Chapter XXXII: Appendix: III (4)

[Footnote 580: The celebrated skull discovered by Whitney in the auriferous sands of Calaveras (California), which has been said to belong to the pliocene age, has been disputed both as regards its authenticity and the supposed date of its bed; and it is the same with the pestles and mortars discovered in the same neighbourhood by such geologists as Skertchly and C. King (cf. W. Holmes, “Prelim. Revis. Evidence to Aurif. Gravel Man in Calif.,” _Am. Anthropologist_, N.S., vol. i., Nos. 1 and 2, New York, 1899). The imprints of human feet, or rather of moccasins, discovered at Carson (Nevada), even granted that they are authentic, have in any case been found in beds whose period is by no means tertiary.]

[Footnote 581: At this period Greenland, all Canada, a corner of Alaska, and a good part of the United States were covered with glaciers almost uninterruptedly. The limit of the moraine to the south may be indicated by a line which, leaving New York, for Lake Erie, would follow the course of the Ohio as far as the region of its junction with the Mississippi, and would be continued along or a little to the west and to the south of the Missouri to coincide then with the Canadian frontier. The fauna of the American quaternary period differed somewhat from that of Europe: the _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_, for instance, was missing, while the _Mastodon ohioticus_ and several large edentata, such as the _Megatherium_, _Mylodon_, etc., are met with.]

[Footnote 582: See for details, Abbott, _Primitive Industry_, Cambridge (Mass.), 1881, and _Evidence ... Antiquity of Man in East N. America_, 1888; F. Wright, _The Ice Age in North America_, New York, 1889, chaps. xxi. and xxii., and _Meet. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sc. of Buffalo_, 1896; Geikie, _loc. cit._ (chap. li., written by T. Chamberlin); Metz, _Proceed. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist._, vol. xxiii., p. 242; W. Upham, _ibid._, p. 436; Hille-Cresson, _Proceed. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist._, 1889; Holmes, _loc. cit._ (_Fifteenth Rep. Bur. Ethn._); Th. Wilson, _A Study of Prehist. Anthrop._, Washington, 1890 (Extract from _Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus._, 1887-88, p. 597). For the discussion, see _Science_ for 1892 and 1898. Marcellin Boule has summarised most of the works quoted, and shows the present state of the question in _Revue d’Anthropologie_, 1888, p. 647, and in _L’Anthropologie_, 1890 and 1892; see also Nadaillac, _L’Anthropologie_, 1897 and 1898. I will merely note that the tendency of surface objects to sink towards deep beds, brought forward by the opponents of Abbott, Wright, etc., altogether fails to explain why _other_ implements (in flint, jade, etc.) or pieces of pottery have not similarly been carried down, and that only argilite tools are found _flat_ in deep beds.]

[Footnote 583: Hamy, “Anthropologie du Mexique,” _Miss. scientifique du Mexique_ (_Rech. zool._, 1st part), p. 11, Paris, 1884.]

[Footnote 584: S. Herrera, _Proceed. Am. Ass. Adv. Sc._, Madison, 1893, pp. 42 and 312; Th. Wilson, _loc. cit._; De Nadaillac,_ L’Amerique préhistorique_, Paris, 1883, and _Revue d’Anthropol._, 1879 and 1880.]

[Footnote 585: Ameghino, _La Antiguedad del hombre en El Plata_, Paris-Buenos-Ayres, 1880, 2 vols.]

[Footnote 586: De Quatrefages, “L’homme foss. de Lagoa-Santa,” _Izviestia Soc. of Friends of Nat. Sc._, Moscow, vol. xxxv., 1879; Sören Hansen and Lutken, _Lagoa Santa Racen_, Copenhagen, 1889, extract from _E Museo Lundii_, vol. iv.; Hyades and Deniker, _loc. cit._, p. 163.]

[Footnote 587: Lacerda and Peixoto, “Contribuições ... raças indig. do Brasil,” Archiv. do Mus. nac., Rio-de-Janeiro, vol. i., 1876, and _Mem. Soc. Anthrop._, Paris, 2nd ser., vol. ii., 1875-82, p. 535; H. von Ihering, “A civilisaçao prehist. de Brazil merid.,” _Revista do Museu-Paulista_, vol. i., p. 95, S. Paulo, 1895.]

[Footnote 588: Moreno, “Cimet. et paraderos prehist., etc.,” _Rev. Anthrop._, 1874, p. 72; Verneau, “Crânes préhist. de Patagonie,” _L’Anthropol._, 1894, p. 420.]

[Footnote 589: E. Schmidt, _Die Vorgeschichte Nord-Amerikas_, Brunswick, 1894; cf. _Arch. f. Anthrop._, vol. xxiii., 1894. For details see Cyrus Thomas, “Burial Mounds,” _Fifth Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethn._, Washington, 1887 and “Rep. Mound Explorat.,” _Twelfth Rep. Bur. Ethn. for 1890-91_, Washington, 1894; Carr, “Crania from Stone Graves, etc.,” _Eleventh Rep. Peabody Mus._; Hale, “Indian Migration, etc.,” _Amer. Antiquar._, 1883; Shepherd, _Antiquities of State Ohio_, Cincinnati, 1890; Brinton, _Essays of an Americanist_, p. 90, Philadelphia, 1890.]

