Chapter XXVII: Introduction (3)

Many kinds of wood that were formerly plentiful are now much less so. Attention is being turned to trees that give best results under artificial conditions. Catalpa, formerly but little known, now bids fair to become of some importance in this connection.

The catalpa grows rapidly and produces a coarse, brittle, weak, but durable and desirable, lumber, well fitted to meet the requirements of railways and other branches of construction where the annual consumption is the largest. Fifty thousand catalpa trees have recently been planted by a Western railway at a cost of one cent apiece. Catalpas at Hutchison, Kansas, were large enough to cut for posts at the end of six years.[51] A sample tie recently removed from a Western railway was found to be perfect after fifteen years of service. Mr. John Brown[52] mentions specimens sixteen inches in diameter seventeen years after planting. The species Catalpa speciosa is said to be much the more desirable in that it is hardy and reaches a tall upright form.

The catalpa may be known by its showy flowers, suggesting those of the horse chestnut. These are succeeded by long pods filled with many-winged seeds and often used by children as cigars. [p091]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 51: U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Div. of Forestry, Bulletins 27 and 37.]

[Footnote 52: _The Forester_, October, 1900, and November, 1902.]

Kansas Agricultural College Experiment Station, Bulletin 108.

CATALPA, HARDY CATALPA. _Catalpa speciosa Warder._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Catalpa (R. I., N. Y., La., Ill., Ind., Mo., Wis., Ia., Neb., Minn.).

Hardy Catalpa (Ill., Ia., Kan., Mich.).

Western Catalpa (Pa., Ohio, Kans., Neb., Ill.).

Cigar Tree (Mo., Ia.).

Indian Bean, Shawneewood (Ind.).

Bois Puant (La.).

Locality.

Central Mississippi valley, naturalized in many localities.

Features of Tree.

Forty to sixty feet or more in height, three to six feet in diameter; well-formed trunks. Large, white, faintly mottled flower, long pod or bean.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Thick heartwood brown, thin sapwood lighter, nearly white, coarse-grained, compact structure, annual layers clearly marked.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, not strong, durable in contact with soil.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Railway ties, fence-posts, rails, adapted for cabinet-work and interior finish.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

25.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,160,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

9000.

Remarks.

Hardier and better formed trunks than afforded by C. catalpa. A rapid grower; sprouts vigorously from stumps. A valuable tree, promising to become better known. Foliage subject to attack by insects. [p092]

FOOTNOTE

John P. Brown (_The Forester_, October, 1900).

CATALPA. _Catalpa Catalpa (Linn.) Karst._ _Catalpa bignonioides Walt._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Catalpa (local and common name).

Indian Cigar Tree (Pa.).

Smoking Bean (R. I.).

Cigar Tree (R. I., N. J., Pa., W. Va., Mo., Ill., Wis., Ia.).

Indian Bean (Mass., R. I., N. Y., N. J., Pa., N. C., Ill.).

Catawba, Catawba Tree (Del., W. Va., Ala., Fla., Kans.).

Bean Tree (N. J., Del., Pa., Va., La., Neb.).

Locality.

Naturalized in many localities east of Rocky Mountains.

Features of Tree.

Thirty to fifty feet in height, one to two or more feet in diameter. Trunks not well formed. A low, wide tree, large heart-shaped leaves, characteristic flower. Long slender pod or bean.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Thick heartwood is light pink brown; thin sapwood is nearly white. Coarse-grained, compact.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, not strong, durable in contact with soil.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Fence-posts, railway ties, etc.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

27.

Modulus of Elasticity.

960,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

8300.

Remarks.

Grows rapidly. Pods remain on tree after leaves fall. Sometimes used as cigars by children. Wood is less desirable than C. speciosa. [p093]

SASSAFRAS. MULBERRY. (_Sassafras_.) (_Morus_.)

The sassafras was one of the first American trees to be described in Europe,[53] where many fictitious properties were early credited to its aromatic essences. The wood is not distinguished by unusual qualities, but trees are cut for lumber as encountered with other and more valuable species in the forest. The mucilaginous leaves are of three separate shapes. Some have lobes on both sides of the central surface, others have one lobe at one side so as to resemble mittens, while yet others on the same branch have simple oval shapes. The dark-blue berries on bright-red stems are so eagerly devoured by birds as to be seldom seen. The characteristic flavor is most pronounced in the bark of the root.

The Red, White, and Black Mulberries are named from the color of their fruits. The former, which is the American species, has wood resembling that of the sassafras, only in that it is not distinguished by unusual qualities. Its leaves, like that of the sassafras, are of several shapes on the same tree. The very sweet fruit resembles blackberries in form. The leaves used in silkworm-culture are from the Russian mulberry, a cross between the white mulberry and black mulberry (M. alba and M. nigra).[54] [p094]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 53: Monardes, a Spanish writer, described the sassafras about half a century after the landing of Columbus.]

[Footnote 54: Annual Report Chief U. S. Forestry Division, 1887; also Bulletins on Silk, published by U. S. Dept. Agriculture.]

SASSAFRAS. _Sassafras officinale Nees and Eberm._ _Sassafras sassafras (Linn.) Karst._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Sassafras (local and common name).

Saxifrax, Sasifrax Tree (Fla., Tenn.).

Sassafac, Sassafrac (W. Va., Del.).

Gumbo file (La., negro).

Locality.

Vermont to Florida, westward intermittently to Michigan and Texas.

Features of Tree.

Thirty to fifty feet in height, one to three feet in diameter, sometimes larger, often low shrub, characteristic odor and leaves.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Thick heartwood, delicate brown, thin sapwood yellowish white, coarse-grained, annual rings clearly marked.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, not strong, brittle, checks in drying, very durable in contact with soil. Slightly aromatic.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Pails, buckets, ox-yokes, fence-posts, and rails.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

31.

Modulus of Elasticity.

730,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

8500.

Remarks.

Leaves and shoots mucilaginous. Bark of root rich in highly aromatic essences. Sassafras often forms thickets. [p095]

RED MULBERRY, MULBERRY. _Morus rubra Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Red Mulberry, Mulberry (local and common name).

Black Mulberry (N. J., Pa., W. Va.).

Virginia Mulberry Tree (Tenn.).

Murier Sauvage (La.).

Locality.

Massachusetts to Florida, westward intermittently to Nebraska and Texas. Best in lower Ohio and Mississippi River basins.

Features of Tree.

Fifty to sixty feet in height, two and one half to three feet in diameter. Sweet edible fruit. Dark brown broken bark, smooth gray branches.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Thick heartwood, light orange yellow, thin sapwood whitish, coarse-grained, compact structure, annual layers clearly marked.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft, not strong, very durable in contact with soil, receives good polish.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Local ship-building, agricultural implements, fencing, cooperage.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

36.

