Chapter VIII: Front Matter (8)

Plantations of chocolate trees are numerous on the banks of the river Magdelana, in South America, and in the Caraccas; but, at present, there are very few in our own colonies. They are usually formed in morassy situations; and are sheltered from the intense heat of the sun by larger trees which are planted among them. There are two principal crops of chocolate-nuts in the year; the first in June, and the second in December. As soon as the fruit is ripe, it is gathered, and cut into slices; and the nuts, which at this time are in a pulpy state, are taken out with the hand; for the thinness of their husk precludes the possibility of using a machine. They are then laid in skins, or on leaves, to be dried in the sun. They have now a sweetish acid taste, and may be eaten like any other fruit. When perfectly dry they are put into bags, each containing about a hundred weight; and, thus packed, are exported to foreign countries.

Previously to the preparation of these nuts into the substance which we call chocolate, they are gently roasted, or parched over the fire, in an iron vessel, after which process their thin external covering is easily separated. The kernel is then pounded in a mortar, and subsequently ground on a smooth warm stone. Sometimes a little arnatto (173) is added; and, with the aid of water, the whole is formed into a paste. This, whilst hot, is put into tin moulds, where in a short time it congeals; and in this state it is the chocolate of the shops. In South America and Spain other modes are adopted; the chocolate is mixed with sugar, long pepper (21), vanilla, cinnamon, cloves, almonds, and other ingredients, according to the taste of the respective inhabitants. Mr. Edwards was of opinion, that the cakes of chocolate used in England were made of about one half genuine chocolate, and the remainder of flour, or Castile soap.

Chocolate was first introduced into Europe by the Spaniards, and that from the Caraccas is considered the best. It should be used whilst new, as neither the seeds nor the cakes will keep well more than two years. The chocolate used in this country must be manufactured in England, for, by an Act of the legislature, the importation of chocolate paste is prohibited, under heavy penalties. The mode in which this substance is immediately prepared for use is well known.

By the natives of South America chocolate _nuts_ are used for food, and also as a circulating medium instead of coin: about 1200 of them being considered equal in value to a dollar.

A white oily matter, about the consistence of suet, is obtained by bruising these nuts, and boiling the pulp. The oil is by this means liquefied, and rises to the surface, where it is left to cool and congeal, that it may the more easily be separated. This, which is called _butter of cacao_, is without smell, and, when fresh, has a very mild taste. Its principal use is as an ingredient in pomatums. From the nuts, when slightly roasted, an oil is sometimes obtained by pressure, which is occasionally used in medicine.

ICOSANDRIA.

207. _The CITRON, LIME, and LEMON, are different varieties of the fruit
of a small evergreen shrub, the original or parent stock of which_
(Citrus medica) _was imported from Asia into the southern parts of
Europe._

_The_ citron _is oblong, with a very thick rind; the_ lemon _is oblong
with a small lump or protuberance at the end; and the_ lime _has no
protuberance, has a very thin rind, and is about the size of a small egg.
These are the principal marks of discrimination betwixt these fruits, but
they are not quite constant._

_The lemon shrub_ (_Fig. 56_) _has large and slightly indented shining
leaves, of somewhat oval shape, but pointed; and on the footstalks of the
leaves there is no remarkable appendage. The flowers are large and white,
but purplish on the outside of the petals._

It is generally supposed that the _citron-tree_ was first introduced from Assyria and Media into Greece, and thence into the Southern parts of Europe, where it is now cultivated to considerable extent. It is also grown in the islands of the West Indies. The fruit, partaking of the same quality as the lemon, with the exception of being somewhat less acid, is seldom eaten raw; but, preserved in sugar as a sweetmeat, it is much used by confectioners and others. The principal consumption of citron is on the Continent, where it is also occasionally employed in medicine.

The _lemon-tree_ is a native of Upper Asia, whence, like the citron, it was brought into Greece, and afterwards transplanted into Italy. The _juice_, which is one of the sharpest and most agreeable of all acids, is used in cookery, confectionary, medicine, and in various other ways. By calico-printers it is very extensively employed, as a discharger of colour, to produce, with more clearness and effect, the white figured parts of coloured patterns that are dyed with colours formed from iron. Its juice is procured by simply squeezing the fruit, and straining it through linen or any loose filter; and in Sicily, and other parts of the Mediterranean, it forms an important article of commerce. Being one of the most valuable remedies for the scurvy, with which we are acquainted, it generally constitutes part of the sea store of ships that are destined for long voyages.

Several modes have been recommended for preserving lemon juice. One of these is to put it into bottles, with a small quantity of oil, which, floating on the surface, prevents the immediate contact of the air, and retards the decomposition of the acid; though, in this case, the original fresh taste soon gives place to one which is less grateful. In the East Indies lemon juice is sometimes evaporated, by a gentle heat, to the consistence of a thick extract. Sometimes it is crystallized into a white and acid salt; but what is sold in the shops, under the name of _essential salt of lemons_, for taking out ink-stains and iron-mould spots from linen, is only a preparation from the juice of sorrel.

The external part of the _rind_ has a grateful aromatic and bitter taste, which renders it useful in cookery. When dried it is considered a good stomachic, promotes the appetite, and is otherwise serviceable as a medicine. It is often candied and made into a sweetmeat, under the name of _lemon chips_. When distilled it yields a light and almost colourless oil, which, in smell, is nearly as agreeable as the fresh peel, and is frequently employed as a perfume.