[Footnote 590: The northern zone, circumscribing the great lakes, is characterised by monuments of rude form; the southern zone, between the Gulf of Mexico and the basin of the Ohio, is distinguished by mounds in the form of a truncated pyramid; while the middle zone, that of the basin of the Ohio, presents a large number of mounds of peculiar and very perfected types. In each of these zones special regions may be distinguished, characterised by the shape of the mounds and by the nature of the objects immured in them.]

[Footnote 591: Cushing, _C. R. Congr. Internat. des Americanistes_, p. 150, Berlin, 1888; V. Mindeleff, “Pueblo Architecture,” _Eighth Report Bur. Ethnol. for 1886-87_, p. 1, Washington, 1891-93; C. Mindeleff, “Casa Grande Ruin,” _Thirteenth Report Bur. Ethn. for 1891-92_, Washington, 1894; Nordenskiold and Retzius, _The Cliff-Dwellers_, etc., Stockholm, 1893, in fol. L. Morgan has sought to show in his monograph, “Houses and House Life of Am. Aborigines,” _Contrib. N. Amer. Ethn._, vol. iv, Washington, 1881, that the phalanstery-houses were the typical form of dwelling-place all of the North, and some of the South Americans, in association with the communal organisation of the tribes.]

[Footnote 592: I have always maintained this opinion, which is amply confirmed to-day by the investigations made by Ten Kate (“Somatol. Observ. Ind. South-west,” _Journ. Amer. Ethnol._, vol. iii., p. 122, Cambridge, Mass., and _Rev. d’Anthrop._, 1887, p. 48), from Canada to the Pampas. As to South America, the prevalent yellow colouring has been further noticed by A. von Humboldt, and recently confirmed by Ranke (_Zeitsch. f. Ethnol._, 1898, p. 61).]

[Footnote 593: Gatschet, “Klamath Indians,” _Contrib. N. A. Ethnol._, vol. ii., Part I., p. 43, Washington, 1890; D. Brinton, _The American Race_, p. 57, New York, 1891; Ehrenreich, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 594: D. Brinton, “Certain Morph. Traits of Am. Languages,” _Amer. Antiquarian_, November, 1894.]

[Footnote 595: Powell, “Indian Linguist. Families, etc.,” _Seventh Rep. Bur. Ethn. for 1885-86_, Washington, 1891 (92), p. 1 (with map).]

[Footnote 596: A curious fact is brought out by the study of the linguistic chart published by Powell: that most of the families of different languages are grouped in the western, mountainous part of North America. Thus, out of 59 linguistic families, 40 are found in the limited area between the Pacific and the Rocky Mountains, while all the rest of the continent is divided among 19 linguistic families only. The same fact is observed in South America. We can reduce to a dozen groups the languages of the Atlantic slope of this continent, while in the Andes and on the Pacific slope an enormous number of linguistic families have been noted without any apparent common connection.]

[Footnote 597: E. Petitot, _Monogr. Esquim. Tchiglit du Mackenzie_, Paris, 1876, 4to; Dall, “Tribes of ... extr. North-West,” _Contrib. to North Amer. Ethnol._, vol. i, p. 1, Washington, 1877; Ray, _Intern. Polar Exped. Point Barrow_, Washington, 1888; Sören Hansen, _loc. cit._, and “Ost Grönl. Anthropol.,” _Meddel om Groenland_, vol. x.; Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethn._, 1888, p. 409; G. Holm, _loc. cit._; Rink, “The Eskimo Tribes,” _Meddelel. om Grönl._, vol. xi., and other works by this author in Danish, quoted by Bahnson, _Ethnographien_, vol. i., p. 223, Copenhagen, 1894; F. Nansen, _Eskimo Life_, London, 2nd edit., 1894, figs.; Dix Bolles, _Catal. Eskimo Collect. Rep. U.S. Nation. Mus. for 1887_, p. 335; R. Peary, _Northward over the Great Ice_, 2 vols., New York, 1898.]

[Footnote 598: The most northern point now inhabited by the Eskimo is situated on the Greenland side of Smith’s Sound, 78° 8´ N. lat. (see the description of this tribe of 2,344 persons in Peary, _loc. cit._, vol. i., p. 479); but Greely found traces of the permanent settlement of this people near Fort Conger, in Greenland, 81° 44´ N. lat. The most southern point occupied by the Eskimo is Hamilton Inlet (55° N. lat.) in Labrador, but it is not long since they reached as far as the straits of Belle-Isle in Newfoundland and even farther south, to the estuary of the St. Lawrence (50° N. lat.).]

[Footnote 599: A great change in the habits of the Eskimo of Alaska will be effected by the introduction of reindeer, through the agency of the United States Government (see Jackson, _Rep. Introd. Reindeer in Alaska_, Washington, 1894 and 1895).]