Modulus of Elasticity.

11,700,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

11,000.

Remarks.

An ornamental tree. The leaves of this species are not adapted to silkworm culture. [p096]

BUCKEYE. HORSE CHESTNUT. (_Æsculus_.)

The buckeye and horse chestnut are species of the same genus. The common horse chestnut (_Æsculus hippocastanum_) was once thought to have been a native of Asia, but it is now quite certain that it originated on the mountains of northern Greece. Trees have been cultivated in Europe for at least three centuries and are now extensively grown over the United States. The name buckeye is generally applied to such species as are natives of North America.

The woods resemble one another in that they are soft, straight-grained, easily worked, and decay rapidly when exposed. They are employed to some extent in woodenware, artificial limbs, and paper-making. The trees may be known by their round prickly pods, containing smooth chestnut-colored bitter nuts. The leaves of the buckeye are arranged in groups of five, while those of the horse chestnut are in groups of seven. The horse chestnut produces showy spotted flowers. There are thirteen species of this genus, eight of which are North American. The name "horse chestnut" may refer ironically to the coarse nuts, or may arise from the fact that they are occasionally eaten by cattle, or from a horseshoe marking seen on young twigs. _Hippocastanum_ is from _hippos_, a horse, and _castanea_, a chestnut. The name buckeye refers to the appearance of the brown nut through the paler husk partly separated when ripe, suggesting the eye of the common deer. [p097]

OHIO BUCKEYE, FETID BUCKEYE. _Æsculus glabra Willd._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Buckeye, Ohio Buckeye (local and common names).

Fetid Buckeye (W. Va.).

Stinking Buckeye (Ala., Ark.).

American Horse Chestnut (Pa.).

Locality.

Ohio River basin to Alabama, portions of Iowa, Kansas, and Indian Territory.

Features of Tree.

Twenty-five to forty-five feet in height. One to one and one-half feet in diameter. Yellowish-white flower, succeeded by round prickly pod or fruit.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood white, sapwood a little darker, close-grained, frequent dark lines of decay.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Weak, light, soft, hard to split.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Artificial limbs, woodenware, paper-pulp, rarely lumber.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

28.

Modulus of Elasticity.

910,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

7000.

Remarks.

FOOTNOTE

The nearly similar horse chestnut (_A. hippocastanum_) is forty to fifty feet or more in height and two to four feet in diameter. The light, weak wood is seldom used. The name horse may be applied to the coarse nuts ironically, or may refer to their occasional use by cattle, or a horseshoe marking seen on young twigs. [p098]

BUCKEYE, SWEET BUCKEYE. _Æsculus octandra Marsh._ _Æsculus flava Ait._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Buckeye (N. C., S. C., Ala., Miss., La., Tex., Ky.).

Sweet Buckeye (W. Va., Miss., Tex., Mo., Ind.).

Yellow Buckeye (S. C., Ala.).

Large Buckeye, Big Buckeye (Tex., Tenn.).

Locality.

Alleghany Mountains, Pennsylvania to Georgia, westward intermittently to Iowa and Texas.

Features of Tree.

Forty to seventy feet in height, one to three feet in diameter, sometimes low shrub. Large mahogany-colored seed.

Color, Appearance, and Grain of Wood.

Heartwood, creamy white, sapwood similar, compact structure, close-grained, difficult to split.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Similar to those of Ohio Buckeye (_A. glabra_).

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

26.64.

Modulus of Elasticity.

Modulus of Rupture.

Remarks.

[p099]

GUM. (_Liquidambar, Nyssa_.)

This name is applied to two unrelated American trees--the Sweet or Red Gum (_Liquidambar styraciflua_), a member of the witch-hazel family, and the Sour or Black Gum (_Nyssa sylvatica_), which is one of the dogwoods.

The woods afforded by these two trees are also distinct from one another, although both are referred to by the one name, gum. The softer Sweet Gum figures in carpentry. Selected pieces so resemble black walnut as to be cut into veneers and made up into furniture. Sour Gum is harder, it splits with difficulty, and is fitted for small work and implements, such as wagon-hubs and tool-handles. Both woods are close-and often cross-grained, besides being strong, heavy, tough, and difficult to season.

The Sweet Gum tree is characterized by rough, round balls, resembling those of the sycamore, by pointed star-like leaves, suggesting those of the sugar maple, and by corky ridges on the bark of younger branches. These latter cause the bark to resemble alligator-skin and give rise to the name alligator-wood. _Liquidambar_ refers to gums excreted by the tree and sometimes used in medicine. The Sour Gum bears ovoid bluish-black sour drupes, or fruit containing single roughened seeds. The thick oval leaves are dark green above and dull or hairy below. The foliage of both species becomes brilliant in autumn. [p100]

SWEET GUM. _Liquidambar styraciflua Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Sweet Gum (local and common name).

Liquidambar (R. I., N. Y., Del., N. J., Pa., La., Tex., Ohio, Ill.).

Red Gum (Va., Ala., Miss., Tex., La.).

Gum, Gum Tree (Va., S. C., La.).

Alligatorwood, Blisted (N. J.).

Locality.

Connecticut to Florida, westward intermittently to Illinois and Texas, Mexico. Greatest development in basin of Mississippi River.

Features of Tree.

Eighty to one hundred feet or more in height, three to five feet in diameter. Tall straight trunk, corky ridges frequent on branches. Star-shaped leaves turn to brilliant scarlet in autumn, round balls on long stems.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood rich brown suggesting black walnut, sapwood nearly white, close-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Heavy, rather soft, strong, stiff, not durable when exposed,[55] shrinks and warps badly in seasoning, receives high polish.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Veneers, cabinet-work, substitute for black walnut, shingles, clapboards, paving-blocks, wooden plates.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

37 (U. S. Forestry Div.).[56]

36.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,700,000 (average of 118 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[56]

1,220,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

9500 (average of 118 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[56]

9200.

Remarks.

Wood sometimes commercially known as satin walnut and sometimes as star-leaved gum. Large specimens often have hollow butts. [p101]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 55: E. C. Woodward, C. E. Division Engineer Texas & Pacific Ry. reports "gum" ties good after 5 years' service. They hold spikes well.]

[Footnote 56: See page 6.]

SOUR GUM, BLACK GUM, TUPELO. _Nyssa sylvatica Marsh._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Sour Gum, Black Gum, Tupelo (local and common names).

Pepperidge (Vt., Mass., R. I., N. Y., N. J., S. C., Tenn., Mich., Ohio, Ontario).

Wild Pear Tree, Yellow Gum Tree (Tenn.).

Gum (Md.).

Stinkwood (W. Va.).

Tupelo Gum (Fla.).