Lemons are sometimes preserved in syrup. Small ones with thick rinds are converted into a grateful pickle; and a marmalade and syrup are also made of them. For the purpose of keeping the fruit, it is recommended that a fine packthread about a quarter of a yard long, should be run through the protuberance at the end of the lemons: the ends of the string are to be tied together, and suspended on a hook in an airy situation, and in such manner that each lemon may hang perfectly free and detached.

The cultivation of the _lime_ is much attended to in several parts of North America and the West Indies. Its juice affords a more grateful acid than that of the lemon, which is there in little repute, and is, comparatively, but seldom seen. A plate of limes is said to be a constant dish at entertainments in the West Indies; and the juice is used for all the same purposes as that of lemons is with us.

208. _ORANGE_ (Citrus aurantium, Fig. 55). _The difference betwixt orange
and lemon-trees is immediately known by the former having a kind of
winged appendage on the leafstalks, of which the latter are destitute._

We are informed that the first orange-tree introduced into Europe was sent as a present, from some part of Asia, to the Conde Mellor, prime minister of the King of Portugal. It was the only one of a great number which were contained in the same chest that survived; and it became the parent stock of multitudes of subsequent trees.

The delightful perfume of an orange grove is such as to scent the air for miles, and the _flowers_ appear in succession during the whole summer; and flowers and ripe fruit are found on the same tree. Orange flowers are valued as a perfume, and yield their flavour to rectified spirits; and, in distillation, both to spirits and water. In Portugal and Italy a fragrant red-coloured oil is obtained from them, which, by some persons, is considered of more delicate and agreeable perfume than even ottar of roses.

The _juice_ of the orange, when ripe and of good kind, is extremely sweet, grateful, and wholesome. In fevers, and other complaints, it is of considerable use for allaying heat and quenching thirst; and, in scurvy, it has been found a very valuable remedy. The _rind_, which yields a grateful aromatic bitter, is sometimes used in medicine, and, in particular, has obtained notice for the cure of intermittent fevers or agues. It is frequently preserved in syrup, and also in sugar, under the name of preserved _orange-peel_, and _orange-chips_; and is much esteemed in desserts.

In cookery and by confectioners, oranges are used in numerous ways; for marmalade, in biscuits, cheesecakes, jelly, puddings, and tarts; and an agreeable wine is prepared from oranges, with water, sugar, and some other ingredients.

_Seville_, or _bitter oranges_ are a large, dark-coloured, and rough-skinned variety of the common species. These are much used in medicine and cookery.

_Bergamot_ is a well-known perfume, obtained from the rind of a variety of orange much cultivated near the town of Bergamo in Italy, whence it has obtained its name. The rind is cut into small pieces, and the oil is pressed out into glass vessels. Sometimes a fragrant water is distilled from the peel.

209. _The SHADDOCK_ (Citrus decumana) _is a yellowish green fruit, of the
orange kind, as large as the head of a child, with twelve or more cells,
and contains a red or whitish pulp. It is very common in many parts both
of the East and West Indies._

In hot climates the shaddock is much esteemed on account of its agreeable flavour, which is a pleasant mixture of sweet and acid. It is safely eaten, even in considerable quantities, and is esteemed very salubrious. The rind is thick, and has a disagreeable bitterish taste. This fruit is indebted, for its name, to a Captain Shaddock, who is said to have first brought it from China, or, as some say, from Guinea, and transplanted it into one of the West Indian islands.

210. _CAJEPUT is a greenish coloured oil produced from the fruit of a
tree_ (Melaleuca leucodendron) _which grows in the East Indies._

_This tree has a long flexible trunk; with linear spear-shaped, alternate
leaves, which are smooth, ash-coloured, and each with five nerves. The
flowers are white, and in long, terminal spikes._

The _leaves_ of the cajeput tree have an aromatic odour, somewhat resembling that of cardamom seed (15); and they yield, by distillation, an essential oil, which manifests this aromatic principle still more strongly.

Among the Malays cajeput oil is a medicine in great repute; but its uses are so little known in this country that it is rarely kept even in the shops of the metropolis. In acute rheumatism and gout, however, it has been known to afford immediate relief by being rubbed on the part affected; but it ought not to be applied without great care, as it is very powerful in its effects. Cajeput oil is one of the most valuable remedies which have hitherto been discovered for the toothache. From whatever cause this affection of the face may proceed, whether from a carious or hollow tooth, rheumatic acrimony, or cold, this oil has generally been found efficacious in removing it. It is best applied by being dropped on lint, and placed in the cavity of the tooth, or round the gum. Hence it deserves a place in the medicine chest of every private family.

If taken internally, in a dose of five or six drops, it heats and stimulates the whole system; and it is said to have had a beneficial effect in dropsies and intermittent fevers. In India it is used, both internally and externally, in palsies, deafness, gout, rheumatism, and several other complaints.

Its odour is remarkably destructive to insects. A few drops of it, in a cabinet or drawer in which animal or vegetable specimens of natural history are kept, in a dried state, have, on this account, been found useful.

Cajeput oil is chiefly prepared in the island of Bouro, one of the Moluccas; and it is imported into Europe from the East Indies. But, from its high price, it is so frequently adulterated, that it is seldom to be had genuine in Europe.

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CLASS XIX.--SYNGENESIA.

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ÆQUALIS.

211. _The ARTICHOKE_ (Cynara scolymus) _is a well-known plant which is
grown chiefly for culinary purposes, and was originally imported into
this country from the south of Europe._

This plant was cultivated with us as early as the year 1580. The parts that are eaten are the receptacle of the flower, which is called the _bottom_, and a fleshy substance on each of the scales of the calyx. The _choke_ consists of the unopened florets, and the bristles that separate them from each other: these stand upon the receptacle, and must be cleared away before the bottom can be eaten. Its name has doubtless been obtained from a notion that any one unlucky enough to get it into his throat must certainly be choked.

