Chapter X: Front Matter (10)

The bark of other species may be manufactured into paper. In the year 1788, Mr. Greaves of Milbank, near Warrington, Lancashire, made fifteen reams of coarse paper from the bark of withen twigs, intermixed with a few nettles. The latter, however, he afterwards discovered, would better have been left out, as there was in them a woody substance, which does not well incorporate with other vegetables. The paper he made was considerably cheaper than paper of equal size and thickness made from ropes; and it was found that pasteboard, for book covers, made of withen bark, would be much cheaper than similar pasteboard manufactured from ropes. The process by which this paper and pasteboard were manufactured was as follows; the bark was stripped from the twigs in September, the time at which they are usually cut for making white baskets; it was then hackled, like flax or hemp, and dried in the sun, which gave it somewhat the appearance of brown hemp: but this having been attended with considerable trouble, other parts of the bark were dried with the leaves, as they were stripped off from the twigs, and were then submitted to the operation of the paper-mill.

The flowering branches of one species, the _common sallow_ (_Salix cineria_), are called palms, and are gathered by children, in many parts of England, on Palm Sunday.

TRIANDRIA.

256. _NUTMEGS are the kernels of a fruit produced in several islands of
the East Indies._

_They are each surrounded by the spice called_ mace, _and, externally, by
a husk about half an inch in thickness, which has somewhat the appearance
of a small peach_ (Fig. 80).

_The nutmeg-tree_ (Myristica aromatica) _is not unlike our cherry-tree,
both in growth and size. Its leaves are nearly oval, but pointed, waved,
obliquely nerved, of bright green colour above, and whitish beneath. The
flowers are small, and hang upon slender stalks._

When this fruit is nearly ripe the husk opens at the end, and exposes a net-work of scarlet mace. Underneath the mace is a black shell, about as thick as that of a filbert, and very hard; and in this is contained the nutmeg.

The gathering of _nutmegs_ is performed by persons who ascend the trees for that purpose, and pull the branches to them with long hooks. The husks are stripped off in the woods, and the remaining part of the fruit, with its surrounding mace, is taken home. After the mace has been carefully stripped off, with a small knife, the nuts, which are still covered with their woody shell, are dried, first in the sun, and then upon a frame of split bamboos placed over a slow fire, until, when shaken, the kernels are heard to rattle within the shells. These now easily fly to pieces when beaten with small sticks; and the nutmegs, being taken out, are soaked in sea-water and lime, and are then thrown in great numbers together to heat, by which their vegetating principle is destroyed. The nutmegs are finally sorted into parcels, according to their quality, and packed in bags for sale and exportation.

The nutmegs vended at the East India Company's sales in 1804, amounted in weight to 117,936 pounds, and produced 54,733_l._ exclusive of the duties. This kind of spice has long been employed both for culinary and medicinal purposes. Distilled with water, nutmegs afford a large portion of essential oil, which resembles, in flavour, the spice itself. When heated and pressed they yield a considerable quantity of limpid yellow oil. In the shops a thick and fragrant kind is sold, which, though called _oil of mace_, is, in reality, expressed from the nutmeg. The best oil of this description is imported from the East Indies, in stone jars. _Oil of nutmegs_ is chiefly made from the imperfect fruit, and such as would be unfit for the European market.

_Mace_, or the covering of the nutmeg, that lies betwixt the outer coat and the shell, is an unctuous membrane, first of a light red, and afterwards, when dried, and as we see it, of yellowish colour. After it is taken from the shell it is exposed to the sun, then moistened with sea-water, and finally so far dried as to allow of its being packed in bales for exportation. In these it is pressed closely down, by which its fragrance and peculiar qualities are preserved. Mace is liable to seizure if imported in packages of less than 300 pounds' weight. We usually see it in flakes each about an inch in length, and presenting a great variety of ramifications. This spice has a very fragrant and agreeable odour, and, to most persons, a pleasant, though somewhat acrid, taste. It possesses nearly all the virtues of the nutmeg, but with less astringency; and, like that, is employed in numerous ways, both in culinary preparations and medicine.

In the island of Banda it is sometimes customary to boil the _entire fruit_ of the nutmeg-tree, and afterwards to preserve it in syrup, and also to pickle it in spiced vinegar, in nearly the same manner as we pickle walnuts. In several parts of the East the inhabitants preserve the _outer husk_ of the nutmeg as a sweetmeat, or eat it stewed with other food.

257. _The DATE is a fruit shaped somewhat like a large acorn, and covered
externally with a yellowish membrane or skin, which contains a fine,
soft, and sweetish pulp, and, in the centre, an oblong, hard stone._

_The trees_ (Phoenix dactylifera) _which produce this fruit, grow chiefly
on the shores of the Mediterranean, are forty feet and upwards in height,
have an upright stem, marked through their whole length with
protuberances, and terminated at the summit with a cluster of winged
leaves or branches, each eight or nine feet in length._

The cultivation of the date is attentively pursued on the African coast of the Mediterranean; in several parts of Persia, Arabia, and even in Spain. The latter country, however, is not sufficiently warm to ripen the fruit in perfection, without the constant labour of the cultivator. He is obliged to ascend the trees, from time to time, to examine the flowers and turn them towards the sun. This is chiefly done in the spring of the year; and, during the month of August, another and much more dangerous operation is requisite, namely, to tie all the branches into one bundle, and cover them over with broom. To make this bundle, the person employed is obliged to leap, as it were, over the flexible branches, for the purpose of surrounding and uniting them with a cord. This operation over, he places a ladder at the bottom of the tree, on which he stands to make a second band; he then places his ladder on this second band, ascends and ties the top with a third cord. His bundle being formed, he throws down his instruments, replaces his ladder by a gradation contrary to the former, and descends, from band to band, to the stem of the tree, down which he slides to the bottom.