Locality.

Maine to Florida, westward intermittently to Michigan and Texas.

Features of Tree.

Forty-five to one hundred feet high, one and six inches to occasionally four feet in diameter. Ovoid, bluish-black, sour fruit, with seed. Horizontal branches, short spur-like lateral branchlets.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light brown or yellow, often nearly white, sapwood hardly distinguishable, fine grain.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Heavy, not hard, fibres interlaced, therefore hard to work, strong, tough, checks unless carefully seasoned, not durable in contact with soil.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Wagon-hubs, rollers, ox-yokes, bowls, and woodenware.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

39.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,160,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

11,800.

Remarks.

Limited usefulness because difficult to work. Larger specimen in South. Large trees often hollow at butts and sometimes higher. [p102]

COTTON GUM, TUPELO GUM, LARGE TUPELO. _Nyssa aquatica Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Cotton Gum, Tupelo Gum, Large Tupelo (local and common names).

Sour Gum (Ark., Mo.).

Tupelo, Swamp Tupelo (N. C., S. C., La.).

Olivetree, Wild Olivetree (Miss., La.).

Locality.

Virginia and Kentucky, southward.

Features of Tree.

Sixty to eighty feet high, two to three feet in diameter. Blue oblong fruit one inch or more in length.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light brown, often nearly white, sapwood nearly the same.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, not strong, soft, compact, difficult to work.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Turnery, woodenware, roots used as net-floats instead of corks.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

32.

Modulus of Elasticity.

730,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

9300.

Remarks.

Butts of large trees are usually hollow. Parts above are usually sound. [p103]

HOLLY. BOXWOOD. LIGNUM VITÆ. (_Ilex_.) (_Buxus, Cornus, etc_.) (_Guajacum_.)

The woods afforded by these trees are all demanded in small and very perfect pieces to fill needs for which no others appear to be perfectly fitted. The holly (_Ilex_) grows in Europe and America, where the brilliant evergreen foliage and red berries have long been associated with the Christmas season. The name holly is probably a subversion of "Holy."[57] The true boxwood (_Buxus sempervirens_) attains to some size in Europe and Asia, but remains a small shrub in America, where it is seldom if ever cut for wood, but is placed as a decoration along the borders of walks and gardens. The wood called "boxwood" in America is not therefore derived from the "box." The Lignumvitæs grow in Florida, the West Indies, and on the northern coast of South America.

Holly-wood is noted for its fine, even grain, but chiefly for its smooth, ivory-white color, fitting it for the white of inlaid work, for carvings and other decorations where white color and fine qualities are required. The principal European source is the Ilex aquifolium, while in America it is the Ilex opaca. Boxwood is, as stated, the name applied to several woods, all noted for their fine compact structure, rendering them suitable for very fine carvings such as are required in wood-engraving. The Eastern product as cut from the true box is so highly prized as to be sold by the pound. American boxwood is chiefly derived from the Flowering Dogwood, the Mexican Persimmon, and the Rose Bay. In Australia several species of Eucalyptus are said to be used. Lignumvitæ is noted for great strength and hardness. Layers of fibres alternately cross one another so that the wood may be said to crumble rather than split. It has no superior for implements that must be [p104] fine, true, and strong, such as the sheaves of pulleys and handles of tools. The supply is obtained from two species (Guajacum sanctum and Guajacum officinale).

Holly may be known by its foliage and berries. Box (_Buxus_) has small, smooth, ovate, dark, evergreen leaves joining the stem so as to be opposite one another. The Dogwood is known by its flowers; the Lignum-vitæ is a low gnarled tree. [p105]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 57: "The German name Christdorn, the Danish name Christorn, and the Swedish name Christtorn seem to justify this conjecture." (Keeler, quoting Loudon.)]

HOLLY, AMERICAN HOLLY. _Ilex opaca Ait._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Holly, American Holly (local and common names).

White Holly (Va.).

Locality.

Massachusetts to Florida, westward intermittently to Indiana and Texas.

Features of Tree.

Occasionally fifty feet in height and three feet in diameter, frequently much smaller, particularly in North. Foliage is evergreen. Bright red berries remain until spring.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood cream-white, darkening or spotting on exposure. Sapwood similar or lighter. Very close-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Tough, moderately hard and heavy, easily worked.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Inlaid work, carvings, scrollwork, turnery, moderately for furniture and decoration.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

36.

Modulus of Elasticity.

910,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

9700.

Remarks.

The wood resembles ivory. [p106]

DOGWOOD, FLOWERING DOGWOOD. _Cornus florida Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Dogwood, Flowering Dogwood (local and common names).

Boxwood (Conn., R. I., N. Y., Miss., Mich., Ky., Ind., Ont.).

False Box-dogwood (Ky.).

New England Boxwood (Tenn.).

Cornel, Flowering Cornel (Tex., R. I.).

Locality.

New England to Florida, westward intermittently to Minnesota and Texas, Sierra Madra Mountains, Mexico.

Features of Tree.

Twenty-five to thirty-five feet in height, one foot or more in diameter. Often low shrub, large white flowers precede foliage, red berry in fall. Rough blackish bark.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood rich brown, changing to green and red. Sapwood lighter, close-grained.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Heavy, strong, tough, hard, receives high polish.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Wood-carving, engraving, bearings of machinery, turnery.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

50.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,160,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

12,800.

Remarks.

The Mexican or Black Persimmon and the Great Laurel (_Rhododendron maximum_) afford substitutes. Yellowwood (_Schaefferia frutescens_) is also known as boxwood. The names Dogwood and Poison Dogwood are often applied to the sumach. _Cornus_ signifies horn and refers to hardness of wood. [p107]

LIGNUMVITÆ. _Guajacum sanctum._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Lignumvitæ (Fla.).

Ironwood (Fla.).

Locality.

Semitropical Florida, Bahamas, San Domingo, Cuba, Puerto Rico.

Features of Tree.

Twenty-five feet high, one foot in diameter, a low gnarled tree.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood rich yellow-brown in younger specimens and almost black in older ones. Sapwood light yellow. Close-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Very heavy and exceedingly hard, strong, hard to work, brittle. Lubricated by water.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Sheaves of ship-blocks, rollers, pulleys, tool-handles. Bearings for journals rotating in water.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

71.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,220,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

11,100.

Remarks.

Two other species, Guajacum officinale and Guajacum arborium, afford similar woods not commercially distinguished from the above. [p108]

LAUREL. (_Magnolia, Rhododendron, Arbutus, etc._)

The name Laurel applies locally or botanically to a number of American plants, several of which attain to the dignity of trees.