With us artichokes are generally plain boiled, and eaten with melted butter and pepper; and they are considered both wholesome and nutritious. The bottoms are sometimes stewed, boiled in milk, or added to ragouts, French pies, and other highly-seasoned dishes. For winter use they may be slowly dried in an oven, and kept in paper bags in a dry place. On the Continent artichokes are frequently eaten raw, with salt and pepper.

By the country people of France the _flowers_ of the artichoke are sometimes used to coagulate milk, for the purpose of making cheese. The _leaves_ and _stalks_ contain a bitter juice, which, mixed with an equal portion of white wine, has been successfully employed in the cure of dropsy, when other remedies have failed. The juice, prepared with bismuth, imparts a permanent golden yellow colour to wool.

212. _The CARDOON_ (Cynara cardunculus) _is a species of artichoke which
grows wild in the south of France, and has smaller flowers than the
common artichoke, and the scales of the calyx terminated by long, sharp
spines._

_The stems rise to the height of four or five feet, and are upright,
thick, and cottony. The leaves are large and winged, and the flowers of
blue colour._

The parts of the cardoon that are eaten are not those belonging immediately to the flower, as of the artichoke, but the roots, stalks, and middle ribs of the leaves; and chiefly the latter, which are thick and crisp. But, as all these are naturally very bitter, the plants, previously to being used, are blanched, by being tied up like lettuces, about the month of September, and having earth thrown upon their lower parts, to the depth of eighteen inches or two feet.

Cardoons come into season for the table about the end of November; and are either eaten alone, or as a sauce to animal food, particularly to roasted meat; or are introduced as a dish in the second course. They are, however, not so much used in England as on the Continent; and this in consequence chiefly of the trouble attending their cultivation, and their preparation for the table, so as to render them palatable.

213. _LETTUCE_ (Lactuca sativa) _is an esculent vegetable, that is
cultivated in nearly every kitchen garden in the kingdom._

The different kinds or varieties of lettuce are extremely numerous: but those best known are the _cos lettuce_, and _cabbage lettuce_, the former having upright leaves, and the latter having its leaves folded over each other like those of a cabbage. Their culture is very simple. The seeds are sown at various seasons of the year, that the plants may be ready, in succession, for the table. After a while, they are planted out from the seed-bed into another part of the garden, at a certain distance from each other, to allow of room for their expansion and growth. When the cos lettuces have attained a sufficient size, their leaves are tied together with strings of matting, to blanch them for use. From seeds that are sown towards the end of summer, lettuces may, with care, be obtained in perfection during the ensuing winter and spring.

Lettuces have an odour somewhat resembling that of opium; and they also possess somewhat similar narcotic properties, which reside in the milky juice. The properties of this vegetable as a salad, if eaten without oil, are considered to be emollient, cooling, and wholesome.

214. _ENDIVE_ (Cichorium endivia) _is a common vegetable in kitchen
gardens, having curled or crisped leaves._

We are supposed to have been originally indebted to the East Indies for this useful winter salad. It is chiefly cultivated in the south of England; being sown generally about June or July, and afterwards planted out, like lettuce.

The chief excellence of endive consists in the whiteness of its inner leaves. It is, therefore, adviseable, either to cover the plants with flower-pots, or, when full grown, to tie them loosely together, for two or three weeks. By so doing, they will become perfectly blanched; and, in winter, they may be preserved, either by covering them with straw and mats, or by putting them in sand in a dry cellar.

The French consume a great quantity of endive at their tables. They either eat it raw in salads, boiled in ragouts, fried with roast meat, or as a pickle. It is a wholesome vegetable which seldom disagrees with the stomach.

SUPERFLUA.

215. _CAMOMILE_ (Anthemis nobilis) _is a well-known plant, the dried
daisy-like flowers of which are frequently used in medicine._

The principal use to which camomile _flowers_ are applied is to excite vomiting, and promote the operation of emetics. They have likewise occasionally been substituted for Peruvian bark, in the case of intermittent fevers or agues, particularly on the Continent, but not with much success; and are used as a valuable stomachic. Both the _leaves_ and flowers are employed in fomentations and poultices. They each, but particularly the flowers, have a powerful, though not an unpleasant smell, and a bitter taste.

They are administered in substance, as a powder or electuary, in infusion as tea, in decoction or extract, or in the form of an essential oil obtained by distillation.

So fragrant is the camomile plant, that the places where it grows wild, on open gravelly commons, may easily be discovered by the somewhat strawberry-like perfume which is emitted by treading on them. This quality alone has sometimes induced the cultivation of camomile for a green walk in gardens.

216. _TARRAGON_ (Artemisia dracunculus) _is a hardy plant of the wormwood
tribe, which grows wild in India and the southern parts of Europe, and is
cultivated with us in gardens for culinary uses._

_It has a somewhat shrubby stem; smooth, spear-shaped, leaves tapering at
each end; and flowers roundish, erect, and on footstalks._

This is a hot and bitter vegetable, which is sometimes eaten with lettuces, or other salad herbs: and sometimes used as an ingredient in soup. Its _seeds_ are pungent; and may be advantageously substituted for the more costly spices obtained from the Indies. The Indians frequently eat the _leaves_ of the tarragon plant with bread.

The sauce called _tarragon vinegar_ is made by infusing for fourteen days, one pound of the leaves of tarragon, gathered a short time before the flowers appear, in one gallon of the best vinegar: straining this through a flannel bag, and fining it by means of a little isinglass.