[Footnote 600: Erman, “Ethnol. Wahrnem Behring Meeres,” _Zeitsch. für Ethnol._, vol. iii., pp. 159 and 205; Dall, _Alaska, etc._, London, 1870; Bancroft, _Native Races Pacif. St. of America_, Washington, vol. i., 1875-76, pp. 87 and 111, and 1882, p. 562.]

[Footnote 601: Brinton, _loc. cit._ (_Amer. Race_); Schoolcraft, _loc. cit._; Powell, _loc. cit._ (_Ind. Ling. Fam._); Catlin, _Letters and Notes N. Amer. Ind._, London, 1844 (cf. _Report U.S. Nation. Mus._, 1885).]

[Footnote 602: Ten Kate, _Bull. Soc. Anthrop._, Paris, 1884, p. 551, and 1885, p. 241.]

[Footnote 603: According to Powell, _Smiths. Rep._, 1895, p. 658, the Atlantic slope may be divided into four provinces: _Algonquian_, _Iroquoian_, that of the _southern part of the United States_ (Muskhogean), and that of the _plains of the Great West_. The Pacific slope is split up in its turn into five provinces: North Pacific, Columbia, Interior Basin, California-Oregon, and the Pueblos region which encroaches upon Mexico.]

[Footnote 604: The “Pueblos,” Zuñis, Moquis, etc., from whom these Athapascans have conquered their territory, are short and brachycephalic. Interminglings have modified only the form of the head of the Southern Athapascans; but it must be remembered that the practice of deforming the skull prevails among them.]

[Footnote 605: There are some Apache tribes in Mexico, the _Lipans_, the _Jarros_, but their numerical force is not known.]

[Footnote 606: See J. Stevenson, “Navajo Ceremonial,” _Eighth Rep. Bur. Ethnol._, and articles by Matthews on the Navajos in the 2nd, 3rd, and 5th Reports of the _Bur. Ethnol._; Ten Kate, _Reizen en Ondezokongei in N. Amer._, Leyden, 1885; cf. _Bull. Soc. Anthropol._, 1883, and “Somatol. Observ. Ind. South-west,” _Journ. Amer. Ethnol._, vol. iii., Cambridge, 1891.]

[Footnote 607: Lloyd, “On the Beothucs,” _Journ. Anthropol. Inst. Great Britain_, vols. iv. and v. (1874-75); and Gatschet, _Proc. Am. Philos. Soc._, 1885-86, and 1890.]

[Footnote 608: H. Hale, “The Iroquois Book of Rites,” No. 2 of the _Library of Aborig. Amer. Lit._ of Brinton, Philad., 1883, chaps. i. and ii. (history of the confederation summarised from the standard works of Morgan, Colden, etc.); C. Royce, “The Cherokee Nation, etc.,” _Fifth Rep. Bur. Ethn. for 1883-84_; Mooney, “Sacred Formulæ of Cherokee,” _Seventh Rep. Bur. Ethn. for 1885-86_.]

[Footnote 609: The primitive population of Florida, the _Timuquanans_, appear to have been exterminated in the eighteenth century. See MacCauley, “The Seminol Ind.,” _Fifth Rep. Bur. Ethn. for 1883-84_, p. 467, Washington, 1887.]

[Footnote 610: R. Rigges, “Dictionary ... and Ethnogr. of Dakota,” _Contrib. N. Amer. Ethn._, vol. viii.; Dorsey, “Furniture and Implements of Omaha,” _Thirteenth Rep. Bur. Ethn._; “Omaha Sociology,” _Third Rep. Bur. Ethn._; Mooney, “Siouan Tribes of the East,” _Bull. Bur. of Ethn._, No. 24, Washington, 1894.]

[Footnote 611: See Appendices I. to III.; the measurements there given are principally taken from Boas, Ten Kate, the American military commission, and my own observations with Laloy.]

[Footnote 612: Not less than 39 linguistic families may be enumerated on that long but narrow strip of land which extends from Alaska to California, between the Rocky Mountains and the ocean. (Powell, _loc. cit._)]

[Footnote 613: The Moquis and Zuñis are in fact 1 m. 62 in height, and have a ceph. ind. of 83.3 and 84.9. We must, however, notice some exceptions in regard to the somatic type of the Indians of the Pacific slopes: the _Salishans_ of the coast (with the exception of the Bilcoolas) are almost short and brachycephalic, while those of the interior are almost tall and brachycephalic, like the _Bilcoolas_, the _Maricopas_, the _Mohares_ (Fig. 4).]

[Footnote 614: The first of these groups occupies Powell’s North Pacific and Columbian “ethnographic provinces” (_loc. cit._); the second, the province of Oregon-California; the third, the Interior Basin and the region of the Pueblos.]

[Footnote 615: Gibbs, “Tribes of W. Washington and N.-W. Oregon,” _Contrib. N. Am. Ethn._, vol. i., p. 157, Washington, 1887; Dall, “Tribes N.W. Washington,” _ibid._; Petroff, _Rep. on Populat.... of Alaska_, Washington, 1884; _Amerikas Nordwesküste_ (Publ. Ethn. Mus.), Berlin, 1883-84, 2 vols., fol.; Krause, _Die Tlinkit Indianer_, Jena, 1885; “Reports ... Committee, North-West Tribes ... Canada” (in the _Rep. Brit. Assoc._ from 1885 to 1898; especially the reports by H. Hale and Wilson on the Black-Feet in 1885 and 1887, and the full reports of Boas, 1888 to 1890, and in 1898, partly summarised in _Peterm. Mittheil._, 1887 and 1896, and in the _Transact. Roy. Soc. Canada_, 1888, 2nd sect.); Boas, “Die Tsimshian,” _Zeitsch. f. Ethn._, 1888, p. 231; Niblack, “Coast Ind. South Alaska and N. Brit. Colomb.,” _Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1898_.]