The Big Laurel or Magnolia (_M. grandiflora_) is an ornamental tree of the highest rank, extensively planted in parks and gardens of American cities as far north as Washington, and also grown in Europe. The wood is suitable for interior finish and is also used for fuel. The California Laurel (_Umbellularia californica_) and the Madroña or Madroña Laurel (_Arbutus menziesii_) are Pacific coast species of beautiful appearance, the strong, heavy, hard woods of which are of economic importance. Professor Sargent considers[58] that the former is the most valuable interior or cabinet wood produced by the forests of the Pacific coast. The wood of the Madroña has little or no place in construction, but its charcoal is used in the manufacture of gunpowder. The wood of the Great Laurel or Rose Bay (_Rhododendron maximum_) has been used as boxwood. The gnarled roots of the Mountain Laurel or calico bush (_Kalmia latifolia_) are used for rustic hanging-baskets, seats, and the like.

All of the kinds here noted have evergreen foliage. [p109]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 58: Page 69, "Catalogue Jesup Collection," Sargent.]

CALIFORNIA LAUREL, MOUNTAIN LAUREL. _Umbellularia californica Nutt._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

California Laurel, Mountain Laurel (Cal., Nev.).

California Bay Tree, Spice Tree (Cal., Nev., Oreg.).

Laurel, Bay-tree, Oreodaphne (Cal.).

Myrtle-tree, Cajeput, California Olive (Oreg.).

Californian Sassafras.

Locality.

California and Oregon.

Features of Tree.

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, three to five feet in diameter. Evergreen foliage, beautiful appearance.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light rich brown, sapwood lighter brown. Close-grained, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Heavy, hard, strong, receives beautiful polish.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Ship-building, cabinet-work, cleats, crosstrees.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

40.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,510,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

11,400.

Remarks.

A valuable Pacific coast cabinet wood. [p110]

MADROÑA, MADROÑA LAUREL. _Arbutus menziesii Pursh._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Madroña, Madroña Laurel (Cal., Oreg.).

Laurel, Laurelwood, Madrone.

Madrone-tree, Manzanita (Oreg., Cal.).

Madrove (Cal.).

Locality.

Pacific coast from British Columbia to southern California.

Features of Tree.

Fifty to seventy-five feet in height, occasionally higher. Two to four feet in diameter. Straight well-formed trunk. Evergreen foliage. A shrub in the South.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Thick heartwood reddish, thin sapwood slightly pink. Close-grained; numerous and conspicuous medullary rays.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Heavy, hard, strong, checks badly in seasoning.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Largely for gunpowder, charcoal, also furniture.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

43.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,190,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

12,000.

Remarks.

A beautiful ornamental tree. [p111]

PERSIMMON. OSAGE ORANGE. CHERRY. (_Diospyros_.) (_Maclura_.) (_Prunus_.)

The Persimmon (_Diospyros virginiana_) grows in many of the central and southern United States and affords a hard, tough wood, resembling fine-grain hickory, that is used for implements and other small work. The plum-like fruit is remarkably astringent when green, but is sweet, rich, and palatable when ripe. The persimmon is a member of the ebony family (_Ebenaceæ_), and the extremely close-grained heartwood is almost black. The ebony of commerce is derived from tropical species of this genus.

The Osage Orange or Bois D'Arc (_Maclura aurantiaca_) is found in the Gulf and neighboring States, and has been cultivated in the North. The wood is unusually hard and strong, and is of a yellow color, which, however, darkens with age. It is in many ways a unique and serviceable product, widely utilized locally in the South, but almost unknown in the North, and nowhere sufficiently appreciated. The aborigines made bows and arrows of it, whence the name Bois D'Arc. The tree affords a useless fruit somewhat resembling the common orange in appearance.

The widely distributed Wild Cherry or Wild Black Cherry (_Prunus serotina_) supplies the cherry wood of commerce. This wood is strong, hard, fine-grained, red-colored, and one of the most popular decorative woods of the American forests. Sweet or Cherry Birch (_Betula lenta_) is often stained so as to imitate it, while it of itself is stained so as to resemble mahogany. The wood of the cultivated cherry is not used in the United States. The wild cherry bears purplish-black fruit somewhat larger than peas, sweetly bitter when ripe. The bark is also bitter. It should be noted of these woods that the thin heart of the persimmon is black, that of the Bois d'Arc is yellow, and that of the cherry is red. Each receives a high polish. [p112]

PERSIMMON. _Diospyros virginiana Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Persimmon (local and common name).

Date Plum (N. J., Tenn.).

Simmon, Possumwood (Fla.).

Plaqueminier (La.).

Locality.

Connecticut to Florida, westward intermittently to Missouri and Texas.

Features of Tree.

Occasionally seventy feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. Soft plum-like fruit, astringent when green, sweet when ripe.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood dark-brown or black, sapwood light-brown, often with darker spots. Very thin heartwood. Very close-grained, compact structure. Medullary rays conspicuous. Resembles hickory.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Hard, heavy, strong.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Plane-stocks, shoe-lasts, etc. Prized for shuttles.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

49.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,110,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

12,400.

Remarks.

The astringency of unripe fruit is due to tannic acid. The dried and roasted seeds have been used for coffee.[59] Heartwood is not greatly developed in trees under one hundred years of age. [p113]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 59: U. S. Dispensatory.]

OSAGE ORANGE. _Maclura aurantiaca Nutt._ _Toxylon pomiferum Raf._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Osage Orange (local and common name).

Bois D'Arc (La., Tex., Mo.).

Bodark, Bodock (Kans.).

Yellow-wood, Osage Apple Tree (Tenn.).

Hedge, Hedge-plant, Osage (Ill., Ia., Neb.).

Mock Orange (La.).

Bow-wood (Ala.).

Locality.

Southern Arkansas, Indian Territory, and Texas. Cultivated elsewhere, as in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Michigan.

Features of Tree.

Twenty to fifty feet in height, rarely beyond one and one-half feet in diameter. Fruit resembles orange. Long thorns.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood bright orange, turns brown on exposure. Sapwood light yellow, close-grained, annual rings clearly marked.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Hard, heavy, very strong, flexible, durable in contact with soil. Receives beautiful polish. Shrinks in seasoning.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Fence-posts, piles, telegraph poles, railway ties, paving-blocks, occasionally indoor decoration.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

48.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,300,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

16,000.

Remarks.

Indians used wood for bows, thus the name Bois D'Arc, corrupted into Bow Dark or Bodark. A valuable wood not enough appreciated. Often planted as hedges. The fruit is useless. [p114]

WILD BLACK CHERRY, WILD CHERRY. _Prunus serotina Ehrh._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Wild Black Cherry, Wild Cherry (local and common names).

Black Cherry (Me., N. H., Vt., R. I., N. Y., Miss., Ky., Mich., Wis., Ind., Neb.).

