Chapter II: Front Matter (2)

It has been remarked, in some districts of France, that rye, from bad seasons, or from other causes, has proved noxious and even poisonous. The grains of the corn, thus degenerated, are black on the outside and tolerably white within; and, when dry, are harder and closer than good grain. Bread that is made of rye which contains even a great quantity of this bad corn, is not distinguishable by the taste, from other rye bread; and it seldom produces its ill effects till some time after it has been eaten, it is then said to occasion gangrenes in the legs and other parts of the body, and dangerous fevers. The poorer people, however, are those chiefly who are subject to these diseases, as many of them have little other substantial food to subsist upon than bread made of this species of corn.

In several parts of England rye is sown either by itself, or mixed with tares to be cut whilst green, for the feeding of sheep, cows, and horses. Rye straw is used by brick-makers, and collar-manufacturers; and is considered an excellent material for the thatching of cottages and barns.

32. GRASSES.--_By grasses we are to understand such plants as have a
round, jointed, and hollow stem, surrounded at each joint with a single
leaf, long, narrow, and pointed; and the flowers of which are a kind of
chaffy husk. According to this definition, wheat, barley, oats, and rye,
properly belong to the grasses, although they are known by the peculiar
appellation of corn or grain._[2]

To the grasses it is that the face of nature is indebted for a great portion of its cheerful appearance, and its beauty. They constitute the general herbage of every country, covering to an immense extent the whole surface of the ground. They are very various in their kinds, the British species alone being nearly a hundred and twenty in number. To many species of animals their leaves afford an indispensable article of sustenance; and their seed supply food to birds.

33. _SWEET-SCENTED VERNAL GRASS_ (_Anthoxanthum odoratum_, Fig. 17).[3]--This species is usually considered (though it perhaps ought not exclusively to be so) as that to which the hay fields are indebted for their well-known and delightful fragrance. When partially dried it is very odorous; and, if chewed, in a recent state, its _stalks_ are highly aromatic, tasting not unlike those of fresh lavender. The _root_ has an odour somewhat resembling that of musk. A distilled water, which serves as a vehicle for some perfumes, is occasionally prepared from the leaves and flowers of the vernal grass. The dried flowers are employed in some parts of the Continent for imparting an agreeable flavour to snuff and tobacco.

The vernal grass is not very productive, and by some farmers it is considered not palatable for cattle. Others, however, esteem it an useful addition in their meadows; and, from its being generally found in great abundance on such pastures as sheep are fond of, and afford excellent mutton, it is at least thought to be a good grass for them.

34. _COTTON GRASS_ (_Eriophorum angustifolium_, Fig. 18).--The seeds of this grass are encompassed with long cottony or wool-like hairs; and so abundant are the plants in many tracts of marshy land, particularly in the northern parts of England, that the ground appears almost as if covered with snow.

Poor people sometimes stuff their pillows with the down of the cotton grass; but there is a prevailing opinion that it is not wholesome to sleep on. This down is probably too brittle to be manufactured by itself into thread, yet, in combination either with wool or cotton, it may be spun into a strong and uniform yarn, from which gloves, stockings, and cloth, in small quantity, have been made. Its brittleness has been much corrected by a simple chemical process. Wicks for candles have sometimes been made of it.

35. _BULL-RUSH_ (_Scirpus lacustris_, Fig. 19).--Of the stems of this plant the rush bottoms of chairs are made. Being of soft and pliant texture, totally destitute of roughness, the bull-rush is also sometimes used for the stuffing of pack saddles, making of mats, and thatching of cottages.

36. _MEADOW FOX-TAIL GRASS_ (_Alopecurus pratensis_, Fig. 20) is a very common but valuable kind, which grows freely in moist and fertile pastures and meadows. It possesses, in a superior degree to any other grass, the three great requisites of quantity, quality, and early growth. The best hay which is brought to London is said to be from meadows where this grass abounds; and, in many parts adjacent to the metropolis, it is extremely abundant.

37. _TIMOTHY GRASS, or MEADOW CATS-TAIL_ (_Phleum pratense_, Fig. 21), is a grass much cultivated in several parts of North America, and particularly in wet, loamy grounds, where, though coarse and hard, it is found extremely productive and useful. Such has been the celebrity of Timothy grass, that a gentleman (William Strickland, Esq.) was requested by the Board of Agriculture to make inquiries concerning it; and, from his remarks, it appears that this grass is the chief support of cattle wherever the meadows of it abound. He saw extraordinary crops of Timothy grass growing, as thickly as it could stand upon the ground, three or four feet high, and, in some instances, as coarse as wheat straw. It is cut before it arrives at maturity; and horses are said to prefer the hay that is made of it to every other kind, and to thrive peculiarly well upon it.

Though a native and very common grass in our own country, it is doubtful whether our climate be sufficiently warm to bring it to the same perfection in which it is found in America. It has, however, been cultivated in England with considerable success; and, when used for green food, for which it is particularly calculated, it may be cut two or three times in one season; but, when intended for hay, it should be cut at least a week before it flowers.

38. _FIORIN, or ORCHESTON LONG GRASS_ (_Agrostis stolonifera_, Fig. 22), is known as a troublesome weed in moist meadows and pastures, and also in cold and stiff arable land, by name of _Black Squitch_ or _Bent-grass_. It grows with such luxuriance, lying upon the ground, and taking root at the different joints, that the stems are sometimes several feet in length; and, when cultivated as a crop, it has been known to produce, at two cuttings, betwixt seven and eight tons per acre. This grass was first brought into notice as a grass for hay, by a small tract of meadow ground, in which it was cultivated several years ago, at a village called Orcheston, in Wiltshire. Horses, sheep, and cattle are said to be extremely partial to it, and to prefer the hay which is made from it to any other. To be in perfection, it requires a moist climate, or a wet soil; and it will grow on cold clays, that are unfitted for other grasses.