[Footnote 616: Bancroft, _loc. cit._, vol. iii.; Ten Kate, _Bull. Soc. Anthrop._, Paris, 1884, and _loc. cit._; Deniker, _Bull. du Museum d’Hist. Nat._, 1895, No. 2.]

[Footnote 617: The Shoshones, who inhabited by themselves the _interior basin_ between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra-Nevada, have now dwindled to 17,000 individuals, just managing to subsist by fishing and gathering roots on infertile soil. They are composed of twelve tribes, of which the more important are those of the _Shoshones_, the _Utes_ (Fig. 40), the _Piutes_ or _Pai-Utes_, and the _Comanches_. Buschmann (_Die Spuren d. Aztek Sprache, etc._, Berlin, 1859) was the first to draw attention to the affinity of their dialect with the Sonoran-Aztec linguistic group (see p. 535), while Gibbs (_loc. cit._, p. 224) was the first to point out their probable migration from the region situated between the Rocky Mountains and the Great Lakes towards the deserts of the Great Basin. Brinton (_Amer. Race_, p. 119) confirms this observation, arriving at his conclusion from new facts.]

[Footnote 618: It should be mentioned that this brachycephaly is also found, even a little more accentuated, in the skulls which Mr. Cushing and the members of the Hemenway expedition discovered in the ancient habitations of the Salado valley and in the Hanolawan pueblo, attributed to the not very remote ancestors of the Pueblos of the present day. These skulls are hyper-brachycephalic (mean ceph. ind. of 94 skulls, 89); they also exhibited an extraordinary frequency of the “Inca bone” (p. 67), and several other osteological peculiarities, as, for instance, in the structure of the hyoid bone (p. 96).]

[Footnote 619: Orozco y Berra, _Geografia de las lenguas ... de Mexico_, Mexico, 1864, with ethn. chart (which may still be profitably consulted).]

[Footnote 620: According to Brinton, the great Uto-Aztecan linguistic family is composed of three branches: Shoshonean (or Ute), Sonoran, and Nahuatlan (Aztec).]

[Footnote 621: It is the same with the _Coras_ (3000), and especially with the _Huicholes_ (4000) of the Nayarit Sierra (north of Jalisco), who are tillers of the soil, and the last remnants of a formerly numerous and warlike population. The Huicholes worship the sun and various plant divinities, more particularly the “peyote” (a cactus, _Anhalonium Lewinii_), the fruit of which has stimulative and anaphrodisiac properties. (Hamy, _Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat._, 1898, p. 197; Lumholtz, _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._, 1898, p. 1, with plates; L. Diguet, _Nouv. Arch. Miss. Scientif._, vol. ix., p. 571, plates, Paris, 1899.)]

[Footnote 622: Hamy, “Distrib. geogr. des Opatus, Tarahumars, etc.,” _Bull. Soc. Anthrop._, Paris, 1883, p. 785; Ten Kate, “Sur les Pimas, etc.,” _Bull. Soc. Anthr._, 1883; Lumholtz, “Tarahumara,” _Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc._, 1894, p. 219.]

[Footnote 623: It is impossible to enter here into details on the ancient Aztec society. Let us simply bear in mind that from the economic point of view it was based on “hoe-culture” (see p. 192) of maize, tobacco, and cocoa, as well as on a well-developed industry: the weaving of stuffs, pottery, manufacture of paper, malleation and melting (a somewhat rare case in pre-Columbian America) of gold, silver, copper, and bronze. Architecture and sculpture had attained there a great perfection, as well as ideographic and iconomatic writing (see p. 140). It was politically a confederacy of democratic states, often under the dominion of a dictator on whom the Spaniards bestowed the title of king. It was thought until recent times that there had been several invasions of different peoples into Mexico, the _Toltecs_ in the first instance, then the _Chichimecs_, lastly the _Nahuatlans_; but from the recent works by Morgan, _loc. cit._ (_The House-life, etc._), Bandelier (_Report Peabody Mus._, vol. ii., Cambridge, Mass., 1888), Brinton (_Essays of an Americanist_, Philadelphia, 1890, and _Am. Race_), and Bruhl (_Die Culturvolker Alt-Amerikas_, Cincinnati, 1875-87), we may conclude that the name _Toltec_ has only relation to a small clan or even perhaps to an imaginary mythical people. As to that of _Chichimec_, it was employed by the Nahuas to denote all those peoples outside of their own civilisation; they used this term as the Romans did that of “barbarian.”]

[Footnote 624: L. Biart, _Les Aztèques, histoire, mœurs_, Paris, 1885.]

