Chapter XXXI: Appendix: III (3)

[Footnote 393: The flint flakes resembling palæolithic tools, found by F. Noetling (_Records Geol. Survey, India_, vol. xxvii., p. 101, Calcutta, 1894) in Miocene or lower Pliocene beds, at Yenang-Yung (Central Burma), are considered by Oldham and other scholars as natural products. However, Noetling has since (in 1897) described an animal bone, artificially polished(?), of the same beds.--_Nat. Science_, London-New York, 1894, p. 345; 1895, 1st half-year, p. 367; 2nd, pp. 199 and 294; and 1887, 1st half-year, p. 233.]

[Footnote 394: The bones of the _Pithecanthropus_, a thigh-bone, a calvaria (Figs. 112 and 113), and two molar teeth (Fig. 112), were found by Dr. Dubois at Trinil (province of Madioun), on the bank of the river Bengavan, in a layer of lava, by the side of bones of animals of the Pliocene period. The calvaria, indicating a cranial capacity of about 900 cubic centimetres, recalls rather the Neanderthal-Spy skull (Fig. 86) than that of a gibbon; the thigh-bone is entirely human; the teeth are of a form intermediate between those of Man and of the Anthropoids.--For particulars see E. Dubois, _Pithecanthropus ... aus Java_, Batavia, 1894; and his articles in the _Anat. Anzeig._, 1896, No. 1, and the _Jour. Anthr. Inst._, London, vol. 25, p. 240 (1896); Manouvrier, Bull. Soc. Anthr., Paris, 1895, pp. 12 and 553; 1896, pp. 396 and 467; G. Schwalbe, _Zeitsch. Morph. u. Anthr._, vol. i., p. 16, Stuttgart, 1899.]

[Footnote 395: Uvarof, _Arkheologia_, etc. (_Archeol. of Russia_, vol. i., Moscow, 1881, p. 162, in Russian); Kuznétzof, _Mittheil. Anthr. Gesell._, Vienna, 1896, Nos. 4 and 5; “Age de la pierre au Japon,” _Mater. hist.... homme_, Toulouse-Paris, 1879, p. 31; S. Fuse, _Journ. Anthr. Soc. Tokyo_, vol. xi., 1896, No. 122 (in Japanese); Inuzuka, _ibid._, No. 119; E. Cartailhac, “L’âge de la pierre en Asie,” _Congr. Orientalistes_, 3rd ser., 1, p. 315, Lyons, 1880; G. Chauvet, “Age de la pierre en Asie,” _Congr. intern. arch. prehis._, 11th session, vol. i., p. 57, Moscow, 1892. The arrows picked up by Abbé A. David in Mongolia, and supposed to be palæolithic, belong to the historic period (Hamy, _Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat._, 1896, p. 46).]

[Footnote 396: Medlicot and Blandford, _Manual of Geol. of India_, Calcutta, 1879, 2 vols.; Cartailhac, _loc. cit._; Rivett-Carnac, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, vol. xiii., 1884, p. 119.]

[Footnote 397: Potanin, _Otcherki_, etc. (_North-West Mong. Sketches_), St. Petersburg, 1881-83, 4 vols., (in Russian); Adrianof, “Zapiski, etc.,” _Mem. Russ. Geog. Soc._, Sect. Gen. Geog., vol. xi., 1888, p. 149; Radloff, _Aus Sibirien_, Leipzig, 1884, 2 vols., and _Arbeit. Orkhon. Exped._, St. Petersburg, 1893-97 (in course of publication). For summary of the question and bibliography, see Deniker, _Nouvelles Geogr._, p. 54, Paris, 1892 (with map).]

[Footnote 398: Radloff, _loc. cit._ (_Arbeit._, etc.); Thomson, _Mem. Soc. Finno-Ougrienne_ vol. v., Helsingfors, 1896. We cannot admit as a general rule an exact synchronism between the prehistoric periods of Europe and those of Northern Asia. If, as Uvarof says, the age of the mammoth was earlier in Siberia than in Europe, it is none the less true that many peoples of Eastern Siberia were still in the midst of the “stone age” at the time when the Russians penetrated into this country (seventeenth century). As to the peoples of Western Siberia and the Kirghiz Steppes, the beginning of their bronze age goes back at the furthest to the beginning of the Christian era.]

[Footnote 399: Margaritof, _Memoirs Amurian Soc. of Naturalists_, vol. i., Vladivostok, 1887. The only skull found in these heaps is dolichocephalic and reminds one of the Ainu skull. Thus one might suppose, as Milne had done (_Trans. As. Soc. Jap._, Tokio, 1899, vol. vii., p. 61), in connection with the similar kitchen refuse found in Japan, that they are the work of the Ainus; however, the presence of pottery, unknown to the Ainus even to recent times, militates against this view.]

[Footnote 400: The Nagas have still at the present day axes of precisely the same form, which they use as hoes. (S. Peal, _Journ. As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. lxv., Part III., p. 9, Calcutta, 1896.) Cf. Noulet, “Age de la pierre ... au Cambodge d’après Moura,” _Mus. Nat. Hist._, vol. i., p. 3, Toulouse, 1879; and _Mater. Hist. Nat. Homme_, vol. xiv., p. 315, Toulouse, 1879; Cartaillac, _L’Anthropol._, p. 64, 1890 (a summary of Jammes’s discoveries).]

[Footnote 401: Schrenck, _Reisen in Amur-Lande_, vol. iii., Parts I. and II., St. Petersburg, 1881-91.]

[Footnote 402: Müller and Gmelin saw in 1753 the last surviving Arines, and in 1855 Castren was still able to find five individuals speaking the Kotte tongue.]

[Footnote 403: Yadrintsef, “Ob Altaïtsakh, etc.” (On the Altaians and Tatars of Chern), _Izviestia of the Russ. Geogr. Soc._, St. Petersb., 1881.]

[Footnote 404: Nordenskiold, _Voyage de la Vega_, vol. ii., chap. xii., Paris, 1883-84; Deniker, _loc. cit._ (_Rev. Anthr._, p. 309, 1882).]

[Footnote 405: The disappearance of these tribes is more apparent than real. The Anauls, in the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Anadyr, exterminated by the Cossacks in 1649, were only a fraction of the Yukaghirs, as is indicated by the termination “ul” which is found again in the name “Odul,” which the Yukaghirs use to describe themselves. The word “Omok” means simply people, “tribe” in Yukaghir language. As to the Cheliags, who, according to the Cossack Amossof, occupied at the end of the last century the Siberian coast between the Gulf of Chaun and the mouth of the Kolima--they were probably one of the Chukchi tribes.]

[Footnote 406: Iokhelson, “Izviestia, etc.,” _Bull. East-Siberian Sect. of the Russ. Geogr. Soc._, vol. xxix., p. 8, Irkutsk, 1898.]

[Footnote 407: Anuchin, “Izviestia” _Soc. Friends Sc. Moscow_, suppl. to vol. xx., 1876 (analysed _Rev. d’Anthr._, 1878, p. 148); Scheube, _Mitt. Deut. Gesell. Natur. u. Volkenk_, vol. iii., pp. 44 and 220, Yokohama-Tokio, 1880-82; G. Batchelor, _Trans. As. Soc. Japan_, vol. x., part 2, Tokio, 1882, and _The Ainu of Japan_, London, 1892; Chamberlain, _Mem. Imper. Univ. Japan_, Litter. coll. No. 1, Tokio, 1887 (analysed _Rev. d’Anthr._, 1888, p. 81); Tarenetsky, _Mem. Ac. Sc. St. Petersburg_, 1890, vol. xxxvii., No. 13; Hitchcock, _Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1890_, pp. 408 and 429; S. Landor, _Alone with the Hairy Ainu_, 1893; Koganeï, _Beitr. z. Phys. Anthr. Aino_ (extr. from _Mit. Med. Fakult._, vols. i. and ii., Tokio, 1893-94).]

[Footnote 408: Schrenck, _loc. cit._; Seeland, _Russiche Rev._, vol. xi., St. Petersburg, 1882; Deniker, _Les Ghiliaks_, Paris, 1884 (extr. from _Rev. d’Ethnogr._).]

[Footnote 409: C. Hiekisch, _Die Tungusen_, St. Petersburg, 1879; L. Schrenck, _loc. cit._; H. James, “A Journey in Manchuria,” _Proc. Geogr. Soc. London_, 1886, p. 779; D. Pozdniéef, _Opissanie_, etc. (_Description of Manchuria_, in Russian), vol. i., chap. vi., St. Petersburg, 1897. For measurements, see Appendices II. and III.]

