Chapter VII: Front Matter (7)

The dried leaves of the tea plant are a commodity which, a century and a half ago, were scarcely known as an article of trade. The earliest importation of tea into Europe is said to have been by a Dutch merchant in 1610; but the time of its first introduction into England has not been correctly ascertained. So scarce an article was it, for many years after the above period, that, in 1666, twenty-two pounds and three quarters of tea, estimated at fifty shillings a pound, were presented, as a valuable gift, to King Charles the Second. The first importation of tea by the East India Company was in 1669, and this consisted only of two canisters, weighing 143lb. 8oz. So rapidly, however, has the consumption of this article since increased, that, notwithstanding the immense distance from which it is brought, it now amounts to more than twenty millions of pounds' weight per annum. Such is, at present, the extent of the tea trade, that it affords constant employment for at least 50,000 tons of shipping, and 6,000 seamen; and its importance to us is the greater since it has been the means of opening, in China, a market for the sale of woollen goods, one of the most essential articles of our manufacture, to the amount of more than one million of pounds sterling per annum.

If good tea be taken in moderate quantity it is considered by medical men to be beneficial, by exhilarating the spirits and invigorating the system; but, when taken too copiously, it is apt to occasion weakness, tremor, and other bad symptoms.

The tea plant may be propagated in the temperate climates of Europe, as well as in the Indies; under the shelter of a south wall it will even flourish in our own gardens. It is, however, somewhat remarkable that the fresh leaves, if used for tea, produce giddiness and stupefaction; but these noxious properties are capable of being dissipated by the process of roasting.

In some of the southern parts of England there are smugglers who have reduced to a regular process the management of the leaves of the ash, the sloe, and some other trees, for the adulteration of tea. The article thus prepared has the name of _smouch_, and is sometimes mixed in the proportion of about one-third, with the ordinary teas. The preparation of it, however, if discovered, is subject to very heavy penalties.

175. _CLOVES are the unexpanded flower-buds of an East Indian tree_
(Caryophyllus aromaticus, Fig. 50), _somewhat resembling the laurel in
its height, and in the shape of its leaves._

_The leaves are in pairs, oblong, large, spear-shaped, and of bright
green colour. The flowers grow in clusters, which terminate the branches,
and have the calyx divided into four small and pointed segments. The
petals are small, rounded, and of bluish colour; and the seed is an oval
berry._

In the Molucca islands, where the preparation of different spices was formerly carried on by the Dutch colonists to great extent, the culture of the clove-tree was a very important pursuit. It has even been asserted that, in order to secure a lucrative branch of commerce in this article to themselves, they destroyed all the trees growing in other islands, and confined the propagation of them to that of Ternate only. But it appears that, in 1770 and 1772, both clove and nutmeg trees were transplanted from the Moluccas into the islands of France and Bourbon; and, subsequently, into some of the colonies of South America, where they have since been cultivated with great success.

At a certain season of the year the clove-tree produces a vast profusion of flowers. When these have attained the length of about half an inch, the four points of the calyx being prominent, and having in the middle of them the leaves of the petals folded over each other, and forming a small head about the size of a pea, they are in a fit state to be gathered. This operation is performed betwixt the months of October and February, partly by the hand, partly by hooks, and partly by beating the trees with bamboos. The cloves are either received on cloths spread beneath the trees, or are suffered to fall on the ground, the herbage having previously been cut and swept for that purpose. They are subsequently dried by exposure for a while to the smoke of wood fires, and afterwards to the rays of the sun. When first gathered they are of reddish colour, but, by drying, they assume a deep brown cast.

This spice yields a very fragrant odour, and a bitterish, pungent, and warm taste. It is sometimes employed as a hot and stimulating medicine, but is more frequently used in culinary preparations. When fresh gathered, cloves will yield on pressure a fragrant, thick, and reddish oil; and, by distillation, a limpid essential oil. The latter is imported into Europe, but is frequently adulterated, and sometimes even to the amount of nearly half its weight. Oil of cloves is used by many persons, though very improperly, for curing the tooth-ache, since, from its pungent quality, it is apt to corrode the gums, and injure the adjacent teeth. When the tooth is carious, and will admit of it, a bruised clove is much to be preferred.