Rum Cherry (N. H., Mass., R. I., Miss., Neb.).

Whiskey Cherry (Minn.).

Choke Cherry (Mo., Wis., Ia.).

Locality.

Eastern to Central United States.

Features of Tree.

Forty to eighty feet in height. Two to three or more feet in diameter. Bitter bark, pea-sized fruit.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood yellow, fine straight grain, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, hard, strong, easily worked.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Cabinet-work, interior finish.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

36.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,200,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

11,700.

Remarks.

The bitter bark contains medicinal properties valued in bronchitis and other troubles. The fruit, agreeable when ripe, is also used in medicines and cordials. [p115]

TEAK. GREENHEART. (_Tectona_.) (_Nectandra_.)

There are two Teaks; the principal one (_Tectona grandis_), a native of Asia, has been called the "Oak" of the Indian forests, the other (_Oldfieldia africana_) is an African tree.[60] The Greenheart (_Nectandra rodiali_) is of the laurel family and grows in South America. The woods, although foreign, are of such nature as to have widely established reputations, and each has at some time been used in construction.

Teak suggests oak, save that it is lighter and has a more uniform structure. It is very durable, and an oily secretion repels insects and preserves iron fastenings. During the supremacy of wooden vessels it was regarded as one of the best ship-building woods in existence. The grain fits it for carvings, and it is now known in North America chiefly because of this fact. Indian teak is the wood usually referred to.

Greenheart was early placed among the first class of ship-building woods by Lloyd's Register, and is yet taken to Europe to some extent for dock-and ship-building and for implements, but is seldom found and but little known in the United States. It is strong, hard, durable, and extremely heavy, the latter quality being so pronounced as to limit its field of usefulness. [p116]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 60: It was long supposed that African teak was supplied by the species Swietenia senegalensis. It is now known that the source is Oldfieldia africana, of the family Euphorbiaceæ. It is not impossible that wood passing as teak may be derived from yet other species.]

TEAK. _Tectona grandis._

Nomenclature.

Teak.

Indian Oak.

Teek.

Sagwan.

Locality.

India, Burma, Siam, Ceylon.

Features of Tree.

Eighty to one hundred feet in height, three to four feet in diameter, sometimes larger. Straight trunk, large drooping deciduous leaves.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Variable, brownish-yellow, straight, even-grained.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Moderately hard, strong, easily worked, stands well, oily, fragrant, resists termites, preserves iron.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Furniture, ship-building, timbers, backing for armor-plates.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

50 (Laslett).

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,338,000 (Lazlett).

2,100,000 (Thurston).

Modulus of Rupture.

15,000 (Thurston).

Remarks.

The oil is thought to preserve iron and repel termites. Burma, Malabar, Rangoon, and other teaks take names from districts producing them. The distinct African teak (_Oldfieldia africana_) affords wood sometimes marketed as African mahogany and sometimes as African oak. (Forestry methods, see "Burma Teak Forests," Sir Dietrich Brandis, "Garden and Forest," Vol. IX, "Forestry and Irrigation," Vol. IX, No. 3, p. 139.) [p117]

GREENHEART. _Nectandra rodiali._

Nomenclature.

Greenheart (local and common name).

Locality.

British Guiana and adjacent portions of South America and the West Indies.

Features of Tree.

Twenty-five to sometimes seventy feet in height, two to four feet in diameter. A straight tree.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood dark green to chestnut or nearly black, sapwood similar. Clean, straight, compact structure, free from knots. Numerous pores, annual layers hardly distinguishable.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Exceptionally heavy, strong, and durable, tough, hard, elastic, receives high polish, breaks suddenly.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Ship-keels, frames, rollers, turnery, also beams, planks, and piles (Europe). In America tops of fishing-rods and very occasionally veneers.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

72 (Lazlett).

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,090,000 (Lazlett).

Modulus of Rupture.

10,000 (Thurston).

Remarks.

Excessive weight unfits it for many purposes. Placed in first class of ship-building woods by Lloyd's Register. Formerly supposed to repel teredo. Generally exported through Demerara to England. [p118]

MAHOGANY. (_Swietenia, Khaya, Soymida, Cedrela, etc._)

There are three principal mahogany trees: the Central American or true mahogany (_Swietenia mahogani_), the African mahogany (_Khaya senegalensis_), and the Indian mahogany (_Soymida febrifuga_). There are also minor species called mahoganies.[61] American mahogany was originally divided by dealers into Spanish and Honduras wood, the former from the then Spanish-American possessions. A considerable supply now comes from Mexico, taking name from port of shipment; as, Frontera, Laguna, Santa Ana, Tecolutla, Minatitlan, and Tonala, desirability being much in the order named. The African field is the latest and probably most important, very large quantities of its wood being distributed through English markets.

Mahogany, placed among the second class of ship-building woods by Lloyd's Register, was once used to some extent in place of oak in naval architecture, but is now so greatly valued for decoration as to be employed for little else, save occasionally the hulls of small pleasure craft. The decorative value is due to a combination of beauty, working qualities, and durability. Beauty is influenced by both grain and warm red color. The latter is generally light, and although it subsequently darkens, in most cases, to a characteristic and rich reddish-brown, is usually induced immediately by stains. The grain is not only beautiful of itself, but is such as to receive those stains and finishing processes thus demanded. Different localities produce woods varying in tint and grain. Individual [p119] trees also differ in desirability. No two are alike. Beautiful grain effects are often obtained in "crotches" or junctions between trunk and branch, and such pieces bring high prices. Mahogany is generally used as a veneer. Layers are glued either to some central piece or "core" or else to one another. The layers are arranged so as to cross one another's grain, and results are usually thought to be more desirable than those obtained from solid wood. Few woods glue better, and few shrink or distort less when in place.

"Spanish Cedar" (_Cedrela odorata_) is a broadleaf wood, and not a conifer as is usually supposed. It is nearly related to, and usually found and cut with, true mahogany. Lindley[62] divides Cedrelecæ into two sub-orders: Swieteniæ, including the true mahoganies, and Cedrelæ, with nine genera and twenty-five species distributed over tropical Asia and America.

Prima vera or white mahogany belongs to Bignoniaceæ, which also includes the catalpas. [p120]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 61: Mahogany and mountain mahogany are names applied in the United States to Rhus integrifolia, a native of Lower California and the coast islands, and to the following species of the Rocky Mountain Region (Idaho to Arizona):

Cercocarpus ledifolius, Used for fuel.
Cercocarpus parvifolius, Used for fuel.
Cercocarpus breviflorus, Heavy, hard, not common.]

[Footnote 62: John Lindley, Treasury of Botany, p. 243, Part I; also see Gifford, "Forestry and Irrigation," Vol. VIII, No. 4, p. 174; also Correspondence Messrs. Wm. E. Uptegrove & Brother, New York City.]