A distilled water is sometimes prepared from the leaves of tarragon.

FRUSTRANEA.

217. _The JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE is a somewhat potatoe-shaped root, produced
by a species of sunflower_ (Helianthus tuberosus) _which grows wild in
several parts of South America._

_This plant bears single stalks, which are frequently eight or nine feet
high, and yellow flowers, much smaller than those of the common
sunflower._

So extremely productive are these valuable roots, that betwixt seventy and eighty tons' weight of them are said to have been obtained, in one season, from a single acre of ground. They succeed in almost any soil; and, when once planted, will continue to flourish in the same place, without requiring either much manure, or much attention to the culture. The season in which they are dug up for use is from about the middle of September till November; when they are in greatest perfection. After that they may be preserved in sand, or under cover, for the winter.

The roots are generally eaten plain boiled; but they are sometimes served to table with white fricassee-sauce, and in other ways. Their flavour is so nearly like that of the common artichoke, that it is difficult to distinguish them from each other. We are informed that Jerusalem artichokes are a valuable food for hogs and store pigs; and that if washed, cut, and ground in a mill, similar to an apple-mill, they may also be given to horses.

218. _The COMMON or ANNUAL SUNFLOWER_ (Helianthus annuus) _is a Peruvian
plant, with large yellow flowers, that is well known in our gardens._

The uses to which this plant may be applied are such as to render it well deserving of attention in rural economy. Its _stalks_ contain a white, shining, fibrous substance, which might be advantageously employed in the manufacture of paper; and the woody part of them makes excellent fuel. Its ripe _seeds_, when subjected to pressure, yield a great proportion of sweet and palatable oil. These seeds may also be used for the feeding of poultry. The _receptacles of the flowers_, it is said, may be boiled and eaten like artichokes.

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CLASS XX.--GYNANDRIA.

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DIANDRIA.

219. _SALEP is the powder of the dried roots of several well-known
field-plants of the orchis tribe_ (Orchis morio, O. mascula, &c.)

As an article of diet, salep is supposed to contain the largest portion of nutriment, in an equal compass, of any known vegetable production: even arrow root (17) is, in this respect, inferior to it. The orchises from which it is manufactured flourish in great abundance in meadows and pastures of several parts of England, flowering about the months of May and June. As soon as the flower-stalks begin to decay, the roots should be dug up, and the newly-formed bulbs, which have then attained their perfect state, should be separated. When several roots are collected, they should be washed in water, and have their external skin removed by a small brush, or by dipping them in hot water, and rubbing them with a coarse linen cloth. The next process is to place them on a tin plate, and put them into an oven for about ten minutes, by which time they will have lost the milky whiteness which they before possessed, and will have acquired a transparency like horn. They are then to be spread in a room, where, in a few days, they will become dry and hard.

Although salep might be procured in great abundance in our own country, we import nearly the whole of what we use from the Levant, and generally in oval pieces of yellowish white colour, somewhat clear and pellucid, and of almost horny substance. When these, or the powder prepared from them, are put into boiling water, they dissolve into a thick mucilage.

With the Turks, salep has great celebrity, on account of the restorative qualities which it is supposed to possess. It is much recommended as nutritive food for persons recovering from illness; and, in particular, as a part of the stores of every ship about to sail into distant climates. It not only possesses the property of yielding an invaluable nutriment, and, in a great measure, of concealing the saline taste of sea-water, but is likewise of essential service against the sea-scurvy. When it is stated that one ounce of this powder and an ounce of portable soup, dissolved in two quarts of boiling water, will form a jelly capable of affording sustenance to one man for a day, the utility of salep will be further seen as a means of preventing famine at sea for an infinitely longer time than any other food of equal bulk.

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CLASS XXI.--MONOECIA.

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MONANDRIA.

220. _The BREAD FRUIT is a large globular berry of pale green colour,
about the size of a child's head, marked on the surface with irregular
six-sided depressions, and containing a white and somewhat fibrous pulp,
which, when ripe, becomes juicy and yellow._

_The tree that produces it_ (Artocarpus incisa, Fig. 57) _grows wild in
Otaheite and other islands of the South Seas, is about forty feet high,
has large and spreading branches, and large bright green leaves, each
deeply divided into seven or nine spear-shaped lobes._

We are informed, in Captain Cook's first voyage round the world, that the edible part of this fruit lies between the skin and the core; and that it is white as snow, and somewhat of the consistence of new bread. It is generally used immediately when gathered; if it be kept more than twenty-four hours it becomes hard and chokey. The inhabitants of the South Sea Islands prepare it as food, by dividing the fruit into three or four parts, and roasting it in hot embers. Its taste is insipid, with a slight tartness, and somewhat resembles that of the crumb of wheaten bread mixed with Jerusalem artichoke (217). Of this fruit the Otaheitans make various messes, by putting to it either water or the milk of the cocoa-nut (233), then beating it to a paste with a stone pestle, and afterwards mixing it with ripe plantains (270), bananas (271), or a sour paste, made from the bread fruit itself, called _mahié_.

It continues in season eight months of the year; and so great is its utility in the island of Otaheite, that (observes Captain Cook), if, in those parts where it is not spontaneously produced, a man plant but ten trees in his whole life-time, he will as completely fulfil his duty to his own and to future generations, as the natives of our less temperate climate can do by ploughing in the winter's cold, and reaping in the summer's heat, as often as these seasons return; even if, after he has procured bread for his present household, he should convert the surplus into money, and lay it up for his children.