176. _LADANUM, or LABDANUM, is a resinous drug which exudes, and is
collected, from the leaves and branches of a beautiful species of cistus_
(Cistus Creticus), _which grows in Syria and the Grecian islands._

_The height of this shrub seldom exceeds three or four feet. Its leaves,
which stand in pairs on short foot-stalks, are oblong, wrinkled, rough,
and clammy. The flowers appear in June and July, and consist of five
large rounded petals of light purplish colour, each marked with a dark
spot at the base._

The ancient mode of collecting ladanum, if the accounts which have been stated respecting it may be credited, was not a little curious. Goats, which delight in grazing upon the leaves and young branches of the shrubs that produce it, were turned loose into the plantation, and the resin that adhered to the long hair of their beards and thighs was afterwards detached by combing them.

The present method is different, and is a laborious and troublesome employment. Tournefort informs us that he saw seven or eight country fellows, in their shirts and drawers, and in the hottest part of the day, drawing over the shrubs a kind of whip, or rake, with numerous long straps or thongs of leather. From these they collected the resin, by scraping it off with a kind of knife; after which it was made into cakes of different sizes for sale. As loose sand generally adheres, in considerable quantity, to the viscous leaves of the shrub, it is not unusual for dealers in this drug to adulterate it with sand.

We import ladanum principally from the Levant and the Persian Gulf; and it comes to us in cakes or masses of different size, dark colour, and about the consistence of soft plaster; and also in rolls, lighter-coloured and much harder, which are twisted up so as somewhat to resemble the rolls of wax tapers.

The smell of ladanum is strong, but not disagreeable; and its taste is warm, aromatic, and somewhat unpleasant. This drug was formerly much used as an internal medicine; but it is now employed only externally, as an ingredient in plasters.

177. _The TULIP-TREE_ (Liriodendron tulipifera) _is an American
production which yields a very beautiful and valuable kind of wood._

_It sometimes grows to the height of sixty or seventy feet; and has lobed
leaves, and tulip-shaped flowers._

While young, the _wood_ of the tulip-tree is white; but at an advanced age, it assumes a fine yellow colour, or a streaked appearance of different shades of red. This wood is equally useful in ornamental furniture, and as a timber for building. It is occasionally employed in the construction of light vessels; and the trunks of tulip-trees are frequently hollowed by the Indians into canoes. When they have been grown in a favourable soil and climate, one of them is sufficiently large to be made into a canoe capable of containing several people.

On account of its quick growth and easy culture, this noble tree well deserves the attention of planters in our own country.

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CLASS XIV.--DIDYNAMIA.

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GYMNOSPERMIA.

178. _LAVENDER is a well-known perennial garden plant_ (Lavandula spica)
_which grows wild in the south of Europe, and the flowers of which yield
a grateful perfume._

Such is the fragrance of this delightful flower, and so easy is its culture, that we can now scarcely enter a garden in which it is not found. It will grow in almost any soil, but it flourishes most luxuriantly in clayey ground; and in situations whence, without inconvenience, it can be conveyed to the metropolis, it is a very valuable crop.

When cultivated to any extent, lavender should be planted in rows two or three feet apart, and the sets should be about two feet from each other. It is usually propagated from slips. During dry weather, in the month of July, the flowers should be gathered, by cutting off the heads close to the stem; after which they must be tied in bundles to be distilled.

When distilled with water, the _flowers_ of lavender, if in a mature state, yield an essential _oil_; generally in the proportion of about one ounce of oil to sixty ounces of flowers. This oil is of a bright yellow colour, and possesses the perfect fragrance of the lavender. But, if distilled with rectified spirit, the virtues are more completely extracted. From the leaves a very small proportion of oil can be obtained.

The preparations of this plant that are used in medicine are, the essential oil, a simple _spirit_, and a compound tincture. Lavender, however, is much more frequently and more extensively employed as a perfume than medicinally. The flowers are deposited in chests and wardrobes among linen, not only on account of their fragrant smell, but also from an opinion that their odour will prevent the depredations of moths and other insects. The perfume called _lavender water_ may be prepared by mixing three drachms of oil of lavender, and one drachm of essence of ambergris, with one pint of spirit of wine.

Lavender is supposed to have been first cultivated in England about the year 1558.

179. _COMMON or SPEAR-MINT_ (Mentha viridis), _one of our most frequent
garden herbs, is a native British plant, and grows wild in watery places,
and near the banks of rivers, in several parts of England._

The ancients ascribed many virtues to different kinds of mint, but it is not now possible to ascertain correctly the respective species, though there can be little doubt that spear-mint was one of the most important of them. Its flavour is to many persons peculiarly agreeable, and, on this account, it is employed for several culinary purposes, both in a green and dried state.