[Footnote 410: This classification is not at all absolute. Turks and Mongols inhabit the wooded regions of Northern Asia (Yakuts, Buriats); they are also to be found in Europe and Asia Minor. The table-land of Iran, belonging to the region without outlet, assimilated since the works of Richthofen to Central Asia, is mostly inhabited by Iranian peoples having a connection with those of anterior Asia. The Thibetans chiefly occupy the upper valley of the Yaro-tsanpo, which is now in the line of communication between Central and peripheral Asia, etc.]

[Footnote 411: See my articles “Turks” and “Tatars” in the _Dict. Univ. de Geogr._ of Vivien de Saint-Martin and Rousselet, vol. vi., Paris, 1894; and for details the works of Radloff and Vambery, to which reference is therein made.]

[Footnote 412: These “Tatars” have sprung from the intermixture of three elements: the primitive Tatars, the probable descendants of the _Tu-Kiue_ of Chinese authors, the founders of the kingdom of Sibir destroyed by the Russians in the sixteenth century; the Sartes and the Uzbegs, coming especially from Bokhara; lastly, the Tatars of the Volga, immigrating in the wake of the Russians. In the west of Siberia there are also Ostiak tribes which bear the name of Tatars (such as the _Zabolotnyé Tatary_), because they have adopted the customs and religion of their neighbours the Tatars.]

[Footnote 413: Dutreuil de Rhins and Grenard, _Miss. Sc. Haute Asie_, vol. ii., Paris, 1898.]

[Footnote 414: See bibliography in the monograph on the Kirghiz-Bukei by Kharouzin, “_Izviestia_” _Soc. Friends of Nat. Sc._, Moscow, vol. 72, 1891.]

[Footnote 415: We must distinguish among the “Tatars of the Crimea” two ethnic groups, speaking the same Turkish dialect: the _Tatars of the Steppes_ (Nogai), and the _Tatars of the Mountains_ and _of the Coast_, or _Tauridians_ (_Krimchaki_ in Russian). These are the Islamised descendants of the ancient populations of the Taurus (Kipchaks, Genoese, Greeks, Goths). The Nogai belong to the Turkish race, more or less crossed, while the Tauridians have many traits of the Adriatic and Indo-Afghan races.]

[Footnote 416: For statistics as to stature, ceph. index, etc., see Appendices I. to III.; these figures are borrowed from the works of Benzengre, Bogdanof, Chantre, Elissiéef, Erckert, Hecker, Kharuzin, Lygin, Malief, Merejkovsky, Nazarof, Païssel, Pantiukhof, Sommier, Ujfalvy, Vyrubof, Weisbach, Weissenberg, Yadrintzef, etc. (Cf. Deniker, _Les Races de l’Europe_, 1. Ind. ceph., Paris, 1899.)]

[Footnote 417: Pallas, _Samml. Hist. Nachricht._, St. Petersburg, 1776-1801, 2 vols.; Bergmann, _Nomad. Streifereien. u. d. Kalmuk_, Riga, 1804, 4 vols.; Howorth, _History of Mong._, London, 1877, 4 vols.; Deniker, _loc. cit._ (_Rev. Anthr._, 1883-84); Ivanovsky, _loc. cit._ (Mongols-Torg.); Potanin, _loc. cit._; A. Pozdniéef, _Mongolia_, _etc._ (Mongolia and the Mongols, in Russian), St. Petersburg, 1896, vol. i., and other publications of this learned writer.]

[Footnote 418: In many works to these three divisions of Mongols are also added the so-called _Hezare_ or _Hazara_ and the _Aimaks_, tribes styled Mongolian, left by Tamerlane in Afghanistan. It appears that at the present time these tribes have only preserved of their origin a few physiognomical features; they speak a Turkish dialect and have intermixed with the Jemchids, whose mode of life and religion they have adopted.]

[Footnote 419: Cf. Prjevalsky, _Trétie_, _etc._ (Third Journey in Central Asia), St. Petersburg, 1883; and _Jour. Geog. Soc._, 1886-87; Rockhill, _The Land of the Lamas_, London, 1891; _Ethnol. of Tibet_, Washington, 1895; and _Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1893_, p. 665; Desgodins, _Le Tibet_, 2nd ed., Paris, 1885; Waddell, _Buddhism of Thibet_, London, 1895; and _Among the Himalayas_, London, 1899.]

[Footnote 420: See Dalton, _Descrip. Ethnol. of Bengal_, p. 13 _et seq._, Calcutta, 1872. We leave untouched the peoples sprung from the intermixture of the Thibetans with the Mongols (_Kara-Tanguts_ of the Kuku-Nor), with the Iranians and the Hindus (_Balti_, of Cashmere, etc.), with the Punjabi Hindus (_Gurkhas_, _Nepalese_), with the Assam peoples (_Dophlas_, _Miris_, etc.).]

[Footnote 421: Prjevalsky, _loc. cit._; Risley, “Tribes and Castes of Bengal,” _Anthr. Data_, Calcutta, 1891, 2 vols.; Rockhill, _loc. cit._; Dutreuil de Rhins, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 422: Fr. Garnier, _Voyage ... en Indo-Chine_, Paris, 1873, vol. i., p. 519, and vol. ii., p. 32 (_Memoir of Thorel_).]

[Footnote 423: Colb. Baber, “Travels ... in West China,” _Supp. Pap. Geogr. Soc._, vol. i., London, 1882; Colquhoun, _Across Chryse_, London, 1883, vol. ii., Appendix.]

[Footnote 424: Roux, _Le Tour du Monde_, 1897, 1st half, p. 254. The adorning of the body and limbs with rings, so characteristic of the Dyaks and other Indonesians, is also found among the Lu-tse; they wear around the loins and limbs numerous iron wire rings coated with black wax and fastened together in two places with metal rings. Great phalanstery-like houses, 40 metres long, similar to those of certain Indonesians and Polynesians, and used by several families, in which men and women sleep promiscuously, are met with among the western _Kew-tse_ on the boundary of their country with the _Khamti_ (see p. 40).]

[Footnote 425: Terrien de Lacouperie, _The Languages of China before the Chinese_, p. 92, London, 1887; Fr. Garnier, _loc. cit._; H. Hallet, _Proc. Geogr. Soc._, p. 1, London, 1886 (with map).]

[Footnote 426: See the summary of the data in this respect in Richthofen, _China_, vol. i., Berlin, 1875, and in Reclus, _Geogr. Univ._, vol. vi., Paris, 1882.]

[Footnote 427: See in the appendices the statistics of stature, ceph. index, etc., from the works of Girard, Hagen, Janka, Poyarkof, Ten Kate, Weisbach, Zaborowski, and my own observations.]

[Footnote 428: Note also the inferior position of woman, her ability to move about limited by deformation of the feet (p. 175).]

[Footnote 429: The exact figures for the height of Coreans are contradictory: Dr. Koïke (_Internat. Arch. Ethnogr._, vol. iv., Leyden, 1891, Parts I. and II.) gives the excessively high stature of 1 m. 79 as the average of seventy-five men measured; while Elissiéef (“_Izviestia_” _Russ. Geogr. Soc._, St. Petersburg, 1890) found 1 m. 62 the average height, but according to the measurements of ten men only.]

[Footnote 430: W. Carles, _Life in Corea_, London, 1888; Gottsche, “Land. u. Leute in Korea,” _Verh. Ges. Erdk._, p. 245, Berlin, 1886; A. Cavendish and Goold-Adams, _Korea_, London, 1894; Pogio, _Korea_, trans. from the Russian, Vienna and Leipzig, 1895; L. Chastaing, “Les Coréens,” _Rev. Scientif._, p. 494, 1896, second half-year; Maurice Courant, _Bibliogr. Coréenne_, Introduc., vol. i., Paris, 1895; and _Transact. As. Soc. Japan_, vol. xxiii., p. 5.]

[Footnote 431: See Appendices I. and III. for the measurements given from Miss Ayrton, Bälz, Koganei, etc.]

[Footnote 432: It might be supposed that the representatives of the first type were the descendants of tribes who had come by way of Corea and the Tsu-shima and Iki-shima islands in the south-west of Nippon at some period unknown, but at any rate very remote. As to the coarse type, its representatives are perhaps descended from the warriors who invaded about the seventh century /B.C./ (according to a doubtful chronology) the west coast of the island of Kiu-siu and then Nippon. These invaders, intermixing with the aborigines of unknown stock, founded the kingdom of Yamato, and drove back the Ainus towards the north (see p. 372).]