Not only does this tree supply food, but clothing, and numerous other conveniences of life. The _inner bark_, which is white, and composed of a net-like series of fibres, is formed into a kind of cloth. The wood is soft, smooth, and of yellowish colour; and is used for the building of boats and houses. In whatever part the tree is wounded, a glutinous milky _juice_ issues, which, when boiled with cocoa-nut oil (233), is employed for making bird-lime, and as a cement for filling up cracks in such vessels as are intended for holding water. Some parts of the _flowers_ serve as tinder in the lighting of fire; and the leaves are used for wrapping up food, and for other purposes.

As the climate of the South Sea Islands is considered not much to differ from that of the West Indies, it was (about thirty years ago) thought desirable that some of the trees should be transferred, in a growing state, to our islands there. Consequently, his Majesty's ship the Bounty, in 1787, sailed for this purpose to the South Seas, under the command of Lieutenant, afterwards Admiral Bligh. But a fatal mutiny of the ship's crew prevented the accomplishment of this benevolent design. The commander of the vessel, however, returned in safety to his country; and a second expedition under the same person, and for the same purpose, was fitted out in the year 1791. Captain Bligh arrived in safety at Otaheite, and, after an absence from England of about eighteen months, landed in Jamaica with 352 bread fruit-trees, in a living state, having left many others at different places in his passage thither. From Jamaica these trees were transferred to other islands; but the negroes, having a general and long established predilection for the plantain (270), the bread fruit is not much relished by them. Where, however, it has not been generally introduced as an article of food, it is used as a delicacy; and whether employed as bread, or in the form of pudding, it is considered highly palatable by the European inhabitants.

221. _The JACK FRUIT is a species of bread fruit that is grown in Malabar
and other parts of the East Indies._

_The tree which produces this fruit_ (Artocarpus integrifolia) _differs
from the common bread fruit-tree, in having the leaves entire, each about
a span in length, oblong, blunt, serrated at the edges, bright green, and
very smooth on the upper surface, paler beneath, and clad with stiff
hairs._

Few of the fruits even of eastern climates are so large as this. Its weight is sometimes upwards of thirty pounds; and it generally contains betwixt two and three hundred nuts or seeds. These are each about three times as large as an almond, of somewhat oval shape, blunt at one end, sharp at the other, and a little flatted on the sides. Some varieties of the fruit, however, contain no nuts.

The season in which the jack fruit is in perfection is about the month of December. Though esteemed by many persons, it is so difficult of digestion, that great caution is requisite in eating it. The unripe fruit is sometimes pickled; it is sometimes cut into slices, and boiled as a vegetable for the table; and sometimes fried in palm-oil. The _nuts_ are eaten roasted, and the _wood_ serves for building materials.

TRIANDRIA.

222. _MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN_ (Zea mays, Fig. 58), _is a species of grain
much cultivated in America and other climates: the grains are of yellow
colour, somewhat shaped like flattened peas, and grow closely set round
the upper part of high perpendicular stalks._

To the inhabitants of many countries of warm climates the cultivation of maize is a very important pursuit. These plants are propagated by sowing the seed in rows, in March, April, or May: they generally produce two crops in the year, and yield, according to the soil, from fifteen to forty bushels per acre. As soon as they are ripe, the ears are gathered. They are shortly afterwards threshed, and the grain, when separated, is spread out to dry in the sun; for, if it were heaped together in this state, it would ferment, and sprout or grow.

The American Indians parch this kind of corn over a fire, in such manner as not to burn it. Afterwards they pound it, sift the meal and preserve it for their chief food. They make it into puddings and cakes, or bread, the quality of which is extremely nutritive. Maize is useful for poultry and cattle of every kind; and, if converted into malt, a wholesome beverage may be brewed from it. Of the leafy _husk_ which surrounds the ear of the maize a beautiful kind of writing paper is manufactured at a paper-mill near Rimini in Italy; and a greyish paper may be manufactured from the whole plant. The _stalks_ are said to afford an excellent winter food for cattle. When the _young ears_ are beginning to form, they have a sweet and agreeable taste. If, in this state, the leaves be stripped off, and the ears be subjected to pressure, a pleasant and palatable milky juice may be obtained from them.

It is supposed that maize might, with advantage, be cultivated in England.

223. _The COMMON CUCUMBER_ (Cucumis sativus, Fig. 59.) _is an oblong,
rough, and cooling fruit, which is cultivated in our kitchen gardens, and
is supposed to have been originally imported into this country from some
part of the Levant._

Cucumbers are always eaten before they are ripe, and usually with vinegar, oil, pepper, and salt. They are sometimes stewed; and when young (under the name of _gerkins_), are pickled with vinegar and spices, or preserved in syrup as a sweetmeat.

As the cucumber plants are too tender to sustain the coldness of our climate exposed to the open air, it is necessary to sow the seed in hot-beds, or under hand-glasses; though, in the beginning of summer, the glasses may, without danger, be removed. The fruit is much improved by putting a piece of slate or a tile under each, instead of allowing it to lie upon the naked ground.

224. _The COMMON MELON, or MUSK MELON, is a species of cucumber, produced
by a creeping herbaceous plant_ (Cucumis melo), _which has leaves with
rounded angles, and grows wild in Tartary._

In hot climates this fruit attains great perfection and a peculiarly fine flavour; and even in England, where it is cultivated in hot-beds, and sheltered by glass frames, it is one of the coolest and most delicious summer fruits that we possess. Its size and form vary beyond description. Sometimes it is smooth, and only three or four inches in length: sometimes its whole surface is rugged, or netted, and is many pounds in weight. Melons are, in colour, grey, yellowish, or green, externally; whilst their flesh is white, yellow, reddish, or green.