In Ireland it is called fiorin grass, and, under this appellation, it was first introduced to the public notice in that country, in the year 1810, by the Rev. Dr. Richardson, of Clonfecle, in the county of Antrim.

39. _The MEADOW SOFT GRASS, or YORKSHIRE WHITE GRASS_ (_Holcus lanatus_, Fig. 25), though it vegetates late in the season, produces an abundant crop, and flourishes well in any moist situation. Both its foliage and flowers are soft and woolly. It is chiefly calculated for the feeding of sheep, and has answered extremely well, when close fed. The hay that is made from it is said to be very injurious to horses, and it is not much relished by cattle.

40. _CANARY GRASS_ (_Phalaris Canariensis_, Fig. 23).--This grass grows wild in Worcestershire, and some other parts of England. It is, however, often cultivated for the sake of its seeds, which are extensively used as food for small birds.

41. _PURPLE MELIC GRASS_ (_Melica cærulea_, Fig. 24) is found in great luxuriance on the turf moors, near Glastonbury, in Somersetshire. The people of that neighbourhood make of its stalks a neat kind of besoms, which are used as a cheap and tolerably good substitute for hair brooms. This grass occurs in the most barren, sandy, and boggy situations; but, more especially, about pools upon mountainous heaths.

42. _REED MEADOW GRASS_ (_Poa aquatica_, Fig. 26) is one of the most useful of the British grasses, particularly if grown in wet meadows, or upon the banks of rivers or brooks. In the fenny lands of Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire it not only affords a rich pasturage for cattle in summer, but forms also the chief part of their winter sustenance. In situations favourable to its growth it sometimes attains the height of five or six feet, When cut for hay, it is first dried, then bound up into sheaves, and formed into ricks, in which it undergoes a slight fermentation that much improves it. Cows and sheep are both partial to this grass. As hay, it is a valuable food for cattle, and particularly for milch cows.

43. _SMOOTH-STALKED MEADOW GRASS_ (_Poa pratensis_, Fig. 27) is a favourite grass for cattle; and flourishes even on the driest soils, growing wild in meadows, on dry banks, and even on walls. In rich meadows of Somersetshire it forms a considerable part of the herbage; and, in those that have been flooded during the winter, it flourishes with such luxuriance as nearly to exclude every other grass. Notwithstanding this, it possesses the valuable property of resisting excessive drought, and is frequently green in high gravelly pastures, after almost every other grass has been withered. It flowers early, and makes an extremely valuable hay.

44. _ANNUAL MEADOW GRASS_ (_Poa annua_, Fig. 28).--No grass is more common than this, and none makes a finer turf. It occurs in almost every situation, by the sides of roads, on open and extensive commons; and in many parts of England there are whole meadows of it, without any mixture of other grasses. In those districts of Suffolk which produce the best butter, the annual meadow grass is found in great abundance.

It is a remarkable circumstance respecting this grass, that it does not suffer injury, but that, on the contrary, it is improved by persons frequently walking over it. Mr. Stillingfleet states that, on the hill near Malvern, in Worcestershire, a walk which had been made for the convenience of the water drinkers, was, in less than a year, nearly covered with it, though no plant of it could be found about any part of the hill. This was attributed, in a great measure, to the constant treading upon it, by persons passing to and from the well.

45. _CRESTED DOG'S-TAIL GRASS_ (_Cynosurus cristatus_, Fig. 29) is extremely common in meadows and pastures, and constitutes a principal part of the turf, on high gravelly or chalky soils, in parks, lawns, and sheep walks: and, from the close and thick turf which it makes, it affords good nourishment to cattle and deer. Parks that are famous for excellent venison contain a great proportion of this grass. In the summer time its seeds afford sustenance to pigeons and small birds.

46. _SHEEP'S FESCUE GRASS_ (_Festuca ovina_, Fig. 32) has great celebrity as food for horses and cattle, and, in particular, for sheep, which are said to prefer it to all other grasses, and to become fat upon it sooner than upon any other. Though of short growth, its leaves are numerous and succulent. The Tartars are said generally to fix their habitations, during the summer, in places where there is the greatest plenty of this grass, from its yielding an abundant supply of excellent food for their cattle. And it has been remarked that the sepulchral monuments of the ancient Tartars are chiefly observed in situations where Sheep's Fescue Grass abounds; this has been considered a test of the great value which that people set upon it.

47. _HARD FESCUE GRASS_ (_Festuca duruscula_, Fig. 30) is common in pastures, meadows, and waste grounds. It springs early, affords excellent food for all kinds of cattle; and, in good ground, yields a plentiful crop.

48. _FLOTE FESCUE GRASS_ (_Festuca fluitans_, Fig. 31).--This plant, which grows almost exclusively in wet ditches, and in ponds, is so favourite a food of horses and swine, that they will sometimes even endanger their lives to obtain it. A farmer, who resided some years ago at Ruscomb, in Berkshire, assured Mr. Stillingfleet that he had known a field of four acres (which was nearly always covered with water) afford sufficient nutriment to maintain five farm horses, in good condition, from April to the end of harvest, without any other food; and that it yielded even more than they could eat. The Cottenham and Chedder cheeses are said, in a great measure, to derive their celebrity from the cows feeding on this grass.