[Footnote 433: The ancient practice of suicide in case of injury (_Harakiri_), now abolished, also denoted great courage; sometimes it was a disguised form of vendetta, for the relatives of the suicide were bound in honour to exterminate the offender.]

[Footnote 434: Mohnike, _Die Japaner_, Münster, 1872; Bälz, _loc. cit._; J. J. Rein, _Japan_, Leipzig, 1881-86, 2 vols.; Mechnikof, _L’empire Japonais_, Paris-Geneva, 1882; B. Chamberlain, _Things Japanese_, Yokohama, 1891; “Tokyo Jinruigaku,” etc. (_Journ. Anthr. Soc. Tokio_, in Japanese), 1888-98.]

[Footnote 435: Dodd, _Jour. Str. Br. As. Soc._, No. 15, p. 69, Singapore, 1885; I. Ino, “Distrib. géog. tribu. Formose,” _Tokyo Jinruigaku_, p. 301, 1898 (analysed in _l’Anthropologie_,1899); Imbault-Huart, _L’île de Formose_, Paris, 1893; A. Wirth, “Eingeborn. Stämme auf Formosa u. Liu-Kiu,” _Peterm. Mitt._, p. 33, 1898.]

[Footnote 436: Dourisboure, _Les Sauv. Ba-Hnars_, Paris, 1873; Neïs, _Excurs. et Reconn._, Saigon, Nos. 6 (1880), 10 (1881), and _Bull. Soc. Géogr._, p. 372, Paris, 1884; Harmand, _loc. cit._, and _Tour du Monde_, 1879 and 1880; Pinabel, _Bull. Soc. Géogr._, p. 417, Paris, 1884.]

[Footnote 437: Aymonier, “Voyage dans le Laos,” _Ann. Mus. Guimet_. (Bibl. d’Étude, vol. v.), vol. i., p. 38, Paris, 1895; Harmand, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 438: E. Kuhn, _Sitzungsberichte, Phil.-hist. Kl. Bayer. Akad. Wiss._, p. 289, Munich, 1889.]

[Footnote 439: Aymonier, _Excurs. et Reconn._, Saigon, Nos. 8 and 10 (1881), 24 (1885), chap. viii., No. 32 (1890), and _Rev. d’Ethnogr._, 1885, p. 158; Bergaigne, _Journ. Asiat._, 8th series, vol. xi., 1888; Maurel, _Mem. Soc. Anthr._, 1893, vol. iv., p. 486.]

[Footnote 440: Mrs. Mason, _Civilising Mountain Men_, etc., London, 1862, and other works of this author. Smeaton, _The Loyal Karen_, etc., London, 1886.]

[Footnote 441: There exists among them a strange custom: the men experience great pleasure in putting into their mouths and then spitting out the juice from the narghiles smoked by the wives. The offer of _tobacco juice_ is one of the first duties of hospitality.]

[Footnote 442: J. Butler, “Angami Nagas,” _Jour. As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. xliv., p. 216, Calcutta, 1875; Woodthorpe, “Notes ... Naga Hills,” _Jour. Anthro. Inst._, vols. ix. (1882) and xix. (1890); Reid, _Chin-Lushai Land_, Calcutta, 1893; Peal, “Naga,” _Jour. Anthr. Inst._, vol. iii., 1874, p. 476; _Nature_, 20th May 1897; _Jour. As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. lxv., part 3, p. 17, Calcutta, 1897; and “Ein Ausflug, etc.,” _Zeit. f. Ethn._, 1898, p. 281 (trans. by Klemm, with notes and bibliog.); Miss Godden, “Naga, etc.,” _Jour. Anthr. Inst._, vols. xxvi. and xxvii. (1896-97).]

[Footnote 443: J. Anderson, _The Selungs_, Lond., 1890; Lapicque, _Bull. Soc. Anthr._, 1894, p. 221, and “A la rech. des Negritos,” _Le Tour du Monde_, 1895, 2nd half-year, and 1896, 1st half-year; Man, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, vol. xiv., 1886, p. 428; Roepstorff, _Zeitschr. f. Ethnol._, 1882, p. 51.]

[Footnote 444: Man, “Aborig. Andam. Isl.,” _Jour. Anthr. Inst._, vol. xi., 1882; De Quatrefages, _Les Pygmées_, Paris, 1887; Lapicque, _loc. cit._, and “La race Negrito,” _Ann. de Geogr._, No. 22, Paris, 1896.]

[Footnote 445: Moura, _Royaume de Cambodge_, Paris, 1883, 2 vols.; Aymonier, _Géographie du Cambodge_, Saigon-Paris, 1876; L. Fournereau and Porcher, _Les Ruins d’Angkor_, etc., Paris, 1890; Morel, _Mém. Soc. Anthr._, vol. iv., Paris, 1893.]

[Footnote 446: Deniker and Laloy, “Races exot.,” _L’Anthropologie_, 1890, p. 523.]

[Footnote 447: Risley, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 448: Terrien de Lacouperie, _loc. cit._; Colquhoun, _loc. cit._, Appendix and Preface by T. de Lacouperie; Bourne, _Parliam. Pap._, C., 5371, London, 1888; C. Baber, _loc. cit._; Hosie, _Three Years’ Jour. in Western China_, London, 1890; Labarth, “Les Muongs,” _Bull. Soc. Géogr. hist. et descr._, Paris, 1886, p. 127; H. Hollet, _loc. cit._; Aymonier, _loc. cit._, ch. vii; Billet, “Deux ans dans le Haut Tonkin,” _Bull. Scient. de la France et de la Belgique_, vol. xxviii., Paris, 1896-98; Deblenne, _Mission Lyonnaise en Chine_, p. 34, Lyons, 1898.]

[Footnote 449: From Dr. Girard, quoted by Billet, _loc. cit._, p. 69.]

[Footnote 450: Harmand, _loc. cit._; Aymonier, _loc. cit._ (Voyage au Laos).]

[Footnote 451: The so-called primitive division into four castes: Brahmans (priests), Kshatriya (soldiers), Vaisyas (husbandmen and merchants), and Sudra (common people, outcasts, subject peoples?), mentioned in the later texts of the _Vedas_, is rather an indication of the division into three principal classes of the ruling race as opposed, in a homogeneous whole, to the conquered aboriginal race (fourth caste).]

[Footnote 452: Sénart, “Les Castes dans l’Inde,” _Ann. Mus. Guimet., Bibl. de Vulgar_, Paris, 1896 (sums up the question). To the bibliographic references to castes which are found in this excellent book must be added the “Introduction” to the work of W. Crooke, already quoted; it appeared subsequently.]

[Footnote 453: The ingenious deductions of Risley (_loc. cit._, _Ethnogr. Glossary_, vol. i., Preface, p. 34, Calcutta, 1892), which may be summed up in the aphorism, “The nasal index increases in a direct ratio to the social inferiority of the caste,” have been criticised by Crooke (_loc. cit._, p. 119), who however is too absolute in his statements, and does not take any account of the seriation of anthropometric measurements.]

[Footnote 454: E. Schmidt, “Die Anthrop. Indiens,” _Globus_, vol. lxi. (1892), Nos. 2 and 3. For the measurements of the different peoples of India see Appendices I. to III.; the figures are chiefly borrowed from Risley, _loc. cit._, Crooke, _loc. cit._, Jagor, Thurston, _loc. cit._, Sarasin, _loc. cit._, E. Schmidt, _loc. cit._, Deschamps, _Au pays des Veddas_, Paris, 1892, with pl.]

[Footnote 455: Jellinghaus, “Sagen, Sitten ... der Munda-Kolhs,” _Zeit. f. Ethn._, vol. iii., 1872, p. 328; Dalton, _loc. cit._, p. 150; Risley, _loc. cit._, _Ethnogr. Glossary_; Crooke, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 456: The word Ho (Hor or Horo), which recurs in the name of all these tribes, signifies everywhere “man,” and indicates their close linguistic relationship; their manners and customs are also alike, especially in regard to the constitution of the community. Religion among them all is an animism blended with very vague polytheism. In their physical characters there are some differences; the Munda and the Bhumij are short (1 m. 59) and very dolichocephalic (ceph. ind. on the liv. sub. 74.5 and 75), the Santals are below the average height (1 m. 61) and a little less dolichocephalic (76.1). The _Ho_, among whom we may assume a greater infusion of Indo-Afghan blood, are of somewhat high stature (1 m. 68). The number of these four tribes, united under the name of Santals in the census of 1891, amounted to a million and a half.]