Among the Africans and Egyptians the date constitutes a principal article of food, and, as such, it is considered both wholesome and nutritive. Its name is a word, formed of _dacte_ or _dactylus_, implying a finger, from an imaginary resemblance which this fruit has to the end of the finger. Although dates, in general, are of yellowish colour, some are black, some white, and others brown: some also are sweet, and others bitter. The best are called _royal dates_, and are imported into this country from Tunis.

Each tree produces ten or twelve bunches of fruit, which, when gathered, are hung up in a dry place, until so much of their moisture is evaporated as to allow of their being packed in boxes for exportation.

Nearly all the parts of the date-tree are useful. The _wood_, though of spongy texture, is employed for the beams and rafters of houses, and for implements of husbandry, which are said to be very durable. The _pith_ of the young trees is eaten, as well as the young and tender _leaves_. From the old leaves and their stalks the women and children of Valencia make mats, baskets, and other utensils; and from other filamentous parts, ropes and different kinds of cordage are manufactured. A considerable traffic is carried on in these leaves, which, under the name of _palms_, are sent to Italy, to be used in the grand religious ceremonies of Palm Sunday. In Persia an ardent spirit is distilled from the fruit; and, in many places, the _stones_ are ground to make oil, and the paste that is left is given as food to cattle and sheep.

PENTANDRIA.

258. _MASTIC is a resinous substance, obtained from a low tree or shrub_
(Pistacia lentiscus) _which grows in the Levant._

_It has alternate winged leaves, consisting of several pairs of
spear-shaped leaflets, and spikes of very small flowers, which issue from
the junction of the leaves with the branches._

The mode in which this resin is obtained is by making incisions across the tree in different parts. From these the juice exudes in drops, that are suffered to run upon the ground, and there to remain until they are sufficiently hard to be collected for use. The season for this process commences in the dry weather at the beginning of August, and lasts until the end of September. The best mastic is that imported from the island of Scio. We receive it in semi-transparent grains of yellowish colour. These emit an agreeable smell when heated; and, when chewed, they first crumble, and afterwards stick together, and become soft and white like wax.

With the Turkish women it is customary to chew this resin for the purpose of rendering their breath agreeable, and under a notion also that it tends to make their teeth white, and to strengthen the gums. They also mix it in fragrant waters, and burn it with other odoriferous substances, by way of perfume. It was formerly much used in medicine, as a remedy against pain in the teeth and gums; and, dissolved in spirit of wine, as a relief in obstinate and long continued coughs: but it is now almost wholly disused for these purposes; and is chiefly employed in the composition of varnish, and by dentists, for filling up the cavities of decayed teeth.

The _wood_ of the mastic-tree is imported in thick knotty pieces, covered externally with an ash-coloured bark. This wood is accounted a mild, balsamic astringent; and a preparation of it, under the name of _aurum potabile_, is strongly recommended, by some of the German writers, in coughs, nausea, and weakness of the stomach.

259. _HEMP is the fibrous part of the stalks of a plant_ (Cannabis
sativa, Fig. 82) _which grows wild in the East Indies, and is much
cultivated in different parts of Europe._

_It has the lower leaves in slender finger-like divisions; the male
flowers in small loose spikes, at the end of the stem and branches; and
the female flowers single, at the junction of the leaves and stem._

The principal country for hemp, as an article of commerce, is Russia, few other countries of Europe growing a quantity sufficient for their own consumption. It is cultivated in some parts of Britain, but particularly in the counties of Suffolk and Norfolk. The soil best adapted to it is a moist but loose sandy loam, or the black mould of low lands near water. The seed is sown in April or May; and the plants, which attain the height of five or six feet, are in a state to be pulled up in three or four months; the male plant, or _fimble hemp_, as it is called, being ready some time before the female plants, which have the name of _karle_ or _seed-hemp_.

As soon as the hemp is pulled, it is tied in bundles and set up to dry; and, at the end of about ten days, the bundles are loosened at the top, and the heads are held upon a hurdle by one person, whilst another, with a small threshing-flail, beats out the seed.

In the preparation of hemp for the manufacturer two modes are pursued. One of these is to spread it out on stubble or pasture ground, that the fibrous parts may be rendered separable by the gradual operation of the weather; the other is to immerse the bundles, for some days, in stagnant water. The next process consists in separating the bark, or hemp, from the stalks: this is effected either by pulling out the stalk with the hand, or by machinery similar to that adopted in the preparation of flax (97). After some other operations the hemp is beaten in mills, and then combed or dressed by drawing it through instruments called _hackles_, which are somewhat similar to the combs of wool-manufacturers.

Thus prepared, the hemp is spun into thread, which is made into twine, ropes, and cordage of every description; and woven into canvas, and strong cloth of various kinds. Indeed so great is the importance of this production, particularly for the cordage, cables, and the rigging of ships, that, to encourage its growth, an act of parliament was passed in 1783, directing a bounty of three pence per stone to be paid on all hemp raised in Great Britain; and imposing heavy duties on hemp imported from foreign countries.

From _hemp-seed_ a valuable kind of _oil_ is procured, by pressure, which is peculiarly adapted for burning, as it is perfectly limpid and without smell: it is also used for making the soap called green soap. The seeds themselves are sometimes employed in the feeding of poultry, from a notion that they cause the hens to lay a greater number of eggs than they otherwise would do. They are also given as food to singing birds; but, if in great quantity, they are supposed to injure the plumage. The _stalks_, after the hemp is taken from them, afford an excellent fuel. The water in which hemp has been soaked is in a high degree poisonous.