[Footnote 625: E. Hamy, _loc. cit._ (_Anthr. Mex._); Brinton, _loc. cit._ (_Am. Race_).]

[Footnote 626: E. Hamy, _loc. cit._, _Bull. Soc. Anthrop._, Paris, 1883, p. 787, chart.]

[Footnote 627: D. Charnay, quoted by Hamy, _loc. cit._ (_Anthr. Mex._).]

[Footnote 628: Berendt, _Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc._, New York, 1875-76, No. 2; Brinton, _loc. cit._ (_Am. R._), p. 117.]

[Footnote 629: The Chontals of Nicaragua are the _Lenkas_ (see p. 540). The “_Popolucas_” of Puebla speak a _Miztec_ dialect; those of Vera Cruz the _Mixe_ dialect; those of Guatemala the _Cakchiquel_, one of the Maya dialects adopted as the official language by the Catholic Church, etc.]

[Footnote 630: Mercer, _Hill-Caves of Yucatan_, Philad., 1896.]

[Footnote 631: A. Stoll, _Zur Ethnogr. d. Rep. Guatemala_, Zurich, 1884; K. Sapper, “Ethnogr. von S.-E. Mexico und Brit. Honduras,” _Peterm. Mittheil._, 1895, p. 177, chart, and “Die unabhängige Indianerstaaten von Yucatan,” _Globus_, vol. 67, 1893, p. 196.]

[Footnote 632: See for the geographical distribution of these peoples in pre-Columbian times, D. Pector, _Arch. Soc. Americaine_, new series, vol. vi, Paris, 1888, pp. 97 and 145.]

[Footnote 633: Fernandez and Bramford, _Rep. Smiths. Inst._, 1882, p. 675; Brinton, _loc. cit._ (_Am. R._), p. 163.]

[Footnote 634: Wickham, “Soumoo or Woolwa Indians,” _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, vol. xxiv., 1894-95, p. 198.]

[Footnote 635: The name half-breed (Mestizo) is given in Mexico only to a child born of the union of a Spaniard with an Indian woman. By being crossed with a Spaniard a “Mestizo” may give birth to a “Castiza”; the scion of the latter and a Spaniard reverts, it is said, to the race of the father, and is set down as Spanish. A Mulatto woman, the offspring of a Spaniard and a negress, may give birth to a “Morisco” by uniting with a Spaniard; this Morisco will produce with a Spaniard what is called an “Albino,” and it is only to her son, the offspring of a Spanish father, who should revert to his father’s race, that the name of “Tornatro” will be applied. An Indian marrying a negress produces a “Sobo,” and the latter engenders with a negress a “Chino.” The progeny of a Chino and an Indian is called “Cambujo,” and that of an Indian and a half-breed, “Cayote.” (Hamy, following Ignacio de Castro, quoted by de Quatrefages, _Hist. Gén. Races Hum._, p. 605.)]

[Footnote 636: I think that it corresponds better with the facts themselves than the mixed and chronological classification of the South Americans into four groups (Eskimoid and Ugroid peoples of the early stone age; Caribs of the later stone age; Mongoloid semi-civilised brachycephals of the stone and bronze ages; hunting and warlike tribes of the bronze age) proposed by Siemiradzki, _Mittheil. Anthrop. Gesellsch._, vol. xxviii., p. 127, Vienna, 1898.]

[Footnote 637: Lafone Quevedo, Preface to the “Arte de la lengua Toba” of Barcena, _Revista Mus. La Plata_, vol. v., p. 143, 1894. This distinction is criticised by Brinton, _Proc. Am. Philos. Soc._, vol. xxxvii., p. 179, Philad., 1898.]

[Footnote 638: The “_Mamelucos_” or _Paulists_ of the province of Sao Paulo (Brazil), European and Indian half-breeds; the _Gauchos_ of Chaco, offspring of Whites and Indians of the Pampas; the _Curibocos_, Indo-negro half-breeds in Brazil, etc.]

[Footnote 639: D’Orbigny, _L’homme Americain_, Paris, 1859, 2 vols.]

[Footnote 640: G. Bovalius, “En reza ... Talamanca Land,” _Ymer_, p. 183, map, Stockholm, 1885.]

[Footnote 641: Pinart, “Chiriqui,” _Bull. Soc. Géogr._, Paris, 1885, p. 433.]

[Footnote 642: The Chibchas were husbandmen, manufacturers, and merchants, but unacquainted with the use of metals, except gold. They too have not left any great monuments of architecture (see for further information the works already quoted of Bruhl, Brinton, etc.).]

[Footnote 643: Are they not related to the _Cayapas_ of Ecuador, described by Santjago Basurco? (_Tour du Monde_, 1894, p. 401.)]

[Footnote 644: I shall not deal further with the important part which the Quechua civilisation played in all the western regions of South America. Let me observe, however, that this civilisation differed in many respects from that of the Nahuas; the Incas lived under a despotic communistic régime, they had no art of writing, and were content with mnemonic means to communicate with one another, they reared the llama, their religious rites were less sanguinary than those of the Nahua, etc. (Seler, _Peruanische Alterthüm_, Berlin, 1893; Brinton, _loc. cit._; Bruhl, _loc. cit._; Uhle, _Kultur Sud-Amerik. Völker_, vol. ii., Berlin, 1889-90.)]