[Footnote 457: Ball, _Jungle Life in India_, p. 267; Fawcet, “The Saoras of Madras,” _Journ. Ant. Soc. Bombay_, vol. i., 1888, p. 206; E. Dalton, _loc. cit._, p. 149.]

[Footnote 458: They must not be confused with the _Mal-Paharia_, who dwell farther to the south in the same district of Santhal Parganos (Bengal), and whose affinities are still obscure; from the somatic point of view there is, however, hardly any difference between the two groups.]

[Footnote 459: They must not be confounded with the _Kharwar_ or _Kharvar_, Dravidians of Chota Nagpur, the southern parts of Behar and Mirzapur; these are half-civilised husbandmen, having a particular social organisation. Their higher castes have an infusion of Hindu blood, while the type of the lower castes recalls that of the Santals. The _Kûrs_ of the Mahadeva hills are closely allied to the Kharwar.]

[Footnote 460: Cf. Shortt, _Account of the Tribes of the Nilghiris_, 1868; Marshall, _A Phrenologist among the Toda_, London, 1873; Elie Reclus, _Primitive Folk_, ch. v.; Thurston, _Madras Gov. Museum Bullet._, vol. i., No. 1, and vol. ii., No. 4; G. Oppert, _The Original Inhabitants of India_, London, 1894, and _Zeit. f. Ethnol._, 1896, pt. 5.]

[Footnote 461: The name _Rajputs_ is only honorary, and is attached to a crowd of tribes and castes varying in origin, in mode of life, and in dress. The Jats of the Punjab, of which the Sikhs are only a section, are constituted of a mixture of strongly differentiated populations.]

[Footnote 462: Risley, _loc. cit._; Crooke, _loc. cit._; Fonseca Cardoso, “O indigena de Satory,” _Revista de Scien. Naturæs_, vol. iv., No. 16, Oporto, 1896.]

[Footnote 463: Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo-Koosh_, Calcutta, 1880; De Ujfalvy, _Aus dem Westl. Himalaya_, Leipzig, 1884; Leitner, _The Hunza and Nagar Handbook_, London, 1893; Capus, _Manuscript Notes_; Risley, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 464: The brother of the dead husband may marry all the latter’s widows, and none of them has the right to marry again without the consent of her brother-in-law. There is no term in the Chin and Yeshkhun languages to denote nephews and nieces--they are called “sons or daughters”; aunts on the maternal side are called “mothers.”]

[Footnote 465: De Ujfalvy, “Les Koulou,” _Bull. Soc. Anthr._, 1882, p. 217; Forsyth, _Yarkand Mission_, Calcutta, 1875; S. Mateer, _Native Life in Travancore_, London, 1883; Elie Reclus, _loc. cit._, p. 143 (Nairs); E. Schmidt, “Die Naïrs,” _Globus_, vol. lxviii. (1895), No. 22; Waddell, _loc. cit._ (_Am. Himal._), chap. ix.]

[Footnote 466: Sarasin, _loc. cit._, gives bibliog.; Deschamps, _Ceylan_, _loc. cit._ For the measurements of these peoples, see the Appendices I. and II.]

[Footnote 467: The Hajemis of the Caspian littoral are called more particularly _Talych_ and _Mazandarani_.]

[Footnote 468: The interminglings with the Turks must be of recent date; for if we may still discuss the “Turanian” characters of the Sumero-Acadian _language_, there is no indication of the existence of the _Turkish race_ in Asia Minor in ancient times. The famous sculptured head of Tello (in the Louvre) has a false Turkish air, owing to the head-dress and the broken nose; three other statuettes from the same locality, preserved at Paris, have a fine and prominent nose and meeting eyebrows: Assyroid characters (see De Clercq, _Album des Antiq. de la Chaldée_, Paris, 1889-91; Maspero, _Hist. des peupl. Orient. Class._, vol. i., p. 613, Paris, 1895; and E. de Sarzec, _Découvertes en Chaldée_, published by Heuzey, Paris, 1885-97).]

[Footnote 469: D. Menant, “Les Parsis,” _Ann. Mus. Guin., Bibl. Et._, vol. vii., Paris.]

[Footnote 470: E. Oliver, _Across the Border, Pathan and Biloch_, London, 1890.]

[Footnote 471: For the measurements of the Iranians see Appendices I. to III. (from Danilof, Houssey, Ujfalvy, Bogdanof, Chantre, Troll, Risley).]

[Footnote 472: Möckler, “Origin of Baluch,” _Proc. As. Soc. Bengal_, 1893, p. 159.]

[Footnote 473: Chantre, _Rech. Anthr. As. Occid. Transcaucasie, Asie Min. et Syrie_, Lyons, 1895 (with pl. and fig.); and “Les Kurdes,” _Bull. Soc. Anthr. Lyons_, 1897. The Lurs of Western Persia living south of the Kurds are akin to the latter; they may be divided into Luri-Kuchucks (250,000) or little Lurs in Luristan, and into Luri-Buzury, farther south, in Hazistan, a part of Fars. Their best known tribes are those of the _Bakhtyari_ and _Maamaseni_. The Lurs are above the average height (1 m. 68), and sub-brachycephalic (ceph. ind. 84.5), according to Houssay, Duhousset, and Gautier. Cf. Houssay, “Les Peuples de la Perse,” _Bull. Soc. Anthr. Lyons_, 1887, p. 101; and Pantiukhof, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 474: The Arab tongue of the present day includes three dialects: _Western_, extending from Morocco to Tunis; _Central_, spoken in Egypt; and _Eastern_, spoken in Arabia and Syria.]

[Footnote 475: Petersen and Von Luschan, _Reisen in Lykien, etc._, chap, xiii., Vienna, 1889; Chantre, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 476: It is known, in fact, that the isolation of the Jews from the rest of the population is not always absolutely complete. There have been peoples of other races converted to Judaism: the Khasars in the seventh century, the Abyssinians (present _Falacha_), the Tamuls or “black Jews” (p. 115, note), the Tauridians of the _Karaite_ sect, etc. (p. 222). Cf. J. Jacobs, “Racial Charact.... Jews,” _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xv. (1885-86), p. 24; and Jacobs and Spielmann, _ibid._, vol. xix. (1889-90).]

[Footnote 477: The Aissors or Chaldeans who migrated to the Caucasus are probably allied to these “Jews of the mountains”; they are also very brachycephalic (ceph. ind. 88) and of rather high stature (1 m. 67) (Erckert, Chantre).]

[Footnote 478: See the art. “Juifs” in the _Dict. Géog. Univers._ of Vivien de Saint-Martin and Rousselet, vol. ii., Paris, 1884 (with bibliog.); Andree, _Zur Völkerkunde der Juden_, Bielefeld, 1881, with map; and publications of the _Soc. des Études Juives_, Paris. The measurements given in the Appendices are after Ikof, Chantre, Jacobs and Spielmann, Gluck, Kopenicki, Weissenberg, Weisbach, etc.]

[Footnote 479: See my art. “Tsiganes,” in the _Dict. Géog. Univ._, quoted above, vol. vi., 1893; Paspati, _Étude sur les Tchinghiané_, Constantinople, 1870; A. Colocci, _Gli Zingari_, Turin, 1889, with map; H. von Wlislocki, _Vom ... Zigeuner-Volke_, Hamburg, 1890; and the publications of the Gypsy-Lore Society, London (1886-96).]

[Footnote 480: Fl. Petrie and Quibell, _Nagada and Ballas_, London, 1896; De Morgan, _Recherches sur les Origines de l’Egypte_, Paris, 1897-98, 2 vols. See for summary of the question: S. Reinach, _L’Anthropol._, 1897, p. 322; and J. Capart, _Rev. Université_, Brussels, 4th year (1898-99), p. 105. Let us remember while on this point that at the quaternary period lower Egypt was still covered by the sea, and that the climate of Egypt and the Sahara was much more humid than to-day (Shirmer, _Le Sahara_, p. 136, Paris, 1893). Most of the prehistoric finds in Egypt have been made on the table-lands, not covered by the alluvial soils of the Nile.]

[Footnote 481: W. Gooch, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, vol. xi. (1882), p. 124; Seton Karr, “Discov. of Evid. Paleolith. Age in Somaliland,” _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, vol. xxv. (1896), p. 271; X. Stainier, “L’âge de la pierre au Congo,” _Annales Mus. du Congo_, 3rd series (Anthr.), vol. i., part 1, Brussels, 1899 (with plates).]

