspicuous layers.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Very light, soft, not strong, extremely durable in exposed positions, fragrant, easily worked.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Boats, railway ties, fencing, poles, posts, shingles.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

23 (U. S. Forestry Div.).

20.

Modulus of Elasticity.

910,000 (average of 87 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).

570,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

6310 (average of 87 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).

6400.

Remarks.

Grows chiefly in swamps. "White cedar posts" last many years. Thyoides is from Thuya meaning arborvitæ and eidos, the Greek for "resemblance." [p174]

PORT ORFORD CEDAR, LAWSON CYPRESS. _Chamæcyparis lawsoniana Murr._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

White Cedar, Oregon Cedar (Oreg., Cal.).

Ginger Pine (Cal.).

Locality.

Pacific coast, California and Oregon.

Features of Tree.

One hundred to sometimes two hundred feet in height, four to twelve (?) feet in diameter. Leaves overlapping in sprays, very small cones one-fourth inch in diameter.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood yellowish white, sapwood similar. Very close-grained.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, hard, strong, durable, easily worked, fragrant, resinous.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Lumber, flooring, interior finish, ties, posts, matches, ship-building.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

28.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,730,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

12,600.

Remarks.

Resin employed as insecticide. [p175]

YELLOW CEDAR, YELLOW CYPRESS, SITKA CYPRESS. _Chamæcyparis nootkatensis (Lamb) Spach._ _Chamæcyparis nutkaënsis Spach._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Nootka Cypress, Nootka Sound Cypress (local).

Alaska Cypress, Alaska Ground Cypress (local).

Locality.

Oregon to Alaska.

Features of Tree.

One hundred feet or more in height, three to five feet or more in diameter. Sharp-pointed, overlapping leaves, small globular cones.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood clear light yellow, thin sapwood nearly white. Close-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, not strong, brittle, hard, durable in contact with soil, easily worked, receives high polish, fragrant.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Ship-building, furniture, interior finish.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

29.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,460,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

11,000.

Remarks.

Valuable Alaska timber tree. Commercially not distinguished from Pacific Arborvitæ. [p176]

INCENSE CEDAR, WHITE CEDAR. _Libocedrus decurrens Torr._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Post Cedar, California Post Cedar (local).

Bastard Cedar, Red Cedar, California White Cedar (local).

Juniper (Nevada).

Locality.

California and Oregon.

Features of Tree.

Ninety to one hundred and twenty-five feet in height, occasionally higher, three to six feet in diameter.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood brownish, sapwood lighter. Close-grained, compact structure. Heartwood often pitted. Fragrant.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, brittle, soft, durable.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Flumes, shingles, interior finish.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

25.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,200,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

960,000.

Remarks.

Subject to attack by fungus, causing the large oval pits in the heartwood. Disease ceases upon the felling of trees. (von Schrenk Contribution No. 14 Shaw School Botany, St. Louis.) [p177]

CYPRESS. (_Cupressus and Taxodium_.)

The name cypress has been chiefly applied to trees of the genera Chamæcyparis, Cupressus, and Taxodium. Most species of the genus Chamæcyparis are now called cedars (see page 167). The Cupressus, while true cypresses and important in Europe, have no significance in America. The single species of the genus Taxodium is not a cypress, but supplies the "cypress" wood of American commerce. It is perhaps best to confine the name cypress to the true cypress (_Cupressus_) and to the commercial cypress (_Taxodium_).

The true cypress (_Cupressus_) was once important in the East, and is thought by some to have given the gopher wood of which the Ark was built.[98] Pliny mentions cypress doors good after four hundred years, and a statue good after six hundred years. Herodotus and other ancient authors[99] speak of it. Authorities in the middle ages thought that it would never decay. The cypress gates of the early St. Peter's, removed after one thousand years of service, were found to be in perfect condition.[100] Cypress was much prized for mummy-cases. Living trees long figured as funeral emblems, and are yet planted over graves in Italy and Turkey.[101] The common or evergreen cypress is the chief European species. The eight or nine American representatives are of little note save as they are sometimes used for hedges and ornamentation. The Monterey and Gowan cypresses (_Cupressus macrocarpa_ and _Cupressus goveniana_) are thus employed. There are small evergreen scale-like leaves. [p178]