They are usually eaten with sugar; sometimes with pepper or ginger, and salt; and sometimes alone. In France, they are often eaten as a sauce to boiled beef. The smaller kinds are pickled; and one particular sort of melons are filled with mustard seeds and shred garlic, and pickled under the name of _mangos_ (73).

The propagation of melons is by seed, sown in February or March; and the cultivation is somewhat similar to that of the cucumber, but is attended with considerably more trouble and expense.

225. _The PUMPKIN, or POMPION, is a species of gourd which grows to an
enormous size, contains several cells, and numerous seeds with tumid
margins, and is produced by a creeping plant, with lobed leaves_
(Cucurbita pepo).

_The shape of the pumpkin is generally globular, or flatted at top and
bottom, and ribbed. The rind is glossy, and of yellow or green colour.
The flesh is firm, but melting, and the whole weight is sometimes more
than thirty pounds._

The Germans cultivate this plant in extensive fields, for various economical purposes, but particularly for the feeding of swine, and other animals. They cut it into pieces, and throw it into fish-ponds, as food for carp. Little trouble is required in its culture; and it will flourish on any tolerable soil, in a warm and sheltered situation. The pulp is served at table in various forms, but particularly in pies, and as an ingredient in puddings and pancakes. The Americans frequently gather pumpkins when half grown, and eat them boiled as a sauce to meat. If the _seeds_ be subjected to pressure, they will yield a proportion of oil so great as nearly to amount to their own weight; and, when ground with water, they afford a cooling and nutritious kind of milk.

226. _The BOTTLE GOURD is an American fruit with woody rind, and of very
various shape, belonging to the same tribe as the pumpkin, and produced
by a creeping plant_ (Cucurbita lagenaria) _with somewhat angular and
downy leaves, each having two glands at the base underneath._

This fruit is at first green, but when ripe, it assumes a dull yellow colour; and the flesh is spongy and very white. Its size and shape are so varied, that it would be impossible to describe them; sometimes it has a long slender part next the stalk, like the neck of a bottle; sometimes it is swollen, and sometimes of great length, and of form so curved as to be shaped almost like a bugle horn, or the musical instrument called a serpent.

So hard and strong is the _rind_ of the bottle-gourd, that this, when freed from the pulp, is frequently converted by the Americans, as well as the inhabitants of the West Indies, into drinking cups, flagons, bottles, and other domestic utensils; but, on being first used, it communicates a disagreeable taste to the juices contained in it. The _pulp_, boiled with vinegar, is sometimes eaten.

227. _The WATER MELON_ (Cucurbita citrullus) _is a roundish or oblong
species of gourd, with thin smooth rind, marked with star-like spots, the
leaves deeply divided into lobes, and the flowers somewhat resembling
those of the cucumber._

Persons who have visited hot climates know well how to appreciate the grateful coolness and delicious flavour of the water melon, the flesh of which is so succulent that it melts in the mouth; and the central pulp of which is fluid, like that of the cocoa-nut, and may be sucked, or poured out through a hole in the rind, and thus made to afford a most refreshing beverage.

To the inhabitants of Egypt, China, the East Indies, and other countries, where they are cultivated to a great extent, water melons are extremely valuable, both as food and physic. They are allowed to be eaten in fevers, and other inflammatory complaints. Their flesh or pulp is, in general, of reddish colour; one kind, however, called by the French _pastèque_, has a whitish green pulp. The latter are frequently pickled in vinegar, like gerkins; and are eaten in fricassees, or baked in sweet wine.

Both these varieties may be grown in our gardens, under hot-bed frames, in the same manner as cucumbers.

TETRANDRIA.

228. _The BIRCH_ (Betula alba) _is a forest-tree, easily known by the
smooth appearance and silvery colour of its bark, by its leaves being
somewhat triangular, but acute, their smallness in comparison with those
of other timber trees, and by the small branches being slender and
flexible._

Although the birch is by no means considered a valuable timber tree, yet its _wood_ is used for numerous purposes. Being of white colour, and firm and tough in texture, it is variously employed by hoop-benders and wheel-wrights. Turners use it for trenchers, bowls, ladles, and other wooden ware. Ox yokes, small screws, women's shoe-heels, pattens, and, in France, wooden shoes are made of it. The North American Indians use the wood of the birch-tree for canoes, boxes, buckets, baskets, kettles, and dishes, curiously joining it together with threads made of roots of the cedar-tree. Birch-trees are not unfrequently planted with hazels, for the purpose of the wood being converted into charcoal for forges. This charcoal is much esteemed; and the soot which is formed on burning the wood constitutes a good black substance for printers' ink.

Nearly all the other parts of the birch-tree are applicable to useful purposes. The inhabitants of Sweden employ the _bark_ in the tanning of leather; and, after burning it to a certain degree, they also use it as a cement for broken china and earthen ware. The navigators of the river Volga construct of it portable boats, cradles, &c. It is serviceable in dyeing a yellow colour. In Norway it is dried, ground, mixed with meal, and boiled with other food for swine. Houses or huts, in many parts of the north of Europe, are covered with the outward and thicker part of the bark, instead of slates, or tiles. It is spun into a coarse kind of rope, woven into shoes and hats; and, in Kamschatka, even made into drinking cups. The Laplanders fasten together large pieces of it as outer garments to keep off the rain. Abounding with much resinous matter, slices of the bark are sometimes twisted together to make torches. During a scarcity of corn the bark of the birch-tree has, in several instances, been ground with bread corn, and successfully used as food by mankind.