The _leaves_ are used in spring salads, are boiled with peas, and put into soup. In conjunction with vinegar and sugar they form a sauce for lamb; and prepared with sugar, they are made into a grateful conserve. Spear-mint is occasionally used in medicine, and the officinal preparations of it are the conserve, an essential oil, a simple distilled water, a spirit, and a tincture, or extract. In drying, the leaves lose about three-fourths of their weight, but without suffering much either in taste or smell.

180. _PEPPER MINT_ (Mentha piperita) _is a British plant, which grows in
watery places, and is cultivated chiefly on account of an oil and
distilled water which are prepared from it._

This is the strongest and most aromatic of all the mints; and, on this account, is more used in medicine than any other species. When distilled with water it yields a considerable quantity of essential oil, of pale greenish yellow colour. The well-known liquor called _pepper mint water_, prepared from this plant, is an excellent stomachic: but is too often used in cases of impaired appetite, and for the relief of various imaginary complaints.

ANGIOSPERMIA.

181. _The FOX-GLOVE_ (Digitalis purpurea) _is a stately British plant,
with long, erect spikes of large, purple, and somewhat bell-shaped
flowers, marked internally with dark spots in whitish rings, and
containing four stamens, with large yellow anthers._

_The calyx, or flower-cup, has five pointed divisions. The extremity of
the blossom is divided into five segments; and the seed-vessel is
egg-shaped, and contains many seeds. The leaves are large, wrinkled, and
somewhat downy beneath._

The gravelly or sandy hedge-banks or hills of all the midland counties of England are adorned, in the later months of summer, with this, one of the most beautiful, most dangerous, and yet, if properly applied, one of the most useful of all our wild plants. For its medicinal virtues it has long been esteemed. The Italians have an adage which implies that "the fox-glove heals all sores:" hence it is said, that they apply the bruised leaves, and the juice of the leaves, in the healing of different kinds of wounds, and particularly for the removal of scrophulous swellings.

The _juice_ of this plant has a bitter and nauseous taste; and, when taken internally, acts violently on the stomach and bowels, and brings on stupor and drowsiness; notwithstanding which, in careful hands, it may be rendered a valuable medicine in dropsy, consumption, and epilepsy. It is given in powder, tincture, and infusion of the dried leaves; and such is its strength, that Dr. Woodville states, the dose of the dried leaves, in powder, should not exceed from one to three grains per day.

182. _The CALABASH-TREE_ (Crescentia cujeta) _is a production of the West
Indies and America, about the height and dimensions if an apple-tree,
with crooked horizontal branches, wedge-shaped leaves, pale white flowers
on the trunk and branches, and a roundish fruit, from two inches to a
foot in diameter._

The uses to which the _fruit_ of the calabash tree is applied are very numerous. Being covered with a greenish yellow skin, which encloses a thin, hard, and almost woody shell, it is employed for various kinds of domestic vessels, such as water cans, goblets, and cups of almost every shape and description. So hard and close-grained is the calabash, that, when it contains any kind of fluid, it may even be put on the fire without injury. When intended for ornamental purposes, the vessels that are made of the shell of this fruit are sometimes highly polished, and have figures engraven upon them, which are variously tinged with indigo and other colours. The Indians make musical instruments with the calabash.

The calabash contains a pale, yellow, juicy _pulp_, of unpleasant taste, which is esteemed a valuable remedy in several disorders, both external and internal.

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CLASS XV.--TETRADYNAMIA.

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SILICULOSA.

183. _SEA KALE_ (Crambe maritima) _is a well-known plant in our
kitchen-gardens, the early shoots of which are blanched, and eaten in the
same manner as asparagus._

This plant grows wild on sandy sea-coasts in various parts of England; and has been transplanted thence into the gardens. The mode of management is, in the autumn, to place large inverted garden-pots over the plants, and to cover the whole bed and the pots with dung and litter. The heat of the fermenting dung causes the plants to shoot early in the spring; and the pots protect them and keep them clear of the litter. By this means also, as they have no access to the light, they become blanched, tender, and of extremely sweet and delicate flavour.

Sea kale is ready for use some time before asparagus appears; and, for the table, it is preferred by most persons to that favourite vegetable. If the leaves of sea kale be eaten when full grown, they are said to occasion giddiness; but horses, cows, swine, and other animals, feed upon them without injury.

184. _WOAD is a dyeing drug, produced by a British plant_ (Isatis
tinctoria), _with arrow-shaped leaves on the stem, yellow cruciform
flowers, and oblong seed-vessels, each containing one seed._

This plant is believed to have been the same that was adopted by the ancient Britons for staining, or painting their bodies a blue colour, to render them, in appearance, at least, more terrible to their enemies. It grows wild on the borders of corn-fields, in some parts of Cambridgeshire, Somersetshire, and Durham: and is cultivated in several of the clothing districts of England.