[Footnote 482: R. Collignon, “Les âges de la pierre en Tunisie,” _Mater. Hist. Nat. Homme_, 3rd series, vol. iv., Toulouse, 1887; Couillault, “Station préhist. Gafsa,” _L’Anthropologie_, vol. v., 1894, p. 530; Zaborowski, “Period néolith. Afr. du nord,” _Rev. Ec. Anthr._, Paris, 1899, p. 41.]

[Footnote 483: See for details, R. Andree, “Steinzeit Afrikas,” _Globus_, vol. xli. (1882), p. 169; and X. Stainier, _loc. cit._, p. 18.]

[Footnote 484: Recent discoveries of stone objects in Egypt have revived the question of Asiatic or European influence in Africa. While Flinders Petrie, De Morgan, and others suppose that Petrie’s “new race” of the neolithic period which preceded Egyptian civilisation in the Nile valley is related to the Libyans coming from the north-west of Africa, and perhaps from Europe, Schweinfurth (_Zeitsh. f. Ethnol._, 1897; _Verhandl._, p. 263) thinks that these neolithic people were immigrants from Arabia (Semites?), who had come into the Nile valley from the south, through Nubia. The recent discovery of chipped flints in the country of the Somalis, as well as considerations of a botanic character, confirm this supposition, without excluding, however, the possibility of the arrival of the Libyans of the north-west in the palæolithic period, and the tribes of Syria and Mesopotamia in historic times. (Evidence: the “Hyksos” of the Egyptian annals, the presence of cuneiform tablets at Tel-el-Amarna, upper Egypt, to which attention was drawn by Sayce, etc.)]

[Footnote 485: Barthel, “Völkerbewegungen ... Afrikan. Kontin.,” _Mittheil. Verein Erdkunde_, Leipzig, 1893, with map.]

[Footnote 486: Jews and Maltese on the coast of the Mediterranean; Persians and Hindus on the east coast and the islands off it; a few hundred Chinese introduced into the Congo State and the Mauritius and Réunion islands. Among the Europeans, the _Boers_ of Cape Colony, of the basin of the Orange river, and the Transvaal, as well as the Portuguese of Angola and Mozambique, are more or less intermingled with the natives. The English of the Cape, and the French of Algeria-Tunis, and the “Creoles” of the island of Réunion have kept themselves more free from intermixture. Finally, let us note the Spanish of Algeria-Morocco and the Canary Isles, the latter the hybrid descendants of the prehistoric Guanches, which are perhaps connected with the European Cro-Magnon race. (See S. Berthelot, “Les Guanches,” _Mem. Soc. Ethnol._, Paris, vols. i. and ii., 1841-45; Verneau, _Iles Canaries_, Paris, 1891.)]

[Footnote 487: Hartmann, “Les Peuples de l’Afrique,” Paris, 1880 (_Bibl. Internat._), a work written from a different standpoint from the present chapter.]

[Footnote 488: See for details, Hanoteau and Letourneux, _La Kabylie_, etc., Paris, 1872-73; Quedenfeld, “Berberbevölkerung in Marokko,” _Zeits. f. Ethn._, vol. xx.-xxi., 1888-89; Topinard, “Les types de ... l’Algérie,” _Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris_, 1881; Villot, _Mœurs, coutumes ... des indig. de l’Algérie_, Algiers, 1888; Ch. Amat, “Les Beni-Mzab,” _Rev. Anthr._, 1884, p. 644.]

[Footnote 489: Collignon, “Ethn. gén. de la Tunisie,” _Bull. Géogr. hist. et descr._, Paris, 1887. Cf. Bertholon, “La population de la Tunisie,” _Rev. gén. des Sc._, Paris, 1896, p. 972 (with fig.).]

[Footnote 490: It is to be noted that these last belong, like the islanders of Djerba, to the _Ibadite_ sect, an offshoot of orthodox Islamism.]

[Footnote 491: Duveyrier, _Les Touareg du Nord_, Paris, 1864; Schirmer, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 492: Rohlfs, _Quer durch Africa_, vol. i., Leipzig, 1888.]

[Footnote 493: Faidherbe, “Les Berbers ... du Sénégal,” _Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris_, 1864, p. 89; R. Collignon and Deniker, “Les Maures du Sénégal,” _L’Anthropologie_, 1895, p. 287.]

[Footnote 494: According to the best preserved monuments, the ancient Egyptians had a brownish-reddish complexion of skin, long face, pointed chin, scant beard, straight or aquiline nose like the Ethiopian race (see p. 288). The hair of the mummies makes us think of the black and frizzy hair of the Ethiopians themselves. Lastly, the few ancient Egyptian skulls examined are meso- or dolicho-cephalic. See Pruner-Bey, _Mem. Soc. Anthr. Paris_, vol. i., 1863; Hartman, _Zeits. für Ethnol._, vols. i. and ii., 1869-70, and _Die Nigritier_, Berlin, 1876; E. Schmidt, _Arch. f. Anthr._, vol. xvii., 1888; S. Poole, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, vol. xvi., 1886, p. 371; S. Bertin, _ibid._, 1889, vol. xviii., p. 104; _Phot. Coll._, Flinders Petrie (Brit. Assoc. 1887); Sergi, _Africa Antropol. della stirpe camitica_, Turin, 1897. Virchow (_Sitzungsb. Preuss Akad. Wiss._, 1888) has endeavoured to show that the most ancient type of the Egyptians was brachycephalic, but his deductions are disputable, being based on measurements of statues.]

[Footnote 495: Sometimes the Barabras are also similarly designated, in my opinion wrongly, for this leads to a triple confusion, “Nuba” being still the name of a Negro tribe (see p. 444). It would be more correct to employ this term as a synonym of _Northern Ethiopian_; besides, according to Strabo (Book XVII.), Eratosthenes refers to the “Nubians” in his time as a people distinct from the Negroes and Egyptians. The Barabras are not so dark, have not such frizzy hair, and are not so tall as the Bejas, the Hamrans, and other Ethiopians their neighbours, and consequently belong, not only by their language, but also by their physical type, to the Arabo-Berber group.]

[Footnote 496: For general works see Paulitschke, _Beiträge Ethnogr. u. Anthr. d. Somâl. Galla_, Leipzig, 1886, and _Ethnogr. Nordost Africas_, Berlin, 1893-96, 2 vols.; Sergi, _loc. cit._ (_Africa_).]

[Footnote 497: Hartmann, “Die Bedjah,” _Zeit. f. Ethnol._, vol. xi., 1879, p. 117; Virchow, _Zeit. f. Ethn._, vol. x., 1878 (Verh. p. 333, etc.), and vol. xi., 1879 (Verh. p. 389); Deniker, _Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris_, 1880, p. 594.]

[Footnote 498: Révoil, _La Vallée du Darrar_, Paris, 1882; Paulitschke, _loc. cit._; Sergi, _loc. cit._, p. 178; Santelli, _Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris_, 1893, p. 479.]

[Footnote 499: See Appendices I. to III. for the measurements given from the works already quoted of Deniker, Paulitschke, Santelli, Sergi, and Virchow.]

[Footnote 500: J. Thomson, _Through Masai Land_, 2nd ed., London, 1887; Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_, Berlin, 1894; F. von Luschan, _Beitr. zur Völkerk. d. Deutsch. Schulzgebiet_, Berlin, 1897, with meas. and phot.]

[Footnote 501: W. Junker, _Reisen in Afrika_, Vienna and Olmütz, 1889-91; and _Ergänzungsh. Peter. Mit._, Nos. 92 and 93, Gotha, 1888-89.]

[Footnote 502: Schweinfurth, “Die Monbuttu,” _Zeits. f. Ethn._, 1873, p. 1, and _Artes Africanæ_, Leipzig, 1875; Junker, _loc. cit._; P. Comte, _Les N’Sakkaras_, Bar-le-Duc, 1895.]

[Footnote 503: See Schweinfurth, _loc. cit._ (_Artes Africanæ_), and _The Heart of Africa_, 2nd ed., London, 1878; Junker, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 504: Crampel, _Le Tour du Monde_, 1890, 2nd half-year, p. 1; Dybowski, _La Route du Tchad_, Paris, 1893; Maistre, _De l’Oubanghi à la Bénoué_, Paris, 1895.]

[Footnote 505: Béranger-Féraud, _Peuples de la Senagambie_, chap, iii., Paris, 1879; and the works of Faidherbe, Binger, Tautin, P. C. Meyer, quoted later.]

[Footnote 506: Stature, 1 m. 75; ceph. ind., 74.3; nas. ind., 95.3 (Collignon and Deniker on 32 subjects).]