260. _HOPS are the dried flower-buds of a climbing British plant_
(Humulus lupulus, Fig. 81), _with a rough and angular stem, and leaves
generally in three or five lobes or divisions, and serrated._

Although hops grow wild, in great abundance, on hedges in several parts of the south of England, there is reason to suppose that their use was first made known from the Continent in the reign of Henry the Eighth.

A hop plantation requires the growth of some years before it is in perfection. The plants begin to push up their young stems about the month of April. When these are three or four inches above the ground, poles about twenty feet high are driven in to support them during their growth. The season for picking hops usually commences about the middle of September. This work is performed by men, women, and children. Proper baskets, bins, or cribs being in readiness, the plants are cut off close to the ground, and the poles are drawn up. These are placed upon the bins, with the plants upon them, and three or more persons on each side, pick off the hops. After this they are dried in a kiln, and, when dry, are carried into, and kept, for five or six days, in an apartment called the stowage-room, until they are in a state to be put into bags. This is done through a round hole, or trap, cut in the floor of the stowage-room, exactly equal in dimensions to the mouth of the bag, and immediately under which this mouth is fastened. In each of the lower corners of the bag a small handful of hops is tied; and a person, called the packer, places himself in it, and, by a heavy leaden weight, which he constantly moves round in the places where he is not treading, presses and forces the hops down, in a very close manner, into the bag, as fast as they are thrown to him by another labourer. The work thus proceeds till the bag is quite full, when each of the upper corners has a few hops tied in it, in the same manner as those at the bottom. These serve as handles for moving the bags. The bag is then taken away, and its mouth is properly sewed up and secured.

The hops of finest colour and best sample are put into bags of finer manufacture than the others, under the denomination of _pockets_; and the inferior sorts are packed in canvas of coarser kind, called _bags_.

When the hop-picking is completed, the poles are cleared from the binds or plants which adhered to them, and are stacked or piled together. The _binds_, when perfectly dried, are either stacked or placed in sheds, to be used as fuel in ovens, or otherwise. Sometimes they are burnt upon the land, for the ashes to serve as manure, trodden in the farm-yard, or allowed to be taken away by the labourers for their own use.

As the hop-plants are liable to be injured in various ways during their growth, they are considered a very precarious crop. They suffer from the attacks of insects, from honey-dew, from blight, from hot sunny weather after rain, and by winds and storms.

The principal _use of hops_, in brewing, is for the preservation of malt liquor, and to communicate to it an agreeably aromatic bitter flavour. The best hops are used for ale and the finer kinds of malt liquor, and inferior kinds are used for porter. The odour of hops hung over a bed, or a pillow stuffed with hops, has been said to promote sleep, after the application of opium has failed. The _young shoots_ and tops are often gathered from the hedges, by poor people, and boiled and eaten in the manner of asparagus. Of the woody part of the _hop-binds_, after having been steeped in water, and worked into a pulp, a coarse kind of paper may be made.

HEXANDRIA.

261. _YAMS are an American and West Indian root of very irregular shape,
which possess properties somewhat similar to those of the potatoe, but
they are less mealy, and, in a raw state, are very viscous._

_The plants_ (Dioscorea bulbifera) _which produce these roots have
heart-shaped leaves, and a stem that creeps along the ground like ivy._

In some of the rich lands of South America, yams are said to grow to the weight of fifty or sixty pounds each; and are so productive that an acre of ground planted with them has been known to produce roots to the weight of from 20,000 to 30,000 pounds. Yams are propagated by setting the eyes, in the same manner as we plant potatoes; and, in six or eight months, they arrive at maturity.

When they are dug out of the ground, they are, for a little while, exposed to the sun to dry; and if, after this, they be packed in casks full of dry sand, they may be preserved, without injury, for many months. They are consequently often used as sea-store for vessels about to sail on long voyages, and are frequently brought into England. Several attempts have been made to cultivate yams in this island; and these have been attended with a certain degree of success in the counties of Mid-Lothian, Perth, and Stirling in Scotland, where they are used for the feeding of cattle. There are two kinds, one red, and the other white. The former of these contain a more nutritive food than the latter, though their flavour is much less excellent.

With the negroes, in the West Indian islands, the yam is a very important article of food. When roasted, it is so wholesome and nutritive that it is preferred by them even to bread. Like potatoes, yams may be converted into bread, by mixture with a portion of wheat or barley flour. They are sometimes made into soup, puddings, and other useful dishes.

OCTANDRIA.

262. _The ABELE, or GREAT WHITE POPLAR-TREE_ (Populus alba, Fig. 74), _is a British tree which grows in hedges and woods, near brooks, and is known by its leaves being nearly triangular, irregularly jagged at the edges, and cottony underneath._

The quickness of growth of this tree is so great that it will sometimes make shoots from eighteen to twenty feet in length in one year; and the trees attain their full growth in the course of twenty years. The _wood_ is white and soft, but tough and of close grain, and not subject to warp or shrink. Hence it has been found useful for the flooring of rooms, and for making laths and packing boxes. For turnery ware it is preferred to most other kinds of wood, on account of its peculiar whiteness, and the ease with which it is worked in the lathe. "Of this wood," says Evelyn, "people also made shields of defence, in sword and buckler days."