[Footnote 645: Middendorf (E.), _Peru_, Berlin, 1893, 3 vols.]

[Footnote 646: Ten Kate, “Excursion Archæol.... Catamarca, etc.,” _Rev. Mus. La Plata_, vol. v., 1893, p. 329; _Intern. Arch. für Ethnog._, vol. vii., 1894, p. 142; Ambrozetti, “Archeol. Calchaqui,” _Bol. Inst. Geog. Arg._, 1896, p. 117; Brinton, _Amer. Anthropologist_, N.S., vol. i., No. 1, New York, 1899.]

[Footnote 647: L. Catat, “Les Habitants du Darien Merid.,” _Rev. Ethnogr._, 1888, p. 397; Pinart, “Les Indiens de Panama,” _Rev. Ethnogr._, No. 33, 1887, p. 117.]

[Footnote 648: Siemiradzki, _loc. cit._, p. 160. The figures here given from Oldendorf, Manouvrier, Hamy, Virchow, and derived from my own observations, relate to the Chilian Araucans. The Araucans of the Pampas are shorter (1 m. 57, according to De la Vaulx, _Compt. rend. Soc. Geogr._, Paris, 1898, p. 99), and brachycephalic, to judge from the measurements of Ten Kate (_Rev. Mus. La Plata_, vol. iv., p. 209), who finds the mean cephalic index of 53 skulls to be 83.92 in a series in which, however, several skulls of the Palæo-American type are met with.]

[Footnote 649: The Manzanieros, so named from the country of crab-apple-tree forests which they inhabit, have preserved better than the Araucans of the Pampas their physical type; but they have adopted for the most part, like the latter, the manners and customs of the Indians of the Pampas and the _Gauchos_ Euro-Indian half-breeds, similar to the _Cow-boys_ of the western parts of the United States. They live as nomadic shepherds in tents of guanaco skins, and wear garments of tanned skin, after the manner of the Gauchos; they have no pottery, subsist almost exclusively on meat, etc. Excellent horsemen, they hunt the guanaco with bolas, exactly like the Patagonians and the Gauchos.]

[Footnote 650: The Archipelagoes of _Chiloé_ and _Chonos_, which lie off the Chilian coast in the neighbourhood of Cape Peñas, were peopled by Araucan tribes of _Gauchos_, _Payos_ and _Chonos_, of whom there remain only a few descendants, with a strain of Spanish blood. These Gauchos must not be confounded with the half-breeds of the same name (see above, note 1), nor the Chonos with the tribe of the same name living farther to the south between Cape Peñas and the Straits of Magellan; the latter tribe appears to be related rather to the Fuegians.]

[Footnote 651: For the philology of the Caribs and the Arawaks, see L. Adam, “Trois fam. linguist.... de l’Amazone, de l’Orénoque, etc.,” _Congrès Intern. Americanistes_, Berlin, 1888, p. 489, and _Biblioth. linguist. Americaine_, vol. xviii., Paris, 1893; Von den Steinen, _loc. cit._, and _Centr. Brasil_, Leipzig, 1886; Ehrenreich, _loc. cit._, and _Peterm. Mitth._, 1897, No. 4. For the ethnography, see the works already quoted of Ehrenreich, of Von den Steinen, and the following works: Schomburgh, _Reisen in Brit. Guyana_, Leipzig, 1847, 2 vols.; Coudreau, “Note sur 54 trib. Guyane,” _Bull. Soc. Geogr._, Paris, 1891, and “Dix ans de Guyane,” _ibid._, p. 447, map; E. Im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_, London, 1883; Crevaux, _Voyages dans l’Amer. du Sud_, Paris, 1883; Stoddard, _Cruising among the Caribbees_, London, 1895.]

[Footnote 652: According to Siemiradzki, _loc. cit._, p. 147, the _Guancavelica_ and _Montubio_ Indians of the coast of Ecuador, who are completely Hispanified, as well as the _Payaguas_ (see p. 572), bear a strong resemblance in physical type to the Caribs.]

[Footnote 653: These figures are given from the measurements of Manouvrier and Deniker (_Bull. Soc. Anthrop._, Paris, 1893), of Maurel (_Mem. Soc. Anthrop._, Paris, 2nd ser., vol. ii., 1875-85), Ten Kate (_Rev. d’Anthr._, Paris), and Prince Roland Bonaparte (_Les Habitants de Surinam_, Paris, 1884), for the Caribs of the north; from Ehrenreich, _loc. cit._ (_Anthrop. Stud._), for the Caribs of the south.]

[Footnote 654: See, for example, the summary of the data of ancient authors in J. Ballet’s _La Guadeloupe_, vol. i., 2nd pt., p. 220, Basse-Terre, 1894.]

[Footnote 655: O. Ordinaire, “Les Sauvages du Perou,” _Rev. Ethnogr._, 1887, p. 264.]