[Footnote 507: It follows from what has been said previously that in many places the northern portion of the Negro territory is invaded by the Ethiopians, the Fulah-Zandeh, and the Arabo-Berbers.]

[Footnote 508: Nachtigal, _Sahara et Soudan_, vol. i. (trans. into French), p. 245, Paris, 1881.]

[Footnote 509: Nachtigal, _Sahara und Sudan_, Berlin-Leipzig, 1879-89, 3 vols.]

[Footnote 510: Schweinfurth, _loc. cit._, vol. i., chaps. vii. and lciv.; Stuhlmann, _loc. cit._, chap. xxii.; Frobenius, _Die Heiden-Neger_, Berlin, 1893; E. de Martonne, _Annales de Géogr._, Paris, 1896, p. 506, and 1897, p. 57.]

[Footnote 511: Nachtigal, _loc. cit._; Barth, _Reisen ... in Nord u. Centr. Afr._, Gotha, 1857-58, 5 vols.; Monteil, _De Saint-Louis à Tripoli_, Paris, 1895; Maistre, _loc. cit._; Staudinger, _Im Herzen der Haussaländer_, Berlin, 1889, 2 vols.]

[Footnote 512: The Diumma or Diammo, to the north-east of the bend of the Black Volta, are probably a branch of the Gurunga; only having for long been subject to the Ashantis they have adopted their language, which is the only one they use in addressing strangers. (Binger, _Du Niger au golfe de Guinée_, Paris, 1892.)]

[Footnote 513: Béranger-Féraud, _loc. cit._, ch. v., and _Rev. Anthr._, 1874, p. 444; Binger, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 514: Faidherbe, “Les Sarakolés,” _Rev. de Linguist._, 1881, p. 80.]

[Footnote 515: For details see C. Madrolle, _En Guinée_, Paris, 1895.]

[Footnote 516: They must not be confounded with the Diula of the regions of Kong and the upper Niger, one of the first Mandénké tribes converted to Islamism, at the same time one of the least fanatic, perhaps because the most given to trade. (See M. Monnier, _loc. cit._)]

[Footnote 517: Coffinières de Nordeck, _Tour du Monde_, vol. li., p. 273, 1886.]

[Footnote 518: Binger, _loc. cit._; Tautin, “Les Castes des Mandingues,” _Rev. Ethnogr._, vol. iii., Paris, 1884.]

[Footnote 519: For details in regard to the Wolofs, the Toucouleur, etc., see Béranger-Féraud, _loc. cit._, chap. i., and _Rev. Anthr._, 1875; Tautin, “Études ... ethnol. peuples Senegal,” _Rev. Ethnogr._, 1885; Deniker and Laloy, _loc. cit._, p. 259; Collignon and Deniker, unpublished notes; Verneau, “Serer, Leybou, Ouolofs,” _L’Anthropol._, 1895, p. 510.]

[Footnote 520: Deniker and Laloy, _loc. cit._; Ten Kate and Serrurier, _Musée Ethnogr. Leyden, Notices Anth._, No. I., undated (1891?), in fol.]

[Footnote 521: Buttikofer, _Reisebilder aus Liberia_, vol. ii., Leyden, 1890.]

[Footnote 522: Fleuriot de Langle, _Le Tour du Monde_, 1873, 2nd half-year; Binger, _loc. cit._, 2nd vol.; Delafosse, “Les Agni,” _L’Anthropologie_, 1893, p. 403.]

[Footnote 523: Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples, etc._, London, 1887, and _The Ewe-speaking Peoples, etc._, London, 1890; Foa, _Le Dahomey_, Paris, 1895; D’Albecca, _Le Tour du Monde_, Feb. 1896; F. von Luschan, _loc. cit._ (_Beitr. Deutsch. Schützg...._).]

[Footnote 524: Rev. Dennis Kemp, _Nine Years on the Gold Coast_, London, 1898.]

[Footnote 525: The name Mina was applied in Brazil without distinction to all Negroes imported from the Slave Coast, while those from the Gold Coast were called Apollonians. Batty, “Yorouba Country,” _Journ. Anthro. Inst._, vol. ix. (1890), p. 160; Moloney, _ibid._, p. 213; Ellis, The _Yoruba-speaking Peoples_, London, 1894.]

[Footnote 526: Deniker, “Les Dahoméens,” _Rev. gén. Sciences_, 1891, p. 174; Deniker and Laloy, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 527: See, about these populations, the 1st Appendix, by Comte de Cardi, in _West Afric. Stud._, by Miss M. Kingsley, London, 1899.]

[Footnote 528: Schweinfurth, _loc. cit._; Stanley, _In Darkest Africa_, London, 1890; Wolff, _Zeit. f. Ethn._, 1886 (Verh., p. 25); De Quatrefages, _loc. cit._ (_Les Pygmées_), p. 253; De Quatrefages and Hamy, _Cran. Ethn._, p. 334; Falkenstein, _Zeit. f. Ethn._, 1877 (Verh., p. 194 and pl. xii.-xiv.); W. Flower, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, vol. xviii. (1889), p. 3; Deniker and Laloy, _loc. cit._, p. 288; Emin Bey (afterwards Pasha), “Sur les Akka, etc.,” _Zeit. f. Ethn._, 1886, p. 145; Junker, _loc. cit._; Nebout, _Tour du Monde_, 1892, vol. i., p. 64; Crampel, “Les Bayagas,” _Compte rend. Soc. Geogr._, Paris, 1890, p. 548; O. Lenz, _Ueber Zwergvölker Afr._, Vienna, 1894; Deniker, _Bull. Soc. Anthr._, 1894, p. 440; Dybowski, _La Nature_, 1894, 2nd half-year; Stuhlmann, _loc. cit._, pl. xvi.-xvii., p. 436; Schlichter, “Pygmy of Africa,” _Scot. Geog. Mag._, 1892, p. 289, and _Peterm. Mitteil._, 1896, p. 235; Donaldson Smith, _Geog. Journ._, London, 1896, pp. 225 and 235; Burrows, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 529: Schinz, _loc. cit._; Emin, _loc. cit._; Wissmann, Wolff, Von François, and Müller, _Im Innern. Afrik._, Leipzig, 1888, Appendix IV., and _Zeit. f. Ethn._, 1884, Verh., p. 725.]

[Footnote 530: Dybowski, _loc. cit._; Maistre, _loc. cit._; Clozel, _Tour du Monde_, 1896, vol. ii.; Guiral, _Le Congo Français_, Paris, 1889; Deniker and Laloy, _loc. cit._, p. 274; Buchner, _Kamerun_, Leipzig, 1887; Morgen, _Durch Kamerun_, Leipzig, 1893; Zintgraff, _Nord-Kamerun_, Berlin, 1895, and “Congo-Völk.,” _Z. f. Ethn._, 1886, Verh., p. 27, and 1889, p. 90; F. von Luschan, _loc. cit._ (_Beitr._, etc.); V. Jacques, “Le Congolais de l’expos. d’Anvers,” _Bull. Soc. Anthr._, p. 284, Brussels, 1894; J. Wauters, _L’État Indép. du Congo_, Brussels, 1899; Mensé, “Völk. Mittl. Kongo,” _Z. f. Ethn._, 1897, Verh., p. 624.]

[Footnote 531: The Oshyeba are a section of the Fan people; they may be divided into _Makima_ (in the Upper Ogowe) and into _Mazuna_ (of the Gabun). They are a people of famous warriors, composed of 200,000 individuals, which number is increasing with extraordinary rapidity.]

[Footnote 532: A. Bastian, _Zeilschr. f. Ethnol._, vol. vi., 1874; E. Reclus, _Geogr. Univers._, vol. xiii., p. 125, Paris, 1888.]

[Footnote 533: It is supposed that the Bubangis arrived at the north of French Congo about the eighteenth century, and their migration towards the south, stayed for the time being by the Batekes, has gone on to the present day.]

[Footnote 534: Pogge, _Im Reiche d. Muata Jamwo_, Berlin, 1880, and _Mittheil. Afrik. Gesell._, vol. iv., 1883-85, p. 179; Wolff, _Verh. Gesell. Erdkunde_, Berlin, 1887, No. 2; A. J. Wauters, _L’État independant du Congo_, Brussels, 1899, p. 257 _et seq._; Serpa Pinto, _How I Crossed Africa_, 2 vols., London, 1881, with figs.; Wissmann, Wolff, Von François, and Müller, _Im Inneren Afrikas_, Leipzig, 1888, with figs.; Jacques, _Les Congolais_.]