The American or Bald Cypress (_Taxodium distichum_) is a tree of considerable importance. It grows in the South Atlantic and Gulf States, on submerged lands or in deep swamps where unusual logging methods are necessitated. The seasoned wood resembles white cedar in that it is soft, light, and very durable. It has been called by many names. Pieces were once called black or white cypress according as they sank or floated. All dark pieces are now called black cypress. The tinted woods of some localities are called red or yellow cypress. The name bald cypress was caused by the leafless appearance of the trees in winter. The living trees are subject to a peculiar fungous disease, causing numerous cavities in the wood. These so resemble perforations made by small pegs that the wood is termed "peggy." The trouble ceases as the trees are cut, and the wood is then as durable as that from perfect trees. About one third of the standing supply is thus affected.[102] The roots frequently project upward above the surface in what are known as cypress knees. The single species of this genus may easily be recognized by its deciduous foliage; the little leaves are separated and are not in tufts as with the tamaracks. [p179]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 98: Funk & Wagnalls' Standard Dictionary, quoting Horace Smith, "Gayeties and Gravities," Chapter VII, p. 57.]

[Footnote 99: Pliny 16, 214 and 16, 215; Herodotus 4, 16; Virgil, Georgics, 2, 443.]

[Footnote 100: Encyclopædia Britannica, B. 6, p. 745.]

[Footnote 101: Brockhaus, Konversations-Lexikon, B. 4, p. 654.]

[Footnote 102: U. S. Forestry Circular No. 19 (Dr. B. E. Fernow, Chief).]

CYPRESS, BALD CYPRESS. _Taxodium distichum Rich._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

White Cypress (N. C., S. C., Fla., Miss.).

Black Cypress (N. C., S. C., Ala., Tex.).

Red Cypress (Ga., Miss., La., Tex.).

Swamp Cypress (La.).

Deciduous Cypress (Del., Ill., Tex.).

Southern Cypress (Ala.).

Locality.

South Atlantic and Gulf States, Maryland through Florida to Texas, Mississippi Valley from southern Illinois to the Gulf. Occasional in North, as New York. Forms forests in swamps and barrens.[103]

Features of Tree.

Seventy to one hundred and fifty feet in height, four to ten feet in diameter. Knees on roots often hollow in old age. Flat deciduous leaves.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood brownish, sapwood nearly white. Close, straight grain. Frequently pitted by disease.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, not strong, durable. Green wood often very heavy.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Carpentry, construction, cooperage, railway ties.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

29 (U. S. Forestry Div.).[104]

28.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,290,000 (average of 655 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[104]

1,460,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

7900 (average of 655 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[104]

9600.

Remarks.

Wood commercially divided into "white" and "black" cypress because of differences in age and environment. Fungus disease pits much wood, but stops with felling of trees.[105] [p180]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 103: See Trans. Am. Inst. M. E., Vol. XXIX, page 157.]

[Footnote 104: See page 6.]

[Footnote 105: Von Schrenk, Contribution No. 14, Shaw School Botany, St. Louis; also U. S. Forestry Circular No. 19.]

REDWOOD. (_Sequoia_.)

These trees grow only in California. There are two species: the common redwood (_S. sempervirens_), noted for its lumber, and the big or mammoth tree (_S. washingtoniana_), so remarkable for its great size. Geological evidence indicates that the genus was once represented by many species on both hemispheres, but that all disappeared during the glacial period save the two here noted.

The common redwood is a large and perfect tree and supplies a wood suggesting good red cedar. This soft, light, clean, reddish-brown, durable wood works and stands well, is not easily inflamed, and is obtainable in large-sized pieces for use in large constructions. Coffins and shingles are made of it, also large quantities of wooden water-pipe employed for irrigation purposes. The average wood is seen in cheaper forms of indoor finish, while occasional pieces, in which the grain is distorted, are classed as curly redwood and used for costlier decorations.

Big or Mammoth trees have been measured up to three hundred and twenty feet in height and thirty-five feet in diameter (Sargent). They are thus the largest of American trees and the most massive, although not the tallest, of all trees. Specimens twenty-five feet in diameter have been estimated as thirty-six hundred years old, and it is thought that under favorable conditions trees can survive for five thousand years, or even longer. The oldest trees are sound throughout. The almost incombustible bark is nearly two feet in thickness; the wood is brittle, but otherwise resembles ordinary redwood. It should be noted that large exceptional trees are all known, and that most of them have names such as the "Pride of the Forest," the "Grizzly Giant," and the "U. S. Grant." These, with younger trees, are grouped in [p181] the Mariposa, Calavaras, and other groves. Many sawmills are unfortunately engaged on the trees of this species.