The _bark_ of the abele-tree is said to be serviceable as a remedy in intermittent fevers; and Dioscorides informs us that if it be chopped small and sowed in rills, well and richly manured, it will yield a plentiful crop of mushrooms.

263. _The ASPEN, or TREMBLING POPLAR_ (Populus tremula), _is a tree which
grows in moist woods; has nearly circular leaves, toothed and angular at
the edges, smooth on both sides, and attached to footstalks so long and
slender as to be shaken by the slightest wind._

There is scarcely any situation in which the aspen will not flourish, but it succeeds best where the soil is moist and gravelly. Its _wood_ is light, porous, soft, and of white colour; and, though inferior in excellence to that of the white poplar, is applicable to many useful purposes, particularly for field-gates, the frames of pack-saddles, for milk-pails, clogs, and the wood-work of patterns. It is improper for bedsteads, as it is liable to be infested by bugs. In some countries the _bark_ of the young trees is made into torches.

264. _The BLACK POPLAR_ (Populus nigra, Fig. 75) _is a native tree of
this country, known by its somewhat trowel-shaped leaves, which taper to
a point, and are serrated, and smooth on both sides._

This tree grows rapidly, and attains a considerable size. Its _wood_ is soft and light, and in some respects useful to engravers; and is occasionally sawed into boards, though these are not in general much esteemed. The _bark_ is so thick and light that it is not unfrequently used by fishermen as buoys or floats to support their nets. The inhabitants of Kamtschatka dry and pulverise the _inner rind_ of the black poplar-tree, and use it as an ingredient in bread. The _buds_, when they first appear, are covered with and contain a viscous and fragrant juice, which may be advantageously used in plasters.

265. _The LOMBARDY or ITALIAN POPLAR_ (Populus dilatata) _grows wild in
Lombardy and the northern parts of Italy, and is distinguished by its
somewhat trowel-shaped and serrated leaves, being smooth on both sides,
and wider than they are long._

From its slender and perpendicular growth the Lombardy poplar is found useful for hop-poles, and may be formed into masts for small vessels. The wood, which is soft and free from knots, is employed by joiners, carpenters, and cartwrights. It is recommended as peculiarly valuable for the floors of granaries, some persons believing it so obnoxious to insects that weevils will not continue in such granaries. It may be wrought into very flexible shafts for carriages, or felloes for wheels; and, not being liable to split, is peculiarly adapted for packing cases.

The growth of this tree is so rapid, and the space of ground which it occupies is so small, that it is in almost universal request as an ornamental tree, in places that are not sufficiently spacious to admit of trees of more spreading form.

POLYANDRIA.

266. _SAGO is a granulated preparation from the pith of a species of
palm-tree_ (Cycas circinalis) _which grows in India and Africa._

_This tree attains the height of thirty or forty feet; has a straight and
somewhat slender stem, and winged leaves at the summit, each seven or
eight feet long, with the leaflets long and narrow._

The preparation of sago, under different forms, constitutes a principal source of employment to the inhabitants of many parts of the coast of Malabar, as well as those of several of the islands of the East Indies.

The trunk of the sago-tree contains a farinaceous pith, to obtain which it is sawn into pieces. After the pith is taken out, it is beaten in mortars, and, water being poured upon the mass, this is allowed to stand for some hours to settle; after which it is strained through a coarse cloth, and, the finest particles running through with the water, the grosser ones are left behind and thrown away, or washed over a hair sieve through which only the edible parts can pass. These are allowed to subside. The water is then poured off, and the flour, being properly dried, is made into cakes and baked for use, or is granulated in a manner somewhat similar to that adopted in the preparation of tapioca (251). It is in the latter state that sago is imported into Europe, where it is much used as a nourishing and agreeable diet for sick persons, in puddings and other culinary preparations.

267. _The COMMON JUNIPER_ (Juniperus communis) _is an evergreen shrub,
with slender and pointed leaves, that grows on heaths in several parts of
the south of England._

_The leaves grow in threes; each is tipped with a spine, and is longer
than the ripe fruit, which is a blackish purple berry._

Juniper _berries_ are at first green; and they continue upon the trees two years before they become ripe and assume their purple colour. When ripe they have a sweetish aromatic taste. The Swedes prepare, from these berries, a beverage which they consider useful as a medicine; and in some parts of the Continent juniper berries are roasted, ground, and adopted as a substitute for coffee. In Sweden they are eaten at breakfast, in the form of a conserve; and, in Germany, they are frequently used as a culinary spice, and especially for imparting their peculiar flavour to sour crout. Spirits impregnated with an essential oil distilled from them have the name of juniper water or _gin_. But it is a common practice to adopt spirit of turpentine (246) instead of this. Juniper-berries are imported into this country from Holland and Italy. Their smell is strong, but not disagreeable; and their flavour is warm, pungent, and sweetish, leaving a bitter taste in the mouth. The essential oil of these berries, if mixed with nut-oil (241), makes an excellent varnish for pictures, woodwork, and iron.

The _wood_ of the juniper-tree is of reddish colour, very hard, and so durable that it will last more than a hundred years without decay. It is employed in veneering, for making cabinets, and for ornamental furniture. Charcoal formed from it affords a heat so lasting, that live embers are said to have been found in the ashes of juniper-trees after they have been covered up for more than twelve months. Such is the fibrous nature of the _bark_ that it may be manufactured into ropes and other cordage.