MAHOGANY. _Swietenia mahogani Jacq._

Nomenclature.

Mahogany (local and common name).

Spanish Mahogany (Cuba, San Domingo, West Indies).

Mexican Mahogany (Frontera, Laguna, Santa Anna, and other Mexican ports).

Honduras Mahogany (Honduras).

Baywood, Madeira, Redwood.

Locality.

Florida Keys, Bahamas, West Indies, Mexico, Central America, Peru.

Features of Tree.

Florida specimens forty-five feet in height and two or more feet in diameter. Foreign trees larger.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Light, rich reddish brown. Thin sapwood yellow. Smooth, fine uniform texture, inconspicuous rings, conspicuous pores, sometimes filled with white substance.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Strong, brittle, durable, holds glue, takes stains and high polish, small distortion in seasoning, stands well.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Cabinet-work, veneers; formerly ship-building.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

45.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,510,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

14,000.

Remarks.

Desirability varies with locality. Spanish mahogany ranks first, and harder Mexican woods next. Mahogany is usually stained. African mahogany is now successfully rivaling the American product. [p121]

WHITE MAHOGANY. Prima vera. _Tabeuia Donnell-Smithii (Rose)._

Nomenclature.

White Mahogany, Prima vera (local and common names).

Locality.

Mexico and Central America.

Features of Tree.

Fifty to seventy-five feet in height, two to four feet in diameter. Tall, slender, a beautiful tree. Numerous golden-yellow flowers precede the leaves.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Cream-white. Beautiful, fine grain, resembles mahogany.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Works and stands well.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Cabinet-work, fine furniture, veneers.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

Modulus of Elasticity.

Modulus of Rupture.

Remarks.

Many twelve-foot logs imported through San Francisco and west. Higher-priced than Red Mahogany. Named after discoverer. The wood of the Butternut or White Walnut is sometimes sold as White Mahogany.

FOOTNOTE

See Botanical Gazette, Vol. XVII, 1892, p. 418; Contribution U. S. National Herbarium, p. 346, Vol. I, No. 9, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Division of Botany. [p122]

SPANISH CEDAR, MEXICAN CEDAR. _Cedrela odorata Linn._

Nomenclature.

Spanish Cedar, Mexican Cedar, Cuban Cedar (local and common names).

Locality.

Mexico, Cuba, West Indies.

Features of Tree.

Fifty to eighty feet in height, two to five feet in diameter. Pale-yellow flowers. Pods resemble pecan-nuts. Tree suggests English walnut (_J. regia_).

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Brownish red, straight, even, compact grain.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Soft, fragrant, porous, durable. Resembles cedar woods derived from coniferous trees (page 167); also resembles mahogany.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Cigar-boxes, boats, fine cabinet-work. May be used in place of mahogany. The figured Australian Red Cedar (_C. australis_) is locally used for furniture, joinery, carriages, ceilings, door-frames, etc.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

Modulus of Elasticity.

Modulus of Rupture.

Remarks.

Used for cigar-boxes, because its porous structure assists cigars to season, and its odor improves their flavor. The Cuban supply is practically exhausted. Mexico is now the chief American source. Trees grow rapidly. [p123]

FOOTNOTES

The Toon Cedar (Cedrela toona Roxburgh) of the Orient is the same as the Red Cedar (_Cedrela australis F. v. M._) of Australia. The Cedar (_Cedrela odorata Blanco_) is thought to be distinct Philippine species.

"Forestry and Irrigation," p. 173, Vol. VIII, No. 4; Writings Dr. Gifford; Correspondence Wm. E. Uptegrove & Brother, and others.

EUCALYPTUS. (_Eucalyptus_.)

These trees, locally known as Stringy-barks, Iron-barks, and Gum-trees, are natives of Australia and the neighboring islands. Some of the nearly four hundred species have been widely transplanted, although none have thus far succeeded in this country outside of Florida and California.[63] The Blue Gum (_E. globulus_) is the species commonly referred to when Eucalyptus is mentioned in North America.

The Eucalypts are noted for their great size, rapid growth, tough, durable wood, and alleged effect upon health. Size is illustrated by the species Eucalyptus amygdalina, specimens of which have reached a height of four hundred and eighty feet and are thus the tallest, although not the largest, trees known to man. Growth is shown by specimens of the Eucalyptus gunnii, which have grown in excess of two feet a month during the first year.[64] The working qualities of Jarrah, Karri, and Tuart woods (_E. marginata_, _E. diversicolor_, and _E. gomphocephala_) are such as to cause them to take high rank in local construction. The first two have been preferred beyond all other species for paving the streets of London and of Paris. Some improvement in health is said to have followed the introduction of the Blue Gum (_Eucalyptus globulus_) in malarial districts, such as those around Rome. It is not certain whether these results are due to the presence of essences in the foliage, although medicinal properties are ascribed to them and they are used in the preparation of listerine and similar compounds, or [p124] whether they are due to the fact that the leaves evaporate unusual quantities of water drawn by the roots from the soil.[65]

The trees are characterized by leathery evergreen foliage of many shades, such as blue, gray, and green. The leaves of young and old trees differ widely in some species. Those of young blue gums are bright blue, oval, and stalkless, while leaves of older trees have stems, are dark green and sickle-shaped. The characteristic odor is the only point in common between the foliage of the old and young of this species. There are, as stated, nearly four hundred species. [p125]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 63: First introduced in 1856; 1,000,000 specimens thought to be in California, 1874. A. Kinney, U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. 11.]

[Footnote 64: Eucalyptus globulus is said to have grown in California at the rate of two feet a month during the first year.]

Works of Baron von Müller; Report J. Ednie-Brown, Forest Commissioner, Western Australia; Correspondence M. Francis Chapman, Esq., London; The Forester, Jan. 1900; Abbot Kinney, U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. 11.

[Footnote 65: The writer has seen long rows of California blue gums cut down because they "dried the soil." The general form of a blue gum tree suggests that of large black Locust.]

McClatchie, U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. 35.

JARRAH. _Eucalyptus marginata._

Nomenclature.

Jarrah (local and common name).

Mahogany Gum (Australia).

Locality.

Western coast of Australia.

Features of Tree.

Ninety to one hundred or more feet in height, two to five feet in diameter. Fifty or more feet to lowest branch. Dull, sombre appearance. Branches concentrated at top.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Reddish, resembles mahogany, also Kauri wood.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Heavy, non-absorbent, somewhat oily, durable in contact with the soil, receives good polish. Characteristic odor, wears thin evenly, not easily inflammable. Said to repel teredo and termite.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Marine work, exposed positions, ship-building, bridge timbers, street-paving (London and Paris).