Redwood trees may be known by their size, locality, and fine, dull, evergreen foliage. The name Sequoia is that of an Indian chief. [p182]

FOOTNOTE

References: "The Big Trees of California," U. S. Forestry Division Bulletin No. 28. Also Mr. Jas. Horsburgh, Jr., Southern Pacific Railway.

REDWOOD. _Sequoia sempervirens Endl._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Redwood (local and common name).

Sequoia, California Redwood, Coast Redwood (local).

Locality.

Central and North Pacific coast region.

Features of Tree.

Two hundred to three hundred feet in height, sometimes higher, six to eight and sometimes twenty feet in diameter. Straight, symmetrical trunk. Low branches rare.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Thick heartwood red, changing to reddish brown when seasoned; Thin sapwood nearly white. Coarse, straight grain, compact structure, very thick bark.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, not strong, soft, very durable, not resinous, easily worked. Does not burn easily, receives polish.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Timber, shingles, flumes, fence-posts, coffins, railway ties, water-pipes, interior decoration. Bark made into souvenirs.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

26 (census figure, see page 6).

Modulus of Elasticity.

790,000 (average of 8 Humboldt specimens).[106]

1,140,000 (average of 7 Humboldt specimens).[106]

960,000 (census figure, see page 6).

Modulus of Rupture.

4920 (average of 9 Humboldt specimens).[106]

7138 (average of 7 Mendocino specimens).[106]

8400 (census figure, see page 6).

Remarks.

Pacific coast chief construction wood. Curled or distorted grain adds value for cabinet purposes. [p183]

* * * * *

The Big or Mammoth Tree or Giant Redwood (_S. washingtoniana_ Sudworth and _S. gigantea_) is the largest tree known. The wood resembling that of _S. sempervirens_ is used locally, see U. S. Forestry Bul. No. 28.

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 106: Professor Frank Soulé, Trans. Am. Inst. M. E., California Meeting, 1899. There are several trees of this species near New York City.]

ENDOGENOUS TREES. (_Monocotyledons_.)

Endogenous trees are those that increase from within. Their elemental parts are similar to those of exogenous trees but the arrangement of such parts differs in that the newer fibres of the Endogen intermingle with the old, pass through a pith-like tissue, and cause cross-surfaces to appear as dotted, whereas the new material of the Exogen is deposited altogether and upon the outside of the old, their sections exhibiting rings or layers. The Palms, Yuccas, Cornstalks, and Bamboos are of the endogens. Bark is unusual on trees of the series.

Endogenous woods are hardest and most compact at circumferences. The stems of palm trees are solid, but those of some of the grasses, particularly those that grow quickly, are hollow.[107] The tube or canal, when existing, is due to sluggishness on the part of the central pith, which, developing more slowly than the outer tissues, finally ruptures and disappears at the center. There are also more or less permanent joints or knots,[108] such as are made familiar by the canes and bamboos. The stems of Endogenous plants are seldom cut up into lumber, but are used in segments, or else entire, as for troughs or piles.[109] The use of Palm wood must be more or less [p184] limited to the neighborhoods in which such trees flourish, but it is probable that the Bamboo can be much more generally employed.

The Endogens include numerous families and many thousand species.[110] The grasses, including wheat, rye, and Indian corn at the North and sugar-cane and bamboo at the South, belong to this group. Most Endogens are herbs; comparatively few furnish material for structural purposes. The Palms, including the palmetto, rattans, cane palms, and others, the Yucca, including the Joshua tree, Spanish bayonet, and others, and the Bamboos, representatives of the grasses, are thus useful. Endogens are also known as Monocotyledons. [p185]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 107: The Bamboo, which is a grass, is hollow, while the cornstalk, which is also a grass, is not.]

[Footnote 108: The knots of endogens correspond to the nodes of exogens. Spaces between the nodes, known as internodes, mark the annual lengthening. Knots are places whence leaves have emerged.]

[Footnote 109: Palm in marine work appears to repel the teredoe. This is probably because of the porous character of the wood. See "Marine Wood Borers," Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XL, pages 195 and 204.]

[Footnote 110: Bastin ("College Botany," p. 379) divides into about fifty natural orders distributed among seven divisions. Warming ("Systematic Botany," pp. 277, 278) divides into seven families corresponding with Bastin's seven divisions. A. Gray divides into twenty-one orders or families. Coulter ("Plants," p. 237) divides into forty families, including twenty thousand species.]

PALM. PALMACEÆ.

This is one of the largest and most important orders of plants known to man. The one thousand[111] or more known species are distributed over the tropical and semitropical regions of the entire world. Only a few species, including the palmettos of the Gulf States and the fan palms of California are native in the United States.