Its seeds are small, and are remarkable for their sweet flavour and nutritious qualities. They are annually collected in Poland, and are exported thence, into Germany, and other parts of the continent, under the name of _manna seeds_. These are used in soups, gruel, and puddings, even by persons of the first rank and consequence. When ground into flour, they are convertible into bread, which is little inferior to that made of wheat. The bran of these seeds is stated by Linnæus to be useful as a medicine for horses that are troubled with worms. Geese are fond of the seeds, and well know where to find them. It is remarkable that these seeds have hitherto been entirely neglected in England; though without difficulty they might be obtained in sufficient quantity to prove beneficial.

49. _The COMMON REED_ (_Arundo phragmites_, Fig. 33) grows in ditches, ponds, and by the sides of rivers, attaining the height of six or seven feet, and flowering about the month of July.

Reeds are frequently made into screens or fences for gardens, and they are considered particularly eligible for sheltering tender plants from injury by cold, or blighting winds. They likewise make excellent _weavers' combs_; and, when nailed across a frame of wood-work, are frequently employed as a foundation for plaster floors. They are sometimes made into chair bottoms; and into thatch for cottages and out-buildings.

From the flowers of the reed the country people of Sweden extract a green dye, which they occasionally use for woollen cloth; and we are informed that, from the dried roots, a flour may be made, which is capable of being converted into a wholesome and nutritive bread.

50. _SEA MATWEED_ (_Arundo arenaria_, Fig. 34) is an useful and common plant on most of our sandy sea shores. Its cultivation has, at various times, been much encouraged, and even acts of parliament have been passed for its preservation, in consequence of its spreading roots giving stability to the loose, blowing sand, and thus raising a bulwark against the encroachments of the waves. The Dutch are said to have availed themselves of the advantage of these plants in securing and rendering firm several parts of their coasts, which would otherwise have suffered much injury.

At Newborough, a town on the south coast of the island of Anglesea, the inhabitants manufacture this plant into mats and ropes; and the Danes employ the fibrous roots for making whisk brushes.

The common people of Iceland collect the seeds of the sea matweed for making bread.

51. _RYE GRASS, or RAY GRASS_ (_Lolium perenne_, Fig. 35), has, of late years, been cultivated in some countries, to considerable extent, as fodder for cattle. Its agricultural merits were first discovered in Norfolk, and, thence, the seeds have been distributed through the greater part of the kingdom; those who purchase them little suspecting that the plant was a weed in their own fields. In dry pastures, and by road sides, this kind of grass is extremely common.

When sown in high or sandy lands, either alone or mixed with clover, it yields an earlier crop than most other grasses; and thus affords food at a season when it is sometimes difficult otherwise to be obtained. The ray grass that grows wild is stated to be much superior to that which is obtained by cultivation; and we are informed that, if sown in a rich and fertile soil, it will dwindle in a few years to a poor and insignificant grass.

52. _COUCH, or SQUITCH GRASS_ (_Triticum repens_, Fig 36), is, in general, considered a troublesome and pernicious weed. The roots strike so deeply into the ground, and extend so widely, that the eradicating of them is frequently attended with difficulty. As the plant lies upon the ground it strikes out fibres from every joint; and so luxuriant is it sometimes seen, that a single joint, when transplanted, has, in the course of twelve months, covered a square yard of land.

The roots of couch grass are collected in large quantities at Naples, and sold in the market as food for horses. They have a sweetish taste, somewhat resembling that of liquorice; and, in times of scarcity, when dried and ground into meal, they have been converted into bread. A decoction of the roots is sometimes used in medicine.

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CLASS IV.--TETRANDRIA.

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MONOGYNIA.

53. _TEASEL_ (Dipsacus fullonem) _is a plant, with a somewhat egg-shaped
head of flowers, and hard reflected scales, which is cultivated in
several parts of England, to be used in the carding of woollen cloth._

_The Fullers Teasel is distinguished from other plants of the same tribe
by having its leaves connected at the base, the flower scales hooked, and
the general calyx reflected or bent back._

The seeds of this plant are usually sown in strong rich land, about the commencement of spring. The flowers appear in July, and the blossoms begin to decay in the following month. Shortly after this the heads are cut off, and exposed daily to the sun until they are perfectly dried.

In the clothing counties of England the fuller's teasel is an article of considerable importance. The crooked scales accompanying the flowers are so hard and rough that the heads are employed for raising the nap of woollen cloths. For this purpose they are either set into flat boards like cards, or are fixed round the circumference of a large and broad wheel. The former are used with the hand; and the latter is turned round whilst the cloth is held against it.

54. _MADDER_ (Rubia tinctorum) _is a rough, trailing plant, that grows
wild in several parts of the South of Europe, and is much cultivated in
England and Holland on account of its roots, which are used by dyers and
calico-printers._

The land best adapted for the cultivation of madder is a soft, sandy loam. When the roots have attained sufficient growth, they are taken up, carefully peeled, and dried in an airy shed. After this they are conveyed to a kiln, where they undergo a kind of management somewhat similar to that adopted in the drying of hops (260). The next process is to pulverize them, which is done by pounding or grinding; a secret that was long exclusively possessed by the Dutch.

Madder is extensively used in dyeing, not only on account of its yielding a fine red colour, but also as forming a first tint for several other shades. The madder used for dyeing cottons in the East Indies, is, in some respects, different from that cultivated in Europe. And, in the neighbourhood of Smyrna, and in the island of Cyprus, a kind of madder is grown which affords a peculiarly bright and beautiful colour.