[Footnote 535: L. Frobenius (_Der Ursprung der Afrik. Kulturen_, Berlin, 1898) sees in this last-cited fact a proof of the supposed influence of the Malays; E. Reclus (_Geogr. Univers._, vol. xiii., p. 271) regards it as the result of imitation of the European factories which have been established for three centuries on the coast.]

[Footnote 536: The prefix _Ki_ means “language,” as _U_ means “country,” and _Va-Ua_, or _Ba_, “people,” or “men.”]

[Footnote 537: Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Sud-Afrikas_, Breslau, 1872, with atlas; Holub, _Sieben Jahre in Sud-Afrika_, Vienna, 1881, vol. ii., figs. and maps, and “Die Matabele,” _Zeitschr. f. Ethnol._, vol. xx., 1893; Kropf, _Das Volk d. Xosa-Kaffern_, Berlin, 1889; Wood, _loc. cit._, vol. i.; Macdonald, “Manners ... South-African Tribes,” _Journ. Anth. Inst._, vol. xix., p. 264, and vol. xx., p. 123 (1889-90); Johnston, _British Central Africa_, London, 1897; Junod, “Les Ba-Ronga,” _Bull. Soc. Neuchateloise de Géogr._, vol. x., 1898.]

[Footnote 538: The Bechuana are a little shorter (1 m. 68, according to Fritsch) and more dolichocephalic (ceph. ind. of four skulls, 70.9, according to Hamy, “Documents Cafrerie,” _Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat._, p. 357, Paris, 1882). Shrubsall (_Journ. Anth. Inst._, N.S., vol. i., 1898) gives the ceph. index as 71.3 for the Basuto skulls. The Herrero and Damara skulls have the indices, 71 and 72.]

[Footnote 539: Fritsch, _loc. cit._; Schinz, _loc. cit._; Von Luschan, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 540: The Bushmen represent the race almost in its purity, while the Hottentots show the traits of this race somewhat modified. The stature of the latter is higher, the head more dolichocephalic, the complexion darker, and the hands are not so small as is the case with Bushmen. Their features are more negroid, and it has been suggested that contact with the neighbouring Bantu tribes has had something to do with this. (See Deniker, “Les Hottentots,” _Rev. d’Anthrop._, 1889, p. 1.) The skin of the Hottentots, however, is still of a hue of yellow, and their steatopygy is almost as pronounced as with the Bushmen.]

[Footnote 541: For particulars see Sibree, _Great Afric. Island ... Madagascar_, 1880; M. Leclerc, “Les peuplades de Madagascar,” _Rev. d’Ethnogr._, vol. v., 1886, p. 397, and vol. vi., 1887, p. 1; Catat, _Voyage à Madagascar_, Paris, 1895, in quarto; Grandidier, “Les Hovas,” _Rev. gén. des Sciences_, No. for 1st June, 1895; A. Jolly, _L’Anthropologie_, 1894, p. 385; Besson, _ibid._, p. 674; “Le Madagascar,” _Rev. gén. des Sciences_, Paris, No. for 15th Aug., 1895, fig.; Last, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, 1896, p. 47; Bouchereau, _L’Anthr._, 1897, p. 149; J. Carol, _Chez les Hovas_, Paris, 1898.]

[Footnote 542: The prefix _Antan_ or _Anta_ (in some dialects _Ta_) in Malagasy language means “people of,” and is found in the nomenclature of all the tribes and people of the island.]

[Footnote 543: See the measurements given in Appendices I. to III., according to Bouchereau, _loc. cit._, and my own unpublished observations made in conjunction with Dr. Collignon.]

[Footnote 544: For particulars see C. Pleyte, “De prähist. steenen wapenen ... Oost-Indish. Archipel.,” _Bijdr. t. d. Taal-Land-en Volkenk. van Nederl. Ind._, Batavia, 5th series, vol. ii., p. 586; Wilken, _loc. cit._, p. 83; Etheridge, “Has Man a Geological History in Australia?”_ Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales_, 1890, p. 259; B. Smyth, _loc. cit._, vol. i., p. 239, and vol. ii., p. 234; R. Chapmann, _Trans. N. Zeal. Inst._, 1891, p. 479.]

[Footnote 545: See W. Thomson Smith, _loc. cit._; Tautain, “Monuments des Marquises,” _L’Anthropol._, 1897, p. 4; F. Christian, “On Micronesian Weapons,” _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, N.S., 1899, vol. i., p. 288, pl. xx. and xxiv.]

[Footnote 546: Besides, the Maoris of New Zealand know nothing of pottery, notwithstanding their clay deposits, nor of weaving, notwithstanding the presence in their island of _Formium_ and other textile plants.]

[Footnote 547: The division, based on physical characters, of tribes of the interior, composed of a strong people of high stature and regular features, and of tribes of the coast, formed of a little, ugly, and puny people, a division proposed by Topinard (_Bull. Soc. Anthro._, 1872), has not been confirmed by later investigations.]

[Footnote 548: “Report ... Horn Scientif. Exped. Centr. Austr.,” Part IV., _Anthropology_, by E. Stirling, London-Melbourne, 1896; Baldwin Spencer and F. Gillen, _The Native Tribes of Central Australia_, London, 1899, pl.; W. E. Roth, _Ethnol. Stud.... N. W. Centr. Queensl. Aborig._, Brisbane-London, 1897. For tribes of the east and south, see E. Curr, _The Australian Race_, Melbourne, 1886, 3 vols. with atlas; Lumholtz, _Among Cannibals_, London, 1890; and the works already quoted of Howitt, Fison, and B. Smyth. The measurements given in the Appendices are obtained from the works of Stirling and Gillen, Houzé (_Bull. Soc. Anthr. Bruxelles_, vol. iii., 1884-85); Cauvin, “Les Races de l’Océanie,” _Arch. Miss. Scient._, 3rd series, vol. iii., Paris, 1882; Topinard, _loc. cit._; Turner, _loc. cit._, etc.]

[Footnote 549: These natives and mixed breeds are apportioned by colonies, thus:--Victoria, 565; New South Wales, 8,280; South Australia, 23,789; West Australia, 6,245; Queensland, 20,585 (of which 12,000 are pure aborigines).]

[Footnote 550: See L. Parker, _Australian Legendary Tales_, London and Melbourne, 1897, and _More Australian Tales_, _ib._, 1898; Spencer and Gillen, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 551: Estimated at 1000 in 1817, the Tasmanians numbered 340 in 1824 (first census). The number fell to 111 in 1834, to 51 in 1842, to 16 in 1854, to 4 in 1865 (H. Hull, _Statist. Summary of Tasmanians_, 1866). The last representative of the Tasmanian people, a woman called Truganina, died in 1876. Miss F. C. Smith, still living, and described as a Tasmanian, in 1889, is a Tasmano-European half-breed (Ling Roth, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, vol. xxvii., p. 451, 1897-98).]

[Footnote 552: In his work, _The Aborigines of Tasmania_, 2nd ed., London, 1899, with figs., Ling Roth has conscientiously summarised all that has been published about the Tasmanians.]

[Footnote 553: There is no justification for supposing that the Kalangs of Java are Negritoes, as A. R. Meyer has assumed in his memoir (_Leopoldina_, part xiii., Nos. 13-14, 1877). See on this point, Kohlbrugge, “L’Anthr. des Tenggerois,” _L’Anthropologie_, p. 4, 1898.]

[Footnote 554: See Montano, “Mission aux Philippines,” _Arch. Miss. Scient._, 3rd series, vol. xi., with figs., Paris, 1885; De Quatrefages, _loc. cit._ (_Les Pygmées_); Schadenberg, _Zeitschr. f. Ethnol._, 1880.]

[Footnote 555: Ten Kate, “L’Anthropologie d’Oceanie,”_ L’Anthropologie_, vol. iv., 1893, p. 279; “Verslag eener Reis in Timorgrœp,” _Tijdschr. Nederl. Aardrijk. sk. Genoot._, Amsterdam, vol. xi., 1894, with summary in French; and _Anthropol. Problem in Insulindie ... Festbundel ... Dr. P. Veth aangeboden_, p. 212, Leyden, 1894; Lapicque, _loc. cit._ (_Tour du Monde_).]

[Footnote 556: Modigliani, _loc. cit._, and _L’isola delle Donne ... Engano_, Milan, 1894; Danielli, “Cranii di Engano,” _Archiv. p. l’anthr._, vol. xxiv. See also the works already quoted of Montano, Hagen (as well as his _Anthropolog. Atlas Ostasiat.... Völk._, Wiesbaden, 1898), Ten Kate, Deniker and Laloy, Lapicque, Kohlbrugge, etc.]