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

65 (Ednie-Brown).[66]

Modulus of Elasticity.

2,080,000 (Ednie-Brown).[66]

Modulus of Rupture.

8900 (Ednie-Brown).[66]

Remarks.

Chief timber tree of southwestern Australia. Preferred by Australian ship-builders. Often confused with Karri.[67] Specimen forty years old two feet in diameter. Müller calls it the least inflammable of woods. Marginata refers to thick-edged leaves. [p126]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 66: Report Forests Western Australia, Presented to Parliament, 1896.]

[Footnote 67: The Melbourne Argus, December 31, 1892, states that the woods may be distinguished by the fact that the ashes of Jarrah are white and those of Karri black. Specimens of Jarrah wood seen by the writer were dark, suggesting black walnut, those of Karri were red, resembling mahogany.]

KARRI. _Eucalyptus diversicolor._

Nomenclature.

Karri (many localities).

White Gum (Australia).

Locality.

Australia, New Zealand.

Features of Tree.

Two to three hundred and fifty feet in height, four to eighteen feet in diameter. A straight graceful tree, lower branches often one hundred and fifty feet from ground. Smooth yellow white bark.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Reddish brown, fibres interlaced, compact structure.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Hard, heavy, tough and elastic, non-absorbent, durable, difficult to work, wears evenly, characteristic odor.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Construction, railway ties, piles, marine work, pavements (London and Paris).

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

63 (Ednie-Brown).[68]

Modulus of Elasticity.

2,890,000 (Ednie-Brown).[68]

Modulus of Rupture.

8000 (Ednie-Brown).[68]

Remarks.

Once named Eucalyptus colossea because of great size. Rich in essential oils. Grows rapidly, one specimen thirty-five years old, having reached a height of one hundred and thirty-five feet. Distinct from Kauri Pine (_D. australis_) of New Zealand. Diversicolor refers to leaves the upper and lower sides of which differ in color. [p127]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 68: Report Forests Western Australia, Presented to Parliament, 1896.]

TUART. _Eucalyptus gomphocephala._

Nomenclature.

Tuart (local and common name).

Tewart (Australia).

Tooart (Australia).

White Gum (Australia).

Locality.

Australia.

Features of Tree.

One hundred to one hundred and fifty feet in height, four to six feet in diameter. Lower branches forty or more feet from ground. Bright, cheerful appearance, straight trunk, gray-white bark.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light yellow, compact appearance, fibres interlaced.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Very hard, heavy, strong, tough, rigid, durable, seasons well. Difficult to split or work.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Keels, buffers, stern-posts, frames, wheel-hubs, shafts.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

67 (Ednie-Brown).[69]

Modulus of Elasticity.

2,300,000 (Ednie-Brown).[69]

Modulus of Rupture.

9300 (Ednie-Brown).[69]

Remarks.

Highly prized locally. One of the strongest of woods. Gomphocephala refers to peculiarities in lid of calyx-tube. [p128]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 69: Report on Forests Western Australia, Presented to Parliament, 1896.]

BLUE GUM, FEVER TREE. _Eucalyptus globulus._

Nomenclature.

Blue Gum (local and common name).

Fever Tree (Australia).

Balluck (Australia).

Locality.

Native of Australia acclimated in southern California and elsewhere throughout the world.

Features of Tree.

Two hundred to sometimes three hundred or more feet in height. Three to six feet in diameter. Loose, shaggy, exfoliating bark.[70] Leaves sometimes twelve inches in length. Color varies with age. Characteristic odor.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Straw color. Sapwood lighter. Indistinct annual rings. Fibres interlaced.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Hard, heavy, durable, difficult to split.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Rollers, paving-blocks, ship-building, fuel.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

43 to 69 (Mueller).

57 to 69 (Lazlett).

Modulus of Elasticity.

Modulus of Rupture.

Remarks.

The Eucalyptus of California. The species planted in malarial districts. Sanitary powers due to evaporation from large leaves or presence of essential oils, which are thought to have medicinal qualities. Grows very rapidly. [p129]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 70: The bark is variable. Some trees of nearly 1 foot diameter have smooth green bark resembling that on young willow saplings; most others have the shaggy bark, while from some this has dropped away, exposing a smooth grayish interior suggesting that of the sycamore.]

NEEDLELEAF WOODS.

The trees affording these woods cover large areas in the natural forests of the Northern Hemisphere. They exist, but to an unimportant extent, in the South. Cedar, larch, and cypress figure in ancient history, but woods generally were not employed until recent times.[71] Pine, spruce, hemlock, and other so-called soft woods are of this group.

Needle-leaved woods are characterized by uniform fibre-conditions, presence of resins, and lighter weights. The vertical structure consists of simple, similar, elongated tubes or cells, tapering and finally closing at their ends, known as tracheids. These are arranged with more or less regularity, and woods are correspondingly easy to work. Pith-rays are scarcely visible, and sections do not show pores. Cavities known as resin-ducts, and which are not real vessels but rather simple intercellular spaces, secrete resins so important in making these woods durable and elastic. Trees afford large, straight pieces. Woods are used in carpentry and heavy constructions. The total requirement greatly exceeds that for hard woods.

The resinous, usually evergreen, leaves and the cones are sufficient to identify these trees. Needleleaf, softwood, conifer, and evergreen trees are the same. [p130]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 71: See Oak, pages 11 _et seq._ The woods have always been important in the United States.]

PINE. (_Pinus_.)

These trees were not regarded seriously until about the latter half of the eighteenth century. Their woods are now the principal ones in carpentry and construction, and are more used than any others. They are to the soft woods what the oaks are to the hard woods, and they stand at present with reference to all woods much as iron does to all metals. Pine is prized because of a combination of strength, elasticity, light weight, working qualities, and availability, such as fits it for those constructions requiring the largest quantities of wood.

The pines have smooth, straight, solid trunks, usually destitute of branches for many feet from the ground. There are needle-shaped, more or less cylindrical, evergreen leaves from one to many inches in length, gathered in clusters of two, three, or five, their number and the fact that they are thus clustered being important bases of classification. There are also cones of woody overlapping scales. They reproduce with difficulty,[72] and mature so slowly that ultimate survival of modern conditions must probably be as cultivated trees.

Thirty-nine of the seventy known species of pine are found in the United States. These with their woods are separated into two groups known as _hard_ and _soft_ pines. The Dantzic or Northern pine (_Pinus silvestris_) is the principal European species. [p131]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 72: The roots of most species die with cutting of trees. There is no power of producing new shoots. (The pitch pine (_Pinus rigida_) is an exception to this rule.) Seeds also have short-lived vitality. Trees are easily raised from fresh seeds.]

SOFT PINE.