[Footnote 656: This traveller also mentions a tribe very different from the _Goajires_, inhabiting the mountains of the north, now completely unknown. These Indians call themselves _Piecer_(?). They might possibly have some slight relation with the Arawaks inhabiting the upper valleys of Sierra Nevada. De Brette, _loc. cit._; H. Candelier, _Rio Hacha et les ... Goajires_, Paris, 1893.]

[Footnote 657: Particulars concerning the archæological and osteological remains of the aborigines of the Greater Antilles will be found in J. Duerden’s “Aborig. Ind. Remains in Jamaica,” _Journ. of the Instit. of Jamaica_ (with “note on the craniology,” by Haddon), Kingston, 1897, vol. ii., No. 4; and in Brinton’s “The Archæology of Cuba,” _Amer. Archæologist_, vol. ii., No. 10, Columbus, 1898.]

[Footnote 658: R. de la Grasserie, _Congr. Internat. Americanistes_, Berlin, 1888, p. 438.]

[Footnote 659: Barboza Rodriguez (_Revista da Exposiçao Anthrop. brazileira_, Rio de Janeiro, 1882) has measured four specimens, which have given him the mean height of 1 m. 47.]

[Footnote 660: Ordinaire (_loc. cit._) also describes together with these populations the wholly savage tribe of the _Lorenzos_ living completely in the stone age on the banks of the Palcazu.]

[Footnote 661: Hamy, _Rev. d’Anthr._, 1873, p. 385; Colini, _Atti. Acc. Lincei._, Rome, 1883.]

[Footnote 662: Both these authors prefer the term “_Ges_” to that of _Tapuyas_, by which the aborigines in question are known to the Brazilians. In fact, the word “Tapuya,” which in the Tupi tongue means “barbarian,” is not only applied to the Ges, but also to a host of other backward tribes, as, for instance, the _Puris_ (p. 565).]

[Footnote 663: Probably on account of the numerous cataracts on the rivers.]

[Footnote 664: Maxim Pr. von Wied Newied, _Reise nach Brasil._, Frankfort-a-M., 1820, 2 vols.; Martius, _Beitr. zur Ethnogr.... Amerikas_, Erlangen-Leipzig, 1863-67; Lacerda and Peixolo, “Contrib. estudo. Anthrop. das raças Indig. do Brazil,” _Archiv. de Mus. Nacion._, Rio de Janeiro, vol. i., 1876, p. 47; Ph. Rey, _Étud. Anthrop. sur les Botocudos_, Paris, 1880 (thesis); Peixoto, “Novos estudos. craniol. sobra Botocudos,” _Arch. Mus. Nac._, Rio de Janeiro, vol. vi., 1884, p. 205; Ehrenreich, “Ueber die Botocudos,” _Zeitschr. für Ethnol._, 1887, pp. 1 and 49.]

[Footnote 665: Castelnau, _Expedition parties Centr. Am. dn Sud. Hist. des vog._, Paris, 1852-57, 6 vols.; Martius, _loc. cit._; Ehrenreich, _loc. cit._ (_Peterm. Mitt._).]

[Footnote 666: See the works of Castelnau, Von den Steinen, and Ehrenreich, already quoted.]

[Footnote 667: J. Koslowsky, “Algun. datos sobre los Bororos,” _Bol. Inst. Geogr. Argent._, vol. vi., 1895; Ehrenreich, _loc cit._ (_Anthr. Unter._).]

[Footnote 668: See on this point the suggestive monograph of H. Meyer, “Bows and Arrows in Centr. Brazil,” _Smiths. Rep. for 1896_, p. 549, pl., Washington, 1898.]

[Footnote 669: The way in which the aborigines cut trees with their stone hatchets is remarkable: they make in the first place a great number of holes all around the trunk, then enlarge them till they touch, and so form a continuous incision. Similarly, in order to cut a thin piece of wood from a tree branch they make notches in the latter at equal distances, then they remove the portions of wood between the notches, making use of the same stone hatchet like a wedge. (Ehrenreich, “Mittheil.... Xingu Exped.,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnol._, 1890, p. 61.)]

[Footnote 670: L. Adam, _Bibliothèque Linguist. Amer._, vol. xviii., Paris, 1896.]

[Footnote 671: I. Ambrosetti, “Los Indios Caingua,” _Bol. Inst. Geogr. Argentino_, vol. xv., Buenos Ayres, 1895.]

[Footnote 672: It is in the vicinity of the Cainguas, between the Parana and the central chain of Paraguay, south of the sources of the Acaray, that the five or six hundred _Guayakis_ dwell, primitive hunters, still in the stone age, of whom Bove (_Bull. Soc. Geogr. Ital._, 1884, p. 939) had caught a glimpse, and whom La Hitte and Ten Kate have quite recently described (_Ann. Mus. La Plata_, vol. ii., _Anthrop._, 1897). Armed with their enormous bows and their polished stone hatchets, with their caps of jaguar skin, they have rather a grotesque appearance, and their low stature (the only adult subject measured was 1 m. 52, and the skeleton of a woman, 1 m. 42), as well as their legs wide apart, are not such as to improve their appearance. They are sub-brachycephalic, and nevertheless in type remind us of the Fuegians and the Botocudos. Their habitations are tree shelters, sometimes eighty feet long; their principal tool consists of a tooth of the agôuti fastened to the thigh-bone of a monkey. Their household vessels are plaited baskets rendered impermeable by the addition of a layer of wax, etc. The Cainguas are perhaps hybridised Guayakis.]