This root is sometimes employed in medicine, in obstructions of the bowels, rickets, and a few other complaints. It tinges water a dull red colour, and spirit of wine a deep bright red. When eaten by animals, it stains even their most solid bones.

Cows are remarkably fond of the madder plant; and when they freely eat of it their milk becomes red, yet the cream which it affords makes a yellow butter,

55. _SANDAL WOOD, or YELLOW SAUNDERS, is a yellowish, odoriferous wood,
which is imported from the East Indies in logs or short pieces, chiefly
as a perfume, or for the manufacture of ornamental articles._

_The tree that produces it_ (Santalum album) _grows principally on the
coast of Malabar, and in the island of Timor. It has somewhat the
appearance of a large myrtle, with stiff branches, and smooth, shining,
spear-shaped leaves, each about two inches long. The flowers grow in
clusters, small and red, and are succeeded by berries about the size of
peas._

When the sandal wood trees are cut down they are stripped of their bark; after which the wood is usually chopped into billets or small pieces, and buried in a dry place for about two months. During this time the ants eat the outer part of it, without penetrating to the heart, which is the sandal. The billets are then taken up, smoothed, and sorted; and the deeper the colour the higher is found the perfume.

In China this elegant wood, when cut into large planks, is sometimes made into coffins for the principal persons; and such coffins are said to resist the effects of air and moisture for many years. The Chinese also reduce the wood to powder, and, with the addition of water, convert it into a paste, which they apply to their bodies, their furniture, and about their houses, as a perfume. The powder of sandal wood is likewise employed as an incense in their idolatrous temples. Hence it is that a considerable trade in this wood exists between the East Indies and China.

Besides the logs, the chips and cuttings of the roots of sandal wood are an article of commerce. From these chips, and from the waste wood, an odoriferous oil is sometimes prepared, which is considered nearly equal in fragrance to oil of roses.

Sandal wood is at present seldom used in medicine; though, from its powerful qualities, it might probably be applied to many medicinal purposes with success. It has a bitterish aromatic taste, accompanied by a degree of pungency which is by no means unpleasant,

TETRAGYNIA.

56. _HOLLY_ (Ilex aquifolium) _is a small evergreen tree, with shining,
irregular, and spinous leaves, and white flowers which grow in clusters
round the branches, and are succeeded by small red berries._

In those parts of the country where hollies are very abundant they afford a cheerfulness to the scenery in winter which is extremely pleasing. It is on this account principally that they are planted in gardens and shrubberies. The barbarous taste of our ancestors was such that they frequently clipped them into the shape of birds, quadrupeds, and other fantastic representations of nature.

As a fence, holly is eminently serviceable. When formed into hedges, it admits of being cropped, and retains its verdure and beauty, without injury, even through the severest winters. Its growth is slow, and its duration longer than that of most other trees. The _wood_, which is hard and close-grained, is much used in veneering, and is frequently stained black, to imitate ebony. It is likewise advantageously used in making handles for knives, cogs for mill-wheels, and other articles. The _leaves_ in winter afford a grateful food to sheep and deer; and the _berries_ yield a subsistence, during this inclement season, to the feathered tribes. In some places, particularly in the island of Corsica, the inhabitants employ the seeds of holly for making a beverage somewhat similar, but much inferior, to coffee.

The _bark_ of the holly is smooth, and replete with a strong mucilaginous substance, from which the article called _bird-lime_ is made. For this purpose it is boiled ten or twelve hours; and, when the green rind is separated, it is covered up in a moist place, to stand for a fortnight. It is afterwards reduced to a tough paste, and washed in a running stream until no impurities are left. The next part of the process is to suffer it to ferment for four or five days; after which it is mixed, over the fire, with a third part of nut-oil (241), or some other oily fluid, and is thus rendered fit for use.

Bird-lime has a remarkably adhesive quality, particularly to feathers and other dry substances. It is, on this account, employed for the smearing of twigs to ensnare birds. In its elasticity and inflammable nature it has much resemblance to Indian rubber; and, if any means could be adopted to harden it, there is little doubt but it might be substituted for that article.

Holly deserves to be much more extensively cultivated than it is. Some years ago a person who purchased a holly wood in Yorkshire, sold the bird-lime prepared from the bark to a Dutch merchant, for nearly the whole sum of his original purchase.

Among the ancient Romans it was customary to send branches of holly, to their friends, with new years' gifts, as emblematical of good wishes. We decorate our houses and churches with it at Christmas, to give, as it has been observed, an air of spring in the depth of winter.

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CLASS V.--PENTANDRIA.

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MONOGYNIA.

57. _ALKANET is a dyeing drug, the bark of a root which produces a rough
plant_ (Anchusa tinctoria), _with downy and spear-shaped leaves, and
clusters of small purple or reddish flowers, the stamens of which are
shorter than the corolla._

Though this plant is sometimes cultivated in England, by far the greater portion of the alkanet which we use is imported either from the Levant, or from the neighbourhood of Montpelier in France.

Alkanet imparts a fine deep red colour to all unctuous substances, and to spirits of wine; but it tinges water with a dull, brownish hue. Its chief use is for the colouring of oils, plasters, lip-salve, and other similar articles. It is likewise employed in compositions for rubbing, and giving colour to mahogany furniture. Wax tinged with alkanet, and applied to the surface of warm marble, stains it flesh colour, and sinks deep into the stone.