From the crevices of the bark, or through perforations made in it by insects, a resinous gum exudes, which has the name of _gum sandarach_. This, which is of pale yellowish colour, very brittle, and inflammable, possesses a pungent aromatic taste, and emits a fragrant odour when burnt. It is imported from the Continent, in small pieces or tears, about the size of peas. When powdered and passed through a fine sieve, this is the substance called _pounce_, which is used for rubbing upon writing paper, in places where it has been scratched. Considerable quantities of this gum are consumed in the preparation of varnish, and particularly of one kind, used by cabinet-makers and painters, called _vernis_.

268. _The RED or COMMON CEDAR is a species of juniper_ (Juniperus
virginiana) _which grows in North America and the West Indies._

_It is distinguished by its leaves growing in threes, and being fixed by
their base, the younger ones lying upon each other, and the older ones
spreading._

The _wood_ of this tree is in much request for the outsides of black lead pencils. It is soft and incapable of high polish, but, on account of its powerful fragrance, and consequently resisting the attacks of insects, it not unfrequently used for the bottoms of drawers, and the inside of cabinets. Some years ago it was in much request for wainscotting and cabinet work; but, since the introduction of mahogany, it has been in great measure neglected for these purposes.

269. _The YEW is a well-known evergreen tree_ (Taxus baccata), _which has
dark, narrow, pointed, and prickly leaves, and red berries, in the hollow
part of the extremity of which a green seed appears._

The cultivation of the yew was formerly very extensive throughout nearly the whole of the British dominions, since of the _wood_ of this tree, which is peculiarly hard, smooth, and tough, our ancestors manufactured their bows. Hence, as well as on account of its gloomy and funereal aspect, it was usually planted in churchyards. But, when the introduction of fire-arms began to supersede the use of the bow, the yew was no longer cultivated than as an ornamental tree in parks and pleasure grounds.

In the formal style of gardening which was anciently prevalent, few trees were more the subject of admiration than this, from its bearing to be clipped, without injury, into almost any form. Yews were cut into the shape of men, quadrupeds, birds, ships, and other vegetable monsters, but such absurd fancies have of late years almost wholly disappeared. These trees are at present advantageously planted in hedges, as a fence for orchards and shrubberies, which nothing can injure.

The _wood_ of the yew-tree is hard, beautifully veined, and susceptible of high polish. Hence it is valuable as a wood for veneering, and is much used for card boxes, small cabinets, and other articles. It is frequently used by turners and cabinet-makers; and might perhaps be advantageously substituted for box (232) by engravers and other artists in that wood. From its hardness and durability, it may be made into cogs for mill-wheels, into axle-trees, and flood-gates for fish-ponds, which are scarcely susceptible of decay. The _berries_ are sweet and clammy, and are often eaten by children without inconvenience; though when eaten to excess, and particularly if the stones be swallowed, they are injurious. An ardent spirit might no doubt be obtained from them by distillation. The _leaves_ of the yew-tree are extremely poisonous both to the human species and to cattle.

----

CLASS XXIII.--POLYGAMIA.

----

MONOECIA.

270. _The PLANTAIN-TREE_ (Musa paradisiaca), _which is much cultivated in
the West Indies and South America, has a soft stem, fifteen or twenty
feel high, with several leaves on the summit; and bears a fruit of pale
yellow colour, somewhat shaped like a cucumber, about a foot in length,
and two inches thick._

_The leaves are frequently eight feet long, and more than two feet broad,
and are so thin and tender that they are often torn by the wind. The
fruit is produced in bunches so large as each to weigh forty pounds and
upwards._

To the negroes of the West Indian islands the plantain is an invaluable fruit, and, like bread to the Europeans, is with them denominated the staff of life. In Jamaica alone many thousand acres are planted with these trees. This fruit is usually gathered before it is ripe, and, after the skin has been peeled off, is roasted for a little while in a clear fire; it is then scraped and eaten as bread, for which it is an excellent substitute. Plantains are sometimes boiled, and eaten with salt meat; they are also cut into slices and fried, pounded, and made into puddings, and used in various other ways. Horses, cattle, swine, and other domestic animals, are fattened with them. When ripe they may be eaten raw, and, in this state, they have somewhat the taste of a ripe pear.

The _leaves_ of the plantain-tree, being soft and smooth, are sometimes employed as dressings after blisters; and, when green, are used as food for hogs.

The vegetation of this tree is so rapid that if a line or thread be drawn across, and on a level with the top of one of the leaves, when it begins to expand, it will be seen, in the course of an hour, to have grown nearly an inch.

271. _The BANANA is a valuable plant_ (Musa sapientum) _which grows in
the West Indies and other tropical countries, and has leaves about six
feet in length, and a foot broad in the middle; and fruit four or five
inches long, and about the shape of a cucumber._

When ripe, the banana is an agreeable _fruit_, with a soft and luscious pulp; and is frequently introduced in desserts in the West Indies. The Spaniards have a superstitious dislike to cut this fruit across; they always slice it from end to end, because, in the former case, the section presents an imaginary resemblance to the instruments of our Saviour's crucifixion. The banana is sometimes fried in slices as fritters. If the pulp of this fruit be squeezed through a fine sieve, it may be formed into small loaves, which, after having been properly dried, may be kept for a great length of time.

272. _MILLET is a small yellowish seed of a grassy plant_ (Holcus
sorghum), _with large and compact stalks which rise to the height of
seven or eight feet, and is much cultivated in several parts of India and
Africa._

In some countries millet _seed_ is ground into flour and converted into bread; but this is brown and heavy. It is, however, useful in other respects as food, and is an excellent seed for the fattening of poultry. A good vinegar has been made from it, by fermentation; and, on distillation, it yields a strong spirit. Millet seed is imported into this country from the East Indies, for the purpose chiefly of puddings; and, by many persons, it is preferred to rice. The _stalks_ of the millet plant, if subjected to the same process that is adopted with the sugar-cane, yield a sweet juice, from which an excellent kind of sugar may be made.