In most parts of England the _twigs_ of this tree are made into besoms. They are also made into the tops of fishing rods; and, when smeared with bird-lime (56), are used by bird-catchers. The Norwegians frequently employ them as fodder for their horses. The _leaves_ afford a yellow dye.

A wholesome wine is made from the _sap_ or juice of the birch-tree. The juice is obtained by boring holes in the trunks of the trees, about the beginning of March, before the leaves appear. Into each of these holes a piece of elder stick, hollowed through the middle, by clearing out the pith, is placed. This conducts the juice, as it flows from the wound, into a vessel put to receive it. If a tree be large, it may be tapped in four or five places at once; and, from several trees, many gallons of juice may be obtained in a day. The juice thus procured is to be boiled with sugar, in the proportion of four pounds to a gallon, and treated in the same manner as other made wines. A good spirit might no doubt be obtained from the juice of the birch-tree by distillation.

229. _The ALDER, or OWLER_ (Betula alnus, Fig. 63), _is a tree which
grows in wet situations, and is distinguished by its flower-stalks being
branched, and its leaves being roundish, waved, serrated, and downy at
the branching of the veins beneath._

There are few means of better employing swampy and morassy grounds than by planting them with alders; for although the growth of these trees is not rapid, the uses to which they are applicable are such as amply to repay the loss of time requisite before they come to perfection.

The _wood_ of the alder, which is in great demand for machinery, is frequently wrought into cogs for mill-wheels, and is peculiarly adapted for all kinds of work which are to be constantly kept in water. It is consequently used for pumps, sluices, pipes, drains, and conduits of different description, and for the foundation of buildings situated in swamps. The water pipes which are laid under the streets of many of our large towns are made of alder; and, for its utility in the formation of sluices, it is much cultivated in Holland. It is commonly used for bobbins; and women's shoe-heels, ploughmen's clogs, and numerous articles of turnery ware, are formed of it. This wood serves also for many domestic and rural uses, for spinning-wheels, troughs, the handles of tools, ladders, cart-wheels; and, as coppice wood, it is planted to be cut down every ninth or tenth year, for poles. The roots and knots furnish a beautifully veined wood, nearly of the colour of mahogany; and well adapted for cabinet work and furniture.

The _bark_ may be advantageously used in the operations of tanning and leather-dressing; and by fishermen, for staining their nets. This, and the young twigs, are sometimes employed in dyeing, and yield different shades of yellow and red. The Laplanders chew the bark of the alder, and dye their leather garments red with the saliva thus produced. With the addition of copperas, it yields a black dye, which the dyers of cotton use to considerable extent; and, for this purpose, it is purchaseable in some countries, at the rate of seven pence or eight pence per stone.

In the highlands of Scotland, we are informed that _young branches_ of the alder, cut down in the summer, spread over the fields, and left during the winter to decay, are found to answer the purpose of manure. The fresh gathered _leaves_, being covered with a glutinous moisture, are said to be sometimes strewed upon floors to destroy fleas, which become entangled in it, as birds are with bird-lime. But these agile and troublesome insects must be numerous indeed to render the setting of traps for them of any avail towards their destruction.

230. _The COMMON NETTLE. There are two kinds of nettle common in England,
one of which_ (Urtica dioica) _has heart-shaped leaves, and the other_
(Urtica urens) _has oval leaves._

Although generally considered a noxious weed, the nettle is a plant of extensive utility. By the country people the young and tender _leaves_ and _tops_ are boiled for food, and are eaten as a substitute for greens and other pot-herbs. Asses eagerly devour the leaves of nettles; and if these be boiled, and mixed with other food for poultry, they are said to promote their laying of eggs. A kind of rennet is made in the Highlands of Scotland, by adding a quart of salt to three pints of a liquor produced by the boiling of nettles. A tablespoonful of this is said to be sufficient to coagulate a bowl of milk. From the fibrous _stalks_ of the nettle, dressed in the manner of flax or hemp, cloth and paper may be made. The manufacture of these has been pursued with success in some parts of the Continent; and in our own country a coarse kind of canvass has been produced from them. The _roots_, when boiled, communicate a yellow colour to woollen cloth, linen, and cotton.

It must be remarked that the _stings_ of nettles, when examined by a microscope, are shown to be extremely curious objects. They consist of a slender, tapering, sharp, and hollow substance, with a minute hole at the point, and a bag at the base. When the sting is pressed, it perforates the skin, and the same pressure forces up from the bag, into the wound, a corrosive liquor, which forms there a blister, and excites a burning and painful inflammation. If the nettle be suddenly and strongly grasped, the stings are bent or broken, and, in this case, occasion no pain.

In consequence of their stinging quality, nettles have been employed, with advantage, in restoring sensation to paralytic limbs, by whipping them with these plants. They were formerly much used as a styptic; and are said to have been found useful in jaundice, scurvy, gout, and other complaints; but most of the accounts that have been given of their great medicinal virtues have now little credit. The _flowers_ and _seeds_ are said to have been tried in Italy, and found an efficacious substitute for Peruvian bark (62) in agues and other complaints. A leaf of the nettle put upon the tongue, and then pressed against the roof of the mouth, is stated to be a remedy for bleeding at the nose.