58. _The COWSLIP is a plant_ (Primula veris) _which grows in most
meadows and pastures, and is too well known to require any description._

The _flowers_ of the cowslip, when picked and dried, are sometimes used as a balsamic tea. When boiled, with a certain proportion of water and sugar, and afterwards properly fermented, they may be made into a peculiarly pleasant wine.

The _roots_ have a fine odour; and, when immersed in ale or beer, are said to add considerably to the strength of the liquor. The _leaves_ are sometimes eaten as a pot-herb, and in salads; and both the leaves and flowers are an excellent food for silk-worms.

59. _BUCK-BEAN, or BOG-BEAN_ (Menyanthes trifoliata), _is a common plant
in shallow ponds; and is distinguishable by its leaves growing in threes,
and its pink and white flowers being shaggy on their inner surface._

There is no British plant the flowers of which are more beautiful than those of buck-bean; and nothing but the difficulty of propagating it in dry ground could prevent its having a place in every garden. The _leaves_ are intensely bitter, and are occasionally used in the Highlands of Scotland as a tea, to strengthen the stomach. The inhabitants of some parts of Sweden employ them in place of hops, to impart a bitter taste to ale; two ounces of them being considered equal in strength to a pound of hops. By some persons the leaves of buck-bean are smoked instead of tobacco; and different preparations of this plant have been found efficacious as a remedy against agues, and in scorbutic and scrofulous diseases, rheumatisms, and dropsy. There is an opinion that sheep, when compelled to eat of buck-bean, are cured of the rot. In Lapland it is said that the pounded roots, though very unpalatable, are sometimes converted into bread.

60. _SCAMMONY is a concrete or dried juice obtained from the roots of a
climbing plant of the convolvulus tribe_ (Convolvulus scammonia, Fig. 7,)
_which is cultivated in Asiatic Turkey, Syria, and Persia._

_This plant is known by having arrow-shaped leaves, notched in a
particular manner at the base, and each flower-stalk bearing two or three
large and somewhat purplish white flowers._

The roots of the scammony plant are thick, black on the surface, white within, and full of an acrid milky juice, which, in a concrete state, is frequently used in medicine. To obtain it, the earth, at a certain season of the year, is removed from the upper part of the roots whilst they are growing, and the tops are cut obliquely. The juice flows from the wound into a small vessel sunk into the earth, at the lower end of the gash, to receive it. But, as each root furnishes only a very small quantity, the produce of several roots is usually mixed together for the greater convenience of being exposed to the sun and dried. Still, however, the quantity, thus obtained, is sometimes insufficient to supply the demand. In this case an addition is made to it by the pressure of juice from the leaves and stalks.

The best scammony is imported from Aleppo, in light, spongy, friable pieces, of shining blackish grey colour, which have a faint, unpleasant smell, and a bitterish, pungent taste. It is sometimes adulterated with flour, and sometimes even with sand or earth.

In its medical effects, scammony, when administered alone, is an efficacious, though violent purgative. But if triturated or ground down with sugar, almonds, or gum-arabic, its operation becomes sufficiently mild and safe.

61. _JALAP is a dark-coloured root, which is usually imported, in
transverse slices, from South America._

_The plant that produces it_ (Convolvulus jalapa, Fig. 8) _belongs to the
convolvulus tribe, and has generally somewhat heart-shaped leaves, and
flowers that are reddish on the outside, and dark purple or yellowish
within._

The name of jalap is derived from Xalapa, a town in South America, situated betwixt Vera Cruz and Mexico, where the plant, of which it is the root, was originally discovered, and whence it has been imported, in great quantities, into Europe. The jalap plant is now cultivated in the botanical garden at Charlestown, and in several other parts of America. When recent, the root is large, whitish, and full of juice; but, when dried, the best pieces are compact, hard, weighty, and of dark colour, with black circular marks. Both in smell and taste it is very nauseous. It is frequently mixed with slices of bryony root; but these are easily distinguished by their paler colour and porous texture.

The only mode in which this root is of use is as a medicine; and it is administered in substance, in a tincture, and an extract. It has been advantageously employed in several disorders; but, as it is very powerful in its effects, great caution is necessary in the use of it, particularly with children.

62. _PERUVIAN BARK is the produce of a tree which grows in South America,
and chiefly in Peru, whence its name has been derived._

_This tree_ (Cinchona officinalis), _in size and general appearance,
somewhat resembles our cherry-tree. Its leaves are in pairs, oval,
pointed, nerved, and smooth on the upper side; and the flowers hang in
loose clusters, are fringed at the edges, and red in the inside_ (Fig.
10.)

Formerly this valuable medicine had the name of _Jesuit's bark_, from its having been first introduced into Europe by some persons of the religious order called Jesuits, that were settled in South America. They had been instructed in the use of it by the inhabitants of Peru, to whom it had long been known; and it continued, for many years, to be a lucrative article of commerce to them. For its officinal name of cinchona it was indebted to the lady of a Spanish Viceroy, the Countess del Cinchon, who, about 170 years ago, derived great benefit from taking it.

The tree from which it is obtained grows spontaneously, and in great abundance, in several of the mountainous forests of Quito and Peru. The proper time for cutting it is from September to November, the only season during which there is any considerable intermission from rain. The Indians, as soon as they have discovered a spot where the trees are in sufficient number, build a few huts for themselves, and one large hut for containing the bark, to preserve it from wet. They then go forth, each furnished with a large knife, and a bag which will hold about fifty pounds' weight of bark. Each tree occupies two men. They first cut or slice down the bark as far from the ground as they can reach. They then tie to the tree several sticks a little distance apart, and each about half a yard in length, to serve as a ladder by which they can ascend to the upper part, always slicing off the bark as far as they can reach, before they fix a new step. In this manner one of the two mounts to the top, whilst the man below collects what his companion cuts. To relieve each other, they ascend the different trees by turns; and they are generally able to fill their bags once in the course of the day. When they return to their huts, they spread out the bark to dry, and they are very careful to preserve it from wet, which would greatly injure it.