273. _GUM ARABIC is a well-known drug, obtained from a tree_ (Mimosa
nilotica) _which grows in Egypt._

_This tree has leaves doubly winged, with spines at the base, and small
flowers, of globular shape, growing four or five together on slender
footstalks._

The principal supply of gum arabic in this country is obtained from Barbary, Turkey, and the Persian Gulf. The average quantity imported from the Persian Gulf, betwixt 1804 and 1808, was about 7500 hundred weight per annum, and the price for which it was vended at the East India Company's sales was about 3_l._ per hundred weight. It used formerly to be packed in skins, but it is now brought in large casks. The trees which yield it grow abundantly in numerous parts of Africa and Asia, but the gum does not freely exude from them except in tropical regions. It issues from clefts in the bark, in the same manner as the gum of the cherry and plum trees of our orchards and gardens: and, by exposure to the air, it soon becomes hard and solid. We are informed that, in some parts of Egypt, the inhabitants procure this gum, by boiling pieces of the roots of the trees, and afterwards separating it from the water. We receive gum arabic in small irregular masses, or rough pieces, of pale yellowish colour, and roundish shape.

It is, however, to be remarked, that, by far the greatest part of the gum which is sold in the shops under this name is not such, but is the production of another species of tree (_Mimosa Senegal_), and is properly called _gum Senegal_, The latter is imported from Senegal, Guinea, and other parts of Africa. It is generally seen in large rough pieces, of roundish figure, and brownish hue, more or less pure; possesses similar properties to the other, and is much cheaper.

On account of their mucilaginous qualities, these two kinds of gum, under the name of gum arabic, were formerly used for several purposes in medicine; and, in coughs and hoarsenesses, were considered of great service. They are now principally in request by the manufacturers of water-colours; by dyers, and artificers of different kinds. In Africa the latter constitutes a principal ingredient in the food of the inhabitants. They sometimes dissolve it in milk: and this solution of it is esteemed a favourite repast by some of the tribes.

The dried _juice_ of the _unripe fruit_ of Egyptian mimosa is called _acacia_, and is to this day much used in medicine by the Egyptians. It is sometimes imported into this country in roundish masses, wrapped in thin bladders; and is externally of deep brown colour, and of a yellowish or reddish brown within.

274. _MYRRH is a gummy, resinous substance, obtained from a tree which
grows in Abyssinia, Arabia, and other countries of the East, but
respecting which we are hitherto possessed of no certain account. Mr.
Bruce, however, imagined it to be a species of mimosa._

This drug is generally imported in a kind of grains, of irregular form; of brownish or reddish yellow colour, and somewhat transparent. Its smell is aromatic; and its taste is pungent and bitter. In its medicinal effects, myrrh, when taken into the stomach, is supposed to warm and strengthen it, and also to strengthen the other viscera. It is believed to resist putrefaction in all parts of the body; and, hence, has been recommended as a medicine in malignant, putrid, and pestilential fevers; and in small-pox.

At the East India Company's sales this drug is sold at the rate of about twenty pounds per hundred weight. It is, however, liable to great abuses. The larger masses, in particular, are frequently an artificial composition, skilfully incrusted with a coat of myrrh.

DIOECIA.

275. _MANNA is a concrete or dried juice, procured from several species
of ash-tree, but particularly from the_ FLOWERING ASH (Fraxinus ornus,
Fig. 76), _which is much cultivated in Calabria and Sicily._

_This tree somewhat resembles the common ash. It has winged leaves, with
an odd one at the end, the leaflets oblong, pointed, serrated, and
veined, standing on footstalks, and of bright green colour. The flowers
are whitish, and appear in close bunches, about the month of May or
June._

The trees that are cultivated for the production of manna are chiefly planted on the eastern sides of hills. This substance exudes spontaneously from them; but as the supply thus obtained would be insufficient for the demand, incisions are made in the bark to obtain it more copiously. These incisions are formed, in the summer time, lengthwise in the tree, and each about a span long. They are begun at the lower part of the trunk, and repeated upward, at a little distance from each other, as high as the branches. One side of the tree is first cut; the other side being reserved until the ensuing year, when it undergoes a similar treatment. From the wounds thus made a thick whitish juice immediately begins to flow, which gradually hardens on the bark, and in the course of a few days acquires a sufficient consistence to be taken off. It is collected in baskets, and afterwards packed in chests or boxes. Sometimes the manna flows in such abundance that it runs upon the ground, and thus becomes mixed with various impurities, unless it be prevented, as is sometimes the case, by placing for its reception large leaves, stones, chips of wood, or straw. The collecting of manna generally terminates about the end of September.

This substance is known by druggists under different names, according to its purity, rather than from any essential difference in the article itself. The best Calabrian manna is imported in oblong, light, and crumbly flakes or pieces of whitish or pale yellow colour, and somewhat transparent appearance. The inferior sorts are moist, unctuous, and of darker colour.

Manna is a mild and agreeable laxative medicine, particularly with the addition of a little cinnamon water, or other warm aromatic: and it is useful in asthmatic complaints, as well as in inflammatory affections of the breast. It is sometimes counterfeited by a composition of sugar and honey, mixed with a small portion of scammony.

The miraculous substance mentioned in the Old Testament by the name of manna, cannot, of course, be considered to have any alliance whatever with the manna thus produced. This remark would not have been made, did not young persons sometimes inconsiderately confound the two substances.