231. _The MULBERRY-TREE_ (Morus nigra, Fig. 72) _is a native of Italy,
and is known by its heart-shaped and rough leaves, and its large juicy
berries, each consisting of several smaller ones._

The flowers of the mulberry appear in June, and the _fruit_ becomes ripe in September, the berries continuing to ripen in succession for about two months. These, if eaten before they are ripe, are astringent; but, when ripe, are pleasantly acid, though of very peculiar flavour. An agreeable syrup, made from the _juice_ of the ripe fruit, is kept in apothecaries' shops for medicinal uses. The juice itself is employed to impart a dark tinge to liquors and confections; and, when properly fermented, it becomes a pleasant wine. In cider counties it is not unusual to mix mulberries with the apples destined for cider, by which is made a delicious beverage called _mulberry cider_. Mulberries stain the fingers, as well as linen, cotton, or woollen, of a red colour, which is difficult to be extracted; but which may be removed by verjuice, or the acid of lemons.

In Italy, and other countries where silkworms are bred, the _leaves_ of the mulberry-tree, but particularly those of the WHITE MULBERRY, which is distinguished by its having obliquely heart-shaped and smooth leaves, are requisite for the feeding of these insects; and they are very extensively cultivated for this purpose. The _wood_ is hard and of yellow colour; and is applied to numerous uses in carving and turnery. The _bark_ is so fibrous that it may be manufactured into cordage, ropes, and coarse paper; and that of the root has an acrid and bitter taste, is powerful in its effects, and has been successfully used as a remedy against worms, particularly the tape-worm. Mulberry-trees flourish best in a light and rich soil, and in open situations.

232. _The BOX-TREE_ (Buxus sempervirens) _is a shrubby evergreen tree,
twelve or fifteen feet high, which has small, oval, and opposite leaves,
and grows wild in several parts of Britain._

It has been remarked that this tree was formerly so common in some parts of England, as to have given name to several places, particularly to Box-hill in Surrey, and Boxley in Kent; and, in 1815, there were cut down at Box-hill as many of these trees as were sold for upwards of 10,000_l._, a circumstance perhaps unparalleled in their history. The box-tree was much admired by the ancient Romans, and also by our own ancestors, on account of its being easily clipped into the form of animals, and other fantastic shapes. In the South of Europe it is cultivated in gardens, and kept in flower-pots, with as much attention as we bestow upon myrtles.

The _wood_ is of yellowish colour, close-grained, very hard and heavy, and admits of a beautiful polish. On these accounts it is much used by turners, by engravers on wood, carvers, and mathematical instrument makers. Flutes and other wind instruments are formed of it; and furniture made of box-wood would be valuable were it not too heavy, as it would not only be very beautiful, but its bitter quality would secure it from the attacks of insects. In France it is much in demand for combs, knife-handles, and button-moulds; and it has been stated that the quantity of box-wood annually sent from Spain to Paris is alone estimated at the value of more than 10,000 livres.

An oil distilled from the shavings of box-wood has been found to relieve the tooth-ache, and to be useful in other complaints; and the powdered _leaves_ destroy worms.

HEXANDRIA.

233. _The COCOA-NUT is a woody fruit, produced in nearly all the
countries of hot climates; of oval shape, from three or four, to six or
eight inches in length, covered with a fibrous husk, and lined internally
with a white, firm, and fleshy kernel._

_The tree_ (Cocos nucifera) _which produces the cocoa-nut is a kind of
palm, from forty to sixty feet high. It has, on its summit only, a kind
of leaves, which appear almost like immense feathers, each fourteen or
fifteen feet long, three feet broad, and winged. Of these the upper ones
are erect, the middle ones horizontal, and the lower ones drooping. The
trunk is straight, naked, and marked with the scars of the fallen leaves.
The nuts hang down from the summit of the tree, in clusters of a dozen or
more together._

The external rind of the cocoa-nut has a smooth surface, and is of somewhat triangular shape. This encloses an extremely fibrous substance of considerable thickness, which immediately surrounds the nut. The latter has a thick and hard shell, with three holes at the base, each closed by a black membrane. The kernel lines the shell; and is sometimes nearly an inch in thickness, and encloses a considerable quantity of watery liquid, of whitish colour, which has the name of _milk_.

Food, clothing, and the means of shelter and protection, are all afforded by the cocoa-nut-tree. The kernels of the _nuts_, which somewhat resemble the filbert in taste, but are of much firmer consistence, are used as food in various modes of dressing, and sometimes are cut into pieces and dried. When pressed in a mill, they yield an oil, which, in some countries, is the only oil used at table; and which, when fresh, is equal in quality to that of almonds. It, however, soon becomes rancid, and, in this state, is principally used by painters. The Indians prepare an oil from cocoa-nuts, by steeping the kernels in water till they putrefy, and then boiling the pulp. In this operation the oil rises to the surface, and is skimmed off. This oil is used for anointing the hair, in cookery, for burning in lamps, and for various other purposes. The _milk_, or fluid, contained in the nuts, is an exceedingly cool and agreeable beverage, which, when good, somewhat resembles the kernel in flavour.

Cocoa-nut-trees flourish best in a sandy soil, and first produce fruit when six or seven years old; after which each tree yields from fifty to a hundred nuts annually.

The fibrous coats or _husks_ which envelope the cocoa-nuts, after they have been soaked for some time in water, become soft. They are then beaten, to free them from the other substances with which they are intermixed, and which fall away like saw-dust, the stringy part only being left. This is spun into long yarns, woven into sail-cloth, and twisted into ropes and cables, even for large vessels. The cordage thus manufactured is valuable in several respects, but particularly for the advantages that are derived from its floating in water. The woody _shells_ of the nut are so hard as to be capable of receiving a high polish; and they are formed into drinking cups, and other domestic utensils, which are sometimes expensively mounted in silver.