As soon as the plants are in a sufficient state of maturity, they are gathered. The leaves are picked off, and submitted to the action of mills, somewhat similar to the mills that are used for the grinding of oak-bark. In these they are reduced to a pulp. The woad is then laid in small heaps, which are closely and smoothly pressed down. After continuing about a fortnight in this state, the heaps are broken up, and their substance is formed into balls, which are exposed to the sun to be dried. When the balls are perfectly dry, they are ready for use; and are employed, not only in dyeing blue, but also as the basis of several other colours.

185. _HORSE-RADISH_ (Cochlearia armoracia) _is a well-known
kitchen-garden plant, which grows wild by the sides of ditches and the
banks of rivers, in several parts of the north of England._

The _root_ of horse-radish is much used for culinary purposes. It is remarkable for great pungency both of smell and taste. When scraped, it is mixed with pickles to heighten their flavour, and is eaten with roast beef, fish, and several other kinds of food. Whenever more of the roots are dug out of the earth at once than are immediately wanted, they may be preserved for some time, in a juicy state, by putting them into dry sand.

Horse-radish is also in considerable repute as a medicine, and is a powerful stimulant, whether externally or internally applied. Notwithstanding this, we are informed by Dr. Withering, that an infusion of horseradish in cold milk is one of the best and safest cosmetics that are known.

SILIQUOSA.

186. _COMMON MUSTARD is made from the powdered seeds of a plant_ (Sinapis
nigra), _which grows wild in corn-fields and by road sides, in most parts
of England, and is known by its yellow cruciform flowers, with expanding
calyx, and its pods being smooth, square, and close to the stem._

In light and otherwise barren lands mustard is cultivated to great advantage. That which is produced in the county of Durham has much celebrity; though the powdered seeds of charlock have, in many instances, been substituted, and sold in place of it. Mustard is in daily use at our tables, and the _seeds_, whole or bruised, are employed in pickles, and for numerous other culinary purposes. These seeds yield, on pressure, a considerable quantity of oil, which is soft and insipid to the taste, and partakes but little of the acrimony of the plant.

Different preparations of mustard are sometimes used in medicine. The seeds, taken internally, are serviceable in asthma, rheumatism, and palsy. Cataplasms of mustard are employed, on account of its stimulating properties, on benumbed or paralytic limbs. An infusion of the powdered seeds, taken in considerable quantity, operates as an emetic, and, in smaller quantity, is an useful aperient and diuretic.

187. _RAPE and COLE SEED_ (Brassica napus) _are different varieties of a
plant with yellow cruciform flowers and, spindle-shaped root, which grows
wild upon ditch banks, and amongst corn._

_This plant is distinguished from others of the same tribe by its roots
being a regular continuation of the stem._

In several parts of England rape and cole seed are sown intermixed, the plants being distinguishable in their growth by the cole exceeding the rape in height, being more soft and tender, and less branched and bushy. When sown separately the cole is usually, though not always, consumed as food for sheep and cattle; and the rape is allowed to stand for seed. For the cultivation of rape the soil ought to be rich and deep.

The harvest commences about the month of August; and as the seed, when in a state of maturity, is easily shed, it is customary, in some places, to thresh the plants on a large cloth in the field. Rape-cloths are sometimes so large as to measure twenty yards square, and to weigh more than half a ton. The threshing is almost always considered a sort of festival, at which a great portion of the neighbours attend, in order to expedite the work; and they are repaid by the good cheer of their brother farmer. In other places the rape is carried on a cloth, in a low kind of waggon, to be threshed out of the field.

_Oil_ is obtained from rape-seed by pressure. This is used, in large quantities, by clothiers and others. It is also used in medicine; and for making the soap called green soap. It is likewise useful for various purposes in domestic life, and particularly for burning in lamps; but it is apt to become rancid, though there are means of purifying it. After the oil has been extracted, the refuse is called _oil-cake_, and is employed for the fattening of oxen; and, in Norfolk, is sometimes broken to pieces, and strewed upon the land as manure. The _roots_ of rape plants may be eaten like turnips, but they have a stronger taste. The _stalks_, or haulm, if strong, may be advantageously employed in the formation of the enclosing fences of farm-yards. They are, however, generally burnt; and in some parts of the country, the ashes, which are equal in quality to the best pot-ashes, are collected together and sold.

188. _The TURNIP_ (Brassica rapa) _is a well-