There are three sorts of bark in use: the _pale_, the _red_, and the _yellow_. Of these the two last have recently been discovered. The red is now very scarce, and is seldom brought into Europe. The pale bark is imported, from the Spanish Main, in large bundles, closely packed in goat or other skins. The yellow is in much larger pieces, and flatter and thicker than those of the pale bark.

We are informed, by some writers, that the Peruvians first learned the use of this bark from observing certain animals, affected with intermittent fevers, instinctively led to it. Others say that one of the inhabitants of Peru, having an ague, was cured by drinking the water of a pool into which some trees of this kind had accidentally fallen. On its first introduction into Europe, its use was opposed by many eminent physicians; and, for a long time afterwards, it was believed to be a very dangerous remedy. Its character, however, in process of time, became perfectly established, and it is now considered one of the most valuable medicines we possess.

Peruvian bark is used as a remedy in intermittent fevers or agues; and, by some persons, is prescribed in other kinds of fevers, in confluent small-pox, in gangrenous sore throat, and indeed in every species of gangrene. It is given in powder, as an extract, a spirituous tincture, and a decoction; but the most efficacious form is that of powder. In taste it is bitter and astringent, leaving an impression upon the palate which continues for some time afterwards; but its smell is rather agreeable than otherwise.

63. _COFFEE is the seed of an evergreen shrub which is cultivated in hot
climates, and is chiefly imported from Arabia and the East and West
Indies._

_This shrub_ (Coffea Arabica, Fig. 9) _is from fifteen to twenty feet in
height. The leaves are four or five inches long, and two inches broad,
smooth, green, and glossy on the upper surface; and the flowers, which
grow in bunches at the base of the leaves, are white and sweet-scented.
The berries or fruit are of a somewhat oval shape, about the size of a
cherry, and of dark red colour, when ripe. Each of these contains two
cells, and each cell has a single seed, which is the coffee as we see it
before it undergoes the process of roasting._

Coffee is an article of only late introduction. To the Greeks and Romans it was wholly unknown. Its use appears to have originated in Ethiopia; and, in 1554, it is stated to have been first introduced into Constantinople, whence it was gradually adopted in the western parts of Europe. In 1652 Mr. Daniel Edwards, a Turkey merchant, brought with him to England a Greek servant, whose name was Pasqua, and who understood the methods of roasting coffee, and making it into a beverage. This man was the first who publicly sold coffee in this country; and he kept a house for that purpose in George Yard, Lombard Street. At Paris, coffee was nearly unknown until the arrival of the Turkish ambassador, Solomon Aga, in 1669; about three years after which the first coffee-house is said to have been established in that city. The coffee shrub was originally planted in Jamaica in 1732.

Great attention is paid to the culture of coffee in Arabia. The trees are raised from seed sown in nurseries, and afterwards planted out, in moist and shady situations, on sloping grounds, or at the foot of mountains. Care is taken to conduct little rills of water to the roots of the trees, which at certain seasons require to be constantly surrounded with moisture. As soon as the fruit is nearly ripe, the water is turned off, lest the fruit should be rendered too succulent. In places much exposed to the south, the trees are planted in rows, and are shaded from the otherwise too intense heat of the sun, by a branching kind of poplar tree. When the fruit has attained its maturity, cloths are placed under the trees, and, upon these, the labourers shake it down. They afterwards spread the berries on mats, and expose them to the sun to dry. The husk is then broken off by large and heavy rollers of wood or iron. When the coffee has been thus cleared of its husk, it is again dried in the sun, and lastly winnowed with a large fan, for the purpose of clearing it from the pieces of husks with which it is intermingled. A pound of coffee is generally more than the produce of one tree; but a tree in great vigour will produce three or four pounds.

The best coffee is imported from Mocha, a town on the eastern bank of the Red Sea. This, which in Europe is called _Mocha_ and _Turkey coffee_, bears a higher price than any which our colonists are able to raise; owing, as it is supposed, to the difference of climate and soil in which it is grown. It is packed in large bales, each containing a number of smaller bales; and, when good, it appears fresh, and of a greenish olive colour. The coffee next in esteem to this is grown in Java and the East Indies, and that of lowest price in the West Indies. When stowed in ships with rum, pepper, or other articles, it is said that coffee contracts a rank and unpleasant flavour, and this has been assigned as a reason of the inferiority of such as is imported from our own plantations.

The quantity of coffee annually supplied by Arabia is supposed to be upwards of fourteen millions of pounds. Before the commencement of the French Revolution the island of St. Domingo alone exported more than seventy millions of pounds per annum.

Almost all the Mahometans drink coffee at least twice a day, very hot, and without sugar. The excellence of coffee depends, in a great measure, on the skill and attention that are exercised in the roasting of it. If it be too little roasted, it is devoid of flavour; and if too much, it becomes acrid, and has a disagreeable burnt taste. In England the operation of roasting is usually performed in a cylindrical tin box, perforated with numerous holes, and fixed upon a spit which runs lengthwise through the centre, and is turned by a jack.