276. _The ASH-TREE_ (Fraxinus excelsior, Fig. 79) _is a well-known
British tree, with winged leaves; the leaflets in four or five pairs,
with an odd one, serrated, and without footstalks; and the flowers
without petals._

Of late years this valuable tree has been much planted in several parts of England. It is of hardy nature, and thrives even in barren soils. If planted in moist situations, the roots, spreading wide in every direction near the surface, have a tendency to render the ground dry and firm. The _timber_, which has the rare advantage of being nearly as good when young as when old, is white, and so hard and tough as generally to be esteemed next in value to oak. It is much used by coach-makers, wheel-wrights, and cart-wrights; and is made into ploughs, axle-trees, felloes of wheels, harrows, ladders, and other implements of husbandry. It is likewise used by ship-builders for various purposes, and by coopers for the hoops of tubs and barrels. Where, by frequent cutting, the wood has become knotty, irregular, and veined, it is in much request for cabinet-work by mechanics on the Continent. The best season for felling ash-trees is from November to February. As fuel, this tree burns better whilst wet and green than other wood.

We are informed that, in the northern parts of Lancashire, when grass is scarce, the small farmers frequently cut off the tops of ash-trees to feed their cows with the _leaves_ and tender branches; but these are said to spoil the taste of the milk. Mr. Pennant states that, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the inhabitants of Colton and Hawkshead-Fells remonstrated against the number of forges then lately erected in that part of the country, because they consumed the loppings of the trees, which formed the sole winter food for their cattle. The leaves of ash-trees were formerly much used in the adulteration of tea, under the name of _smouch_; but this practice has of late been prohibited by act of parliament.

The _bark_ of the ash-tree is employed in the tanning of calf-skins, and sometimes in dyeing black and other colours. The _inner bark_ has been proposed as a substitute for Peruvian bark, in the cure of intermittent fevers.

277. _EBONY is the wood of a species of palm-tree_ (Diospiros ebenum),
_which grows in the island of Ceylon, and has smooth, leathery, oblong,
and pointed leaves, and rough-haired buds._

The black and valuable substance known to us by the name of ebony, is the centre part only of the trees. The outside wood is white and soft, and either decays soon, or is destroyed by insects, which leave the black part untouched. Ebony is imported into this country from the East Indies. It is exceedingly hard and heavy, admits of being highly polished, and is principally used by cabinet-makers and inlayers for the veneering of cabinets and other ornamental work. The wood of the pear-tree, stained black, is frequently substituted for ebony.

The ripe _fruit_ of the ebony tree is eaten by the natives of Ceylon; but it is astringent, and not very palatable.

Linnæus was of opinion that ebony was the wood of a shrub (_ebenus cretica_) which grows in the island of Crete, and has silky leaves and rose-coloured flowers.

278. _The PAWPAW is a fruit about the size of a small melon, but of very
various shape, the production of a species of palm-tree_ (carica papaya),
_which grows in tropical climates, both of the eastern and western parts
of the world._

_The tree is twenty feet and upwards in height; naked almost to the
summit; and marked, through its whole length, with the scars of fallen
leaves. Its leaves are on foot-stalks two feet in length, and deeply
divided into seven, nine, or eleven large lobes. The flowers are
axillary, white, and sweet scented._

In shape the _fruit_ of the pawpaw-tree is sometimes angular, and flattened at both ends; sometimes oval or round; and sometimes pyramidal. When ripe it is of yellow colour; and contains a yellow succulent pulp, of sweetish taste, and aromatic smell, with many black or brown and furrowed seeds. This fruit is seldom eaten raw, but when boiled it is esteemed a wholesome sauce for fresh meat. The inhabitants of the countries where it is found sometimes preserve it in sugar, with oranges, and small citrons. Thus prepared, it may be kept a long time; and, in this state, it is not unfrequently brought into Europe. When about half grown, the pawpaw is sometimes pickled in vinegar with spices.

The fruit of the trifid-fruited custard apple (_annona triloba_) is called pawpaw in some parts of America.

The _bark_ of the pawpaw-tree is manufactured by the Indians into cordage. The _leaves_ are used in place of soap; and water-pipes are sometimes made of the _stem_ of the tree.

TRIOECIA.

279. _The FIG is the pulpy fruit of a shrub, or low tree_ (Ficus carica,
Fig. 83), _which is a native of the South of Europe, and some parts of
Asia._

_Fig-trees are branched from the bottom, and the leaves are large,
smooth, and irregularly divided into from three to five deep and rounded
lobes. The fruit grows on short and thick stalks, of purplish colour, and
contains a soft, sweet, and fragrant pulp, intermixed with numerous small
seeds._

It appears from history, both sacred and profane, that the fig-tree was an object of attention in the earliest times. This fruit was one of the most common and favourite aliments of the ancient Greeks, and constituted a very valuable food with the peasants of some parts of Italy. Fig-trees are now much cultivated in Turkey, Italy, and the Levant, as well as in Spain and some of the southern parts of France. All the islands of the Archipelago yield figs in abundance, but these are in general of very inferior quality.

The trees are propagated either by suckers, by layers, or by cuttings; and the process of increasing and ripening the fruit is an art which requires much attention. This, as it is practised in the Levant, is called _caprification_, and is performed by wounding the buds of the figs, with a straw or feather dipped in sweet oil at a certain period of their growth.