[Footnote 673: Coudreau, _loc. cit._, pp. 123 and 131.]

[Footnote 674: Köppig, quoted by Brinton (_Am. R._, p. 231). We must not confound these Cocomas with the tribe of the same name living between the upper Burus and the Jurua, and which appears to belong to the Pano family.]

[Footnote 675: Barboza Rodriguez, _loc. cit._; Ehrenreich, _loc. cit._ (_Anthrop. Stud._); D’Orbigny, _loc. cit._, vol. ii., p. 324.]

[Footnote 676: Martin de Moussy, _Descrip. Confed. Argent._, vol. ii., p. 141, Paris, 1861, and _Industr. des Indiens La Plata_, Paris, 1866; Lafone Quevedo, “La Razza Americana de Brinton, etc.,” _Bol. Inst. Geogr. Argent._, vol. xiv., 1894, p. 524 (on the disappearance of the Charruas), and _Bol. Inst. Geogr. Argent._, vol. xviii., 1897, pp. 124 and 127; _Arrivée en France de quatre sauvages Charrua_, Paris, 1830, and Flourens, _Ann. Sc. Nat._, 2nd ser., Zool., vol. viii., p. 156; F. Outes, _Los Querandies_, Buenos Ayres, 1897, and _Ethnogr. Argent., Seconda Contrib. al Ethnog. Querandi_, Buenos Ayres, 1899; Ambrozetti, “Alfarerias Minuanes,” _Bol. I. G. Argent._, vol. xiv., 1893, p. 212; I. Quevedo, _Bol. Inst. Geogr. Argent._, vol. xviii., 1897, pp. 117 and 130.]

[Footnote 677: Dobrizhoffer, _An Account of the Abipones_, London, 1822, 2 vols.]

[Footnote 678: L. Quevedo, _loc. cit._, _La Razza_, etc., p. 519, _Arte Toba_, etc.; Massei and L. Quevedo, “Grupo Mataco-Mataguayo,” _Bol. Inst. Geogr. Arg._, 1895 and 1896; Pelleschi, “Los Indios Matacos,” _Bol. Inst. Geogr. Arg._, 1897, p. 173.]

[Footnote 679: Certain authorities (Ameghino, Brinton, etc.) place the Charruas, the Chanases, and the Querandis in the Tupi-Guaranian family, and make a separate group of the Matacos.]

[Footnote 680: Boggiani, _Viaggi d’un artista in Amer. Merid._, I. Caduvei, II. Ciamococo, Rome, 1894-95 (preface and note by Colino); and “Ethnografia del Alto Paraguay,” _Bol. Inst. Geog. Arg._, vol. xviii., 1897, p. 613, ethn. chart. According to Brinton (“Ling. Cartogr. of Chaco,” _Proc. Am. Phil. Soc._, vol. 37, p. 178, Philad., 1898), the dialect of the _Samucos_ should belong to the Arawak family.]

[Footnote 681: Koslowsky, “Tres semanas entre ... Guatos,” _Bol. Inst. Geog. Arg._, vol. vi., p. 221, Buenos Ayres, 1895.]

[Footnote 682: Siemiradzki, _loc. cit._; De la Vaulx, _C. R. Soc. Geog. Paris_, 1898.]

[Footnote 683: Ch. Musters, _At Home with the Patagonians_, London, 1871, and “The Races of Patagonia,” _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._, vol. i., 1875, p. 193; F. Moreno, _Viage à la Patagon. settentr._ ... Buenos Ayres, 1876, and _Viage Pat. Austral._, Buenos Ayres, 1879; R. Lista, _Viage al païs de Tehuelches_, Buenos Ayres, 1878, and _Explorat. de la Pampa, etc._, Buenos Ayres, 1883. As regards the Onas, see R. Lista, “La Tierra del Fuego,” _Bol. Inst. Geog. Arg._, vol. ii., 1881, and _Viage al païs ... Ona_, Buenos Ayres, Darapsky, “Patagonia,” _Bol. Inst. Geog. Arg._, vol. x., 1889, p. 368; J. Hultkrantz, “Nagra Bidrag, etc.,” _Ymer_, pt. i., Stockholm, 1898, with figs. The three Ona skulls described by Hultkrantz are dolichocephalic (ceph. ind. 74.7).]

[Footnote 684: For measurements see the Appendices. The bibliography of the Fuegians will be found in the work of Hyades and Deniker already quoted. To these must be added the following selection from important works omitted or recently published: L. Darapski, “Fuegians,” _Bol. Inst. Geog. Arg._, vol. x., 1889, p. 276; Bridges, “La Tierra del Fuego, etc.,” _Bol. Inst. Geog. Arg._, vol. xiv., 1893; and O. Nordenskjold, “Das Feuerland,” _Geog. Zeitsch._, vol. ii., p. 663, Leipzig, 1896.]