In a medical view, coffee is said to be of use in assisting digestion, promoting the natural secretions, and preventing or removing a disposition to drowsiness. It has been found highly beneficial in relieving some cases of severe head-ach.

The outer pulpy part of the berry, and the inner membrane, which immediately invests the seeds, are used by the Arabians, and of these the former is much esteemed, and constitutes what is called _coffee à la sultane_.

64. _STRAMONIUM, or THORN-APPLE_ (Datura stramonium), _is an annual
plant, with thick round stalks, somewhat triangular leaves, jagged or
toothed at the edges, large white and funnel-shaped flowers, and seed
vessels large and beset with spines._

Although originally a native of America, stramonium is now a frequent weed on dunghills, and in cultivated ground of our own country; and, when once introduced into a garden, it is difficult to be eradicated. Its smell is exceedingly unpleasant, and its qualities are so pernicious, when taken internally, as to occasion giddiness, torpor, and sometimes even death. The seeds are particularly injurious. Notwithstanding this, the inspissated or dried juice of the leaves has been considered a valuable remedy in epileptic and other convulsive disorders. An ointment prepared from them affords relief in external inflammations; and smoking the dried leaves has lately been recommended in asthmatic complaints.

The soporiferous and intoxicating qualities of stramonium are well known in eastern countries, and have often occasioned the plant to be employed for very improper uses.

65. _TOBACCO, in the state that we see it, is a narcotic drug formed from
the dried leaves of an annual plant_ (Nicotiana tabacum, Fig. 11) _that
is principally cultivated in North America,_

_The stalk of the tobacco plant is erect, strong, round, and hardy. The
leaves are large, oblong, pointed, clammy, and of pale green colour. The
flowers, which terminate the stem and branches in loose clusters, are of
reddish colour, and funnel shaped, with a long hairy tube; and the seed
vessel is oval, and divided into two cells, that contain many rounded
seeds._

The cultivation of tobacco is carried on to great extent in several parts of North America. The seed, mixed with ashes on account of its smallness, is sown a little before the beginning of the rainy season; and, in order the better to cover it, the beds are raked over or trampled upon. In about a fortnight the young plants begin to appear, and, as soon as they have four leaves, they are drawn up and transplanted in lines, and about three feet asunder, into the tobacco field. Here they are kept clear of weeds; and, as soon as they have eight or nine leaves each, the tops are nipped off to make the leaves grow thicker and longer. When the plants are full grown, and the leaves are become somewhat brittle, they are cut with a knife close to the ground. They are suffered to lie upon the ground for a little while, after which they are carried to the drying shed, where they are hung by pairs upon lines or ropes. When perfectly dry, the leaves are stripped from the stalks, and made into small bundles tied round with another leaf. These bundles are laid in heaps, and covered with blankets for about seven days to heat; after which they are closely stowed in casks for exportation.

The name of tobacco was given to this article from its having been originally brought into Europe from Tobago, or Tabago, an island in the Bay of Panama, near the coast of America.

To the American Indians the use of tobacco has been known for many centuries; and the practice of _smoking_ it is common to almost all the tribes. Tobacco forms a part of every entertainment; and, in the intervals of hunting, sleeping, and eating, it occupies no small portion of their time. In many of their religious ceremonies tobacco is used; and instances have occurred in which they have taken it in such quantity that death has ensued.

The custom of smoking is understood to have been first introduced into England, by Sir Walter Raleigh, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and a ludicrous story has often been told respecting it: that Sir Walter having directed a servant to bring him a jug of water, the man, at his return into the room, found him smoking, and, alarmed at seeing his master apparently on fire, threw the whole contents of the jug into his face to quench it.

So extensive has this nauseous practice now become, especially in Holland and Germany, that it constitutes a daily luxury with nearly all the peasantry of those countries, as well as with the more indolent and wealthy classes of the inhabitants. To many constitutions it is very injurious. When first begun, it occasions vomiting, intoxication, and other unpleasant effects. These however, by repetition, are discontinued, though its stupifying qualities are never entirely overcome.

Another form under which tobacco is used, is that of _snuff_. The basis of snuff is tobacco powdered; but many other matters are added, to give it a peculiar smell, or to impart pungency to it. When first applied to the nose, snuff excites sneezing, but, by repetition, this entirely ceases. The practice of taking snuff has, in some instances, been found injurious to the smell and the voice; it has been attended with loss of memory, and by symptoms of a weakened or debilitated state of the nervous system.

But there is no mode of using tobacco so disgusting, to persons unaccustomed to it, as chewing. By the labouring classes, and particularly by mariners, this practice is chiefly followed, from a notion, though apparently a very erroneous one, that it will prevent the return of hunger, and, in some degree, supply a lack of food.

Though all these are disgusting as practices, there is no doubt, but, medicinally, they may be attended with good effects. By smoking and chewing, tooth-ach has often been relieved; and some persons consider the former a means of guarding against contagion. The occasional and moderate use of snuff has, in several cases, been found beneficial, particularly in head-achs, and in diseases of the eyes and ears. Infusions of tobacco are sometimes administered in medicine, but this drug is principally given in the form of a vinous or watery infusion. Tobacco is a powerful medicine, and requires to be used with great caution. The smoke of this herb, when blown against noxious insects, destroys them, and is the means which gardeners adopt for ridding hot-houses and green-houses of such as infest their plants.

The tobacco plant is sufficiently hardy to sustain the rigour of an European climate, and is cultivated in several parts of Spain and Portugal. As however, on importation, it pays a heavy tax to government, the culture of it in this country is restricted, by the legislature, to half a rod of ground in _physic gardens_; and if this be exceeded the cultivator is liable to a penalty of ten pounds for every rod.