Figs are dried either by a furnace or in the sun, after having been dipped in a scalding ley made of the ashes of the fig-tree. In this state they are used both in medicine, and as food; and are considered more wholesome and more easy of digestion than when fresh. They form a considerable branch of commerce, and are exported, in boxes of different size and shape, to nearly all the northern parts of Europe. When we receive them, their surface is usually covered with a saccharine matter which has exuded from the fruit. A small and cheap kind of fig is imported in small frails or baskets from Faro.

There are numerous varieties of the fig, but the common purple kind is the hardiest of the whole. This is frequently cultivated in our gardens; and, if screened from the north-east winds, it ripens, even: with us, in tolerable perfection.

The wood of the fig-tree is of spongy texture, and, when charged with oil and emery, is much used on the Continent by locksmiths, gun-smiths, and other artificers in iron and steel, to polish their work. It is almost indestructible, and on this account was formerly employed in eastern countries as coffins for embalmed bodies.

----

CLASS XXIV.--CRYPTOGAMIA.

----

280. _FERN, or BRAKE_ (Pteris aquilina), _is a well-known cryptogamous
plant, which grows wild on heaths, in woods, and in barren places._

Though this plant is an extremely troublesome weed to the farmer, from the roots penetrating deep into the ground, it is applied to various uses in rural oeconomy. When cut and properly dried, it serves as litter for horses and cattle; and it supplies the place of thatch for covering the roofs of cottages and stacks. Where coal is scarce, it is used for the heating of ovens and burning of lime-stone.

The _ashes_ of fern, from their yielding a tolerably pure alkali, are frequently used by manufacturers of glass, particularly in France. And, in some parts of our own country, the poor people mix these ashes with water, and form them into round masses which they call _fern balls_. These are afterwards heated in a fire, and then, with water, are made into a ley for the scouring of linen. They thus furnish a cheap substitute for soap.

Swine are fond of the roots of fern, and will feed freely upon them. We are even informed that, with the inhabitants of Palma, one of the Canary islands, they are sometimes made to supply the place of bread.

It is deserving of remark that, when the root of the fern is cut obliquely across, it presents a kind of figure of the Imperial or Russian eagle; from which circumstance Linnæus was induced to name it _Pteris aquilina_, or "Eagle brake."

281. _The_ LICHENS _constitute a very numerous family of plants, which
grow on the bark of trees, on rocks, stones, and other substances; and
have an indistinct fructification, in scattered wart-like tubercles, or
excrescences, and smooth saucers or shields, in which the seeds are
imbedded._

_Some of them have a powdery appearance, and others are crustaceous,
leaf-like, shrub-like, herbaceous, or gelatinous._

282. _The CALCAREOUS LICHEN_ (Lichen calcareus) _consists of a white
crust with black tubercles._

This plant, which is found on lime-stone rocks in Wales, and the north of England, is used in dyeing woollen and other cloths a scarlet colour.

283. _CRAB'S-EYE LICHEN_ (Lichen parellus) _is a crustaceous, whitish,
and granulated vegetable substance, with cups of the same colour, which
have a thick and blunt border._

From this lichen, which is found on rocks and stones in mountainous countries, and sometimes on stones near the sea-shore, is prepared the bluish pigment called _litmus_. It is chiefly collected from rocks in the north of England, packed in casks, and sent to London for sale.

284. _TARTAREOUS LICHEN_ (Lichen tartareus) _is a whitish, crustaceous,
vegetable production, with yellow cups or shields, which have a whitish
border._

The inhabitants of the Highlands of Scotland gather this species of lichen from the rocks, and, after cleaning, and some further preparation, which is kept a secret by the manufacturers, they form it into cakes. These, when dried, are pulverized, and sold to dyers by the name of _cudbear_, which is a corruption of Cuthbert, the name of its inventor. In conjunction with alum, the powder of the tartareous lichen is used in dyeing scarlet, and also for striking a purple dye; but the colour produced by it is not very permanent.

285. _ARCHELL, or PURPLE ROCK LICHEN_ (Lichen omphalodes), _is a
vegetable production, of somewhat crustaceous consistence, and leaf-like
form; the segments with many lobes, and of dark purplish brown colour,
with dull purple saucers._

This kind of lichen grows upon rocks on the high stony moors of several parts of England, Wales, and Scotland. When properly prepared, it imparts to woollen cloth a reddish brown colour, or a dull but durable crimson. If wool that has been dyed with it be dipped into a blue vat, it will acquire a beautiful purple tinge. It is sometimes used as a styptic; and was formerly applied as a remedy in inflammatory fevers and other complaints; but, in the latter respect, it is now entirely neglected.

286. _ORCHALL, or DYER'S LICHEN_ (Lichen rocella), _is a somewhat
crustaceous and shrub-like vegetable production, of nearly cylindrical
form, solid, without leaves, but little branched, and with blackish brown
alternate tubercles._

In the Canary and Cape de Verd Islands, as well as in the Grecian Archipelago, orchall is found in great abundance. It likewise grows in Guernsey and in some parts of England, and is employed by dyers chiefly for giving a bloom to other colours. This is effected by passing the dyed cloth or silk through hot water slightly impregnated with it; but the bloom thus communicated soon decays after it has been exposed to the air. When prepared in a peculiar manner, orchall yields a rich purple tincture, fugitive indeed, but very beautiful. Mixed with a solution of tin it is said to dye a permanent scarlet. Orchall is the substance generally adopted for colouring the spirits of thermometers. And it is a remarkable circumstance that, as exposure to the air destroys its colour upon cloth, so the exclusion of the air produces, in a few years, a like effect upon the fluid in those tubes; but on breaking the tubes the colour is restored.