Soft pine is soft, clean, light, uniform, easily worked, not strong, free from knots and resins, and obtainable in large and perfect pieces. The wood is whitish and the yearly rings are not pronounced. The supply is divided, as obtained from the white pine on the one hand, and from the sugar-pine and all other species on the other.

White pine (_Pinus strobus_) grows in the north, central, and eastern United States and was formerly the important tree of North America. It emphasized the forest industries of Maine and of Michigan, and methods connected with harvesting it have influenced logging practices in many fields. It was long the only softwood seriously considered by Northern lumbermen. Thirty per cent of the sawn timber and lumber used in this country in 1899 was drawn from this species.[73] White pine is diminishing so rapidly as to be already practically unobtainable in many places.

The Sugar Pine (_Pinus lambertiana_) of the Western States is a tree growing at high elevations and is so large as to take rank with the redwoods and other of the world's greatest trees. Some material is derived from the Western white pine (_Pinus flexilis_) and one or more minor species. Sugar pine resembles, but is not as desirable as, white pine. The sweetish exudations from this tree are sometimes used in medicine. [p132]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 73: Roth, U. S. Forestry Bul. No. 22, p. 73.]

"White Pine Timber Supplies." U. S. S. Doc. 55-1, Vol. IV.

HARD PINE.

Hard pine differs from soft pine in that it is hard, resinous, heavy, harder to work, and very strong. It also is obtainable in large pieces. The orange-yellow wood is more or less figured. The annual deposits are pronounced and are separated into two sharply divided rings. The supply is chiefly derived from the longleaf, shortleaf, Cuban, and loblolly pines of the South Atlantic States.

The longleaf pine (_Pinus palustris_) is distinctly the most important of its group. The wood is ideal for heavy constructions. Beams, docks, trestles, and frames of cars are formed of it. The trees afford the greater bulk of turpentine, tar, and resin, or "naval stores," produced in this country.[74] Cuban, shortleaf, and loblolly pine woods (_P. heterophylla_, _P. echinata_, and _P. tæda_) are nearly similar. Longleaf and Cuban pines are seldom separated, while shortleaf and loblolly pines are also mixed. Longleaf pine usually affords finer structure and more heartwood than Cuban pine. Strength and weight averages of both woods are in excess of those of shortleaf and loblolly pines. No method of invariably telling these four woods apart has as yet been determined. (Roth.) Any or all of them are practically liable to be delivered in response to a demand for Southern pine. Johnson considers shortleaf pine as good as longleaf pine of equal weight, and suggests environment as a means of identification.

Palustris, signifying "swampy," is misleading, since long leaf pine prefers dry, sandy soil and tracts known as "pine barrens." _Mitis_ refers to the soft, delicate foliage of shortleaf pine. _Tæda_ signifies "torch." The trees may be told by differences in their leaves and cones. [p133]

Longleaf (_P. palustris_)
Leaves
Number in Cluster 3
Length, in. 10 to 15
Cones
Diameter (open), in. 4 to 5
Length, in. 6 to 10
Cuban (_P. heterophylla_)
Leaves
Number in Cluster 2 or 3
Length, in. 8 to 12
Cones
Diameter (open), in. 3 to 5
Length, in. 4 to 7
Shortleaf (_P. echinata_)
Leaves
Number in Cluster 2 or 3
Length, in. 2 to 5
Cones
Diameter (open), in. 1 to 2
Length, in. 2
Loblolly (_P. tæda_)
Leaves
Number in Cluster 3
Length, in. 5 to 10
Cones
Diameter (open), in. 2 to 3
Length, in. 3 to 4

A confusion exists in the naming of the pines. American white pine is known as yellow or Weymouth pine in Europe, and all American hard pines are there often known as pitch pines. The European, Dantzic, or Northern pine has also many names, principally depending on port of shipment. Georgia, Southern, Yellow, Hard, and even Pitch pine, are interchangeable names in this country. The species palustris has thirty local names. [p134]

FOOTNOTE

[Footnote 74: Manufacture of tar, pitch, etc. (See Report Chief U. S. Div. Forestry, 1892, p. 356; also U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. 13.)]

WHITE PINE. _Pinus strobus Linn._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

White Pine (local and common name).

Weymouth Pine (Mass., S. C.).

Soft Pine (Pa.).

Northern Pine (N. C.).

Spruce Pine (Tenn.).

Pumpkin Pine.

Locality.

North-central and northeastern United States, northward into Canada, southward to Illinois, and along the Alleghanies into Georgia, intermittently.

Features of Tree.

Seventy-five to one hundred and fifty feet in height. Three to six feet in diameter, sometimes larger. Erect impressive form. Tufts of five soft, slender, evergreen leaves in long sheath. Cones four to six inches long, one inch thick, slightly curved.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood cream-white, sapwood nearly white. Close, straight grain. Compact structure. Comparatively free from knots and resin.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Soft, uniform, seasons well, easy to work, nails without splitting, fairly durable. Lightest and weakest of eastern United States pines. Shrinks less than other pines.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Carpentry, construction, matches, spars, boxes, numerous uses.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

24 (U. S. Forestry Div.).[75]

24.

Modulus of Elasticity.

1,390,000 (average of 130 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[75]

1,210,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

7900 (average of 120 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[75]

8900.

Remarks.

Formerly the chief lumber tree of the United States. The supply is rapidly diminishing. [p135]

FOOTNOTES

[Footnote 75: See page 6.]

"The White Pine." Spaulding. U. S Forestry Bul. No. 22.

"White Pine" a Study. Mr. Gifford Pinchot. (Century Co.)

"White Pine Timber Supplies." U. S. Doc. 40 Senate, 55-1, Vol. IV.

WHITE PINE. _Pinus flexilis James._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

White Pine (Cal., Nev., Utah, Col., N. M.).

Pine (Utah, Mont.).

Bull Pine (Col.).

Western and Rocky Mountain White Pine (Cal.).

Locality.

Rocky Mountains, Montana to Mexico.

Features of Tree.

Forty to fifty feet in height, one to three feet in diameter. Tufts of five rather short, rigid leaves in sheaths.

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.

Heartwood light, clear yellow, turning red from exposure. Sapwood nearly white. Close-grained, compact structure, numerous and conspicuous medullary rays.

Structural Qualities of Wood.

Light, soft.

Representative Uses of Wood.

Construction.

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.

27.

Modulus of Elasticity.

960,000.

Modulus of Rupture.

8800.

Remarks.

This tree forms mountain forests of considerable extent. Valued locally. [p136]

SUGAR PINE. _Pinus lambertiana Dougl._

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)

Sugar Pine (local and common name).

Big Pine, Shade Pine (Cal.).

Little or Great Sugar Pine.

Gigantic Pine.

White Pine.

Locality.