The different kinds of tobacco and snuff are attributable rather to the difference of climate and soil in which the plants have been grown, and to the different modes of management and manufacture, than to any essential distinction in the plants from which they are manufactured.

66. _DEADLY NIGHTSHADE_ (Atropa belladonna) _is an extremely poisonous
plant, which grows in hedges and waste grounds, in several parts of
England, and has somewhat oval leaves of dull green colour, purple
bell-shaped flowers, and shining black berries, each about the size of a
small cherry._

There is no British plant so injurious in its effects on the human frame as this; and the alluring appearance and sweetish taste of the _berries_ have, in many instances, particularly with children, been succeeded by the most fatal consequences. It is true that some persons have been known to eat three or four of them without injury; but in others a single berry, and even the half of one, has occasioned death. The _leaves_ are more powerful than the berries. The usual symptoms of this poison are a deep and deadly stupor, giddiness, delirium, great thirst, retching, and convulsions. A draught of vinegar, and keeping the patient constantly in motion, are said to be the best means of cure.

Some writers have supposed it was the deadly nightshade which produced those strange and dreadful effects that are described by Plutarch to have been experienced by the Roman soldiers, under the command of Antony, during their retreat from the Parthians:--"Their distress for provisions was so great that they were compelled to eat of plants unknown to them. Among others, they found an herb of which many ate; these, shortly afterwards, lost their memory and their senses, and wholly employed themselves in turning over all the stones they could find; then, being seized with vomiting, they fell down dead."

The _leaves_ of the deadly nightshade have sometimes been used externally, and with good effect, in cases of cancer; and in ulcers and tumours of different kinds. They are likewise given, internally, in infusion; but the sufferings of the patient, however small the dose may be, are so dreadful that few practitioners like to resort to them.

67. _POTATOE_ (Solanum tuberosum) _is a well known edible root, which was
originally imported into this country from America._

No root with which we are acquainted is so valuable to mankind in temperate climates, as the potatoe. In some countries, particularly in Ireland, it forms a most important article of food to the lower classes of inhabitants. By the English peasantry the potatoe is by no means esteemed as it deserves. In addition to its value for culinary uses, it might, in a very essential degree, be made to serve as a substitute for bread. If duly prepared, and mixed with a nearly equal portion of wheat flour, it may even be made into loaves. A kind of cheese may be made, by reducing potatoes to the consistence of paste, adding an equal quantity of the curd from which cheese is made, with a little salt and some other ingredients, mixing the whole together, and forming them in moulds. The Germans prepare a favourite dish by slicing boiled potatoes and pouring over them the same kind of sauce which is used for salads, and mixing anchovies with them.

These roots afford an excellent food for horses and cattle; and it is said that bullocks will fatten on them more speedily than on cabbages or turnips. Potatoes are likewise serviceable for the fattening of hogs; but, for a little while before these are killed, it is requisite to use barley meal in addition, as otherwise the fat of the bacon is liable to boil away in the cooking. In the use of potatoes as food, it is requisite to prepare them in some manner by heat, as otherwise they are both unpalatable and poisonous.

A kind of brandy was formerly distilled from potatoes; but this has been forbidden by the legislature. Starch may be made from potatoes, by the simple process of scraping them in water, and well washing the pulp: the starch settles to the bottom of the vessel, in a heavy and closely connected sediment. This starch is of use for the same purposes as starch prepared from wheat: it is also valuable as a size; which, unlike the size produced from animal substances, does not easily putrefy, and has no disagreeable smell. Bakers in Germany, by the addition of calcined oyster shells and burnt hartshorn, convert the pulp of potatoes into yeast. The _stalks_ or haulm of potatoes are capable of being made into paper. They are also of considerable utility as manure. The _apples_, or seed-vessels, may be usefully employed as a pickle: and, if properly prepared, they are said to be even more palatable than cucumbers.

There are numerous varieties of the potatoe. Of these the most remarkable are the different kinds of _kidney potatoes_, the _Aylesbury white_, and _Altringham early white_, which are chiefly grown for the table; the _ox noble_, _Irish purple_, and _red potatoes_, which are adapted for fodder.

This valuable root was originally imported from America, about the beginning of the seventeenth century. The inhabitants of Ireland assert that it was first introduced into that country, by the accidental wreck, upon their coast, of a vessel which was laden with potatoes and freighted for England.

The usual mode of planting potatoes is by cutting the roots into pieces, reserving one eye or bud to each division, and setting these in the earth. They will succeed in any tolerable soil; but they flourish most luxuriantly in light sandy loams. The proper time for digging them up is during dry weather in autumn, when the leaves and stems begin to decay. When cultivated on a small scale, they are usually dug with a three pronged fork; but when raised in fields, where this process would be too tedious, they are turned up by a plough.

68. _CAPSICUMS are South American and Indian plants easily known by their
hollow pods, of shining red or yellow colour, which contain many small,
flat, and kidney-shaped seeds._

_The principal species are, Heart or Bell pepper_ (_Capsicum grossum_),
_Guinea pepper_ (_Capsicum annuum_, Fig. 12), _and Bird pepper_
(_Capsicum baccatum_).

All the species of capsicum possess the same general qualities. In hot climates, but particularly in the East and West Indies, and some parts of Spanish America, the fruit of these plants is much used for culinary purposes. It is eaten in large quantities, both with animal and vegetable food; and is mixed, in greater or less proportion, with almost all kinds of sauces.