[Footnote 557: Junghuhn, _Battaländer auf Sumatra_, vol. ii., p. 375; Hamy, “Les Alfourous de Gilolo,” _Bull. Soc. Geogr. Paris_, 6th ser., vol. xiii., p. 490.]

[Footnote 558: The dwellings in trees at Sumbawa, among the Mandayas of Mindanao (Philippines), among the Lubu of Sumatra, should also be noted.]

[Footnote 559: Pleytte, “De Geogr. Otbreiding v. h. Koppensnellen, etc.,” _Tijdschr. v. h. Aardrijksk. Genoots_, p. 908, Amsterdam, 1891.]

[Footnote 560: For the anthropometry of some of the peoples enumerated below, see Appendices I. to III. The figures there given are derived from the works of Hagan, Ten Kate, Lapicque, Deniker and Laloy, Kohlbrugge, Jacobs, Weisbach, Lubbers and Langen.]

[Footnote 561: See J. Jacobs, _De Badoejs_, S’Gravenhage, 1891, and Kohlbrugge, _loc. cit._, and “De heilige bekers d. Tenegerezen,” _Tijdschr. v. Ind. Taal-Land-in Volkenk_, vol. xxxiv., 1896. Among the Tenggerese some vestiges of Buddhism may be discovered.]

[Footnote 562: See Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak_, 2 vols., London, 1896, and _Jour. Anthr. Inst._, vols. xxi. and xxii. (1892-93).]

[Footnote 563: Blumentritt, “Versuch. einer Ethnographie der Philip.,” _Ergänzungsheft, Peterm. Mitteil._, No. 67, Gotha, 1887, with map; Montano, _loc. cit._; Virchow, “Die Bevölker. d. Philip.,” _Sitzungsber. Berlin Acad. Wiss._, 1897, p. 279, and 1899, p. 14; Brinton, “The Peoples of Philip.” (short summary), _Amer. Anthropologist_, October, 1898.]

[Footnote 564: For the populations of Celebes, Timur, Floris, etc., see Max Weber, _Tijdsch. Aardrijksk. Genoots._, 2nd ser., vol. vii., Amsterdam, 1890, and _Inter. Arch. Ethnogr._, suppl. to vol. iii., Leyden, 1890, pl.; Brothers Sarasin, _Verh. Ges. Erdk. Berlin_, 1894, 1895, and 1896; Ten Kate, “Reis in de Timor groep,” _Tijd. Aardr. Genoot._, 2nd ser., vol. xi., p. 199, Amsterdam, 1894, and_ L’Anthropologie_, 1893, p. 279; Lapicque, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 565: See my summary of what was known of the Papuans in 1882 in the _Rev. d’Anthr._, 1883, p. 484, and the following works which have since appeared: Chalmers, _Pioneering in New Guinea_, London, 1887, and other works; De Clercq and Schmeltz, _Ethnogr. Beschrijving van de W. en N. Nederl. New Guin._, Leyden, 1893; Finsch, _Samoafahrten_, Leipzig, 1888, and his articles in the _Ann. naturh. Hofmus._, Vienna, 1888 and 1891, in the _Rev. d’Ethnogr._, 1886, etc.; Haddon, “Decorat. art Brit. N. Guin.,” _Cunningham Memoirs_, vol. x., _Roy. Irish Acad._, 1894; and “The Ethnography of Brit. New Guinea,” _Science Progress_, vol. ii., 1894, pp. 83 and 227, London, with map and bibliog.; Macgregor, _Proc. R. Geogr. Soc._, 1890, p. 191, and his official reports; Thomson, _Brit. New Guinea_, London, 1892.]

[Footnote 566: It is also to be noted that the supposed Papuan-Polynesian cross-breeds of the south-east of New Guinea neither drink kava nor know the art of pottery, unlike true Polynesians. Besides, their language approximates more nearly to the Melanesian dialects and presents no affinities with Polynesian languages (Ray, “Languages of Brit. N. Guinea,” _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, vol. xxiv., p. 15, 1894).]

[Footnote 567: Papuan skulls are generally very dolichocephalic (av. ceph. ind. 73), and the presence of brachycephalic skulls in the series of New Guinea origin is certainly of significance, only their proportion is very slight. Out of 500 New Guinea skulls described I have been able to find only 36 brachycephalic, or seven per cent. More than half of these skulls come from one and the same locality, the Kiwai and Canoe Islands in the delta of the Fly. Either a Malay colony may therefore be assumed there, a remnant of Negritoes, or that it was a centre of the custom of deforming the head, a custom which in fact obtains in the neighbourhood of the mouth of the Fly. On this question see my summary of 1882 cited above, and Haddon, _loc. cit._; Schellong, “Anthr. d. Papus,” _Zeit. f. Ethn._, p. 156, 1891; J. Chalmers, “Anthropometr. observ., etc.,” _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, vol. xxvii. (1897).]

[Footnote 568: The Kerepunu are good agriculturists; their mode of working is quite remarkable (Fig. 152). The soil is turned up at the word of command by a row of men, each of whom thrusts into the earth two pointed sticks, then using these sticks as levers a layer of earth is raised and a furrow is thus made.]

[Footnote 569: Hamy, “Papous de la mer d’Entrecasteaux,” _Rev. Ethnog._, 1889.]

[Footnote 570: Haddon, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, vol. xix., p. 297; S. Ray and Haddon, “Languages of Torres Straits,” _Proceed. R. Irish Acad._, 3rd ser., vol. iv., 1897; Rev. Hunt, _Journ. Anthr.... Inst._, N.S., vol. i., p. 5, 1898-99.]

[Footnote 571: R. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, Oxford, 1891, fig.; Finsch, _loc. cit._, _Rev. Ethnogr._, 1883, p. 49, and _Anthrop. Ergeb. einer Reise in der Sudsee_, Berlin, 1884, with fig.; Flower, “Cran. caract. Fiji Islanders,” _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, vol. x., 1881, p. 153; Hagen and Pineau, “Les Nouvelles-Hébrides,” _Rev. Ethnogr._, 1888, p. 302; Guppy, _The Solomon Islands and their Natives_, London, 1887; Hagen, “Les Indigènes des Salomon,” _L’Anthropol._, 1893, pp. 1 and 192; Aug. Bernard, _La Nouvelle Caledonie_ (thesis), p. 249 _et seq._, Paris, 1894; Luschan, _loc. cit._; Schellong, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 572: The number of Polynesians (2,310 in 1897) has diminished by half in the Fijis since 1881, while that of the natives (100,321 in 1897) has hardly varied. The Polynesian element is appreciable in the Aoba, Tanna, and Espiritu Santo islands of the New Hebrides, but its importance has been exaggerated so far as the Loyalty Islands and New Caledonia are concerned (see my note in the _Bull. Soc. Anthr._, p. 791, 1893).]

[Footnote 573: Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, 4 vols., London, 1853; Tautain, “Les Marquisiens,” _L’Anthropologie_, 1894, 1895, and 1898; Meinecke, _Die Inselen des stillen Oceans_, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1875; Markuse, _Die Hawaischen Inselen_, Berlin, 1894; Lister, “Natives of Fakaofu (Bowditch Island),” _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, vol. xxi., 1892, p. 43; Ch. Hedley, “The Atoll of Fanafuti, Ellice group,” _Australian Museum, Memoir III._, Sydney, 1897; H. Gros, “Les populations de la Polynesie française en 1891,” _Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris_, 1896, p. 144; Ten Kate, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 574: Kubary, _loc. cit._, and _Journ. Mus. Godeffroy_, parts 2 and 4, 1873.]

[Footnote 575: De Quatrefages, _Les Polynesiens et leurs migrations_, Paris, 1866, with maps.]

[Footnote 576: A. Bernard, _loc. cit._, p. 272.]

[Footnote 577: Sittig, “Unfreiwillige Wanderungen ...,” _Peterm. Mittheil._, p. 61, 1890.]

[Footnote 578: A. von Humboldt, in his _Évaluation numérique de la population du Nouveau Continent_, Paris, 1825, reckoned that in the Americas there were 13 millions of Whites, 6 millions of Half-breeds, 6 millions of Negroes, and 9 millions of Indians; three-quarters of a century later (in 1895-97) it was computed that there were 80 millions of Whites, 37 millions of Half-breeds, 10 millions of Negroes and 10 millions of Indians in a total population of 137 millions (1897).]

[Footnote 579: Williams, _Hist. of the Negro Race in America_, 2 vols., New York, 1885; B. A. Gould, _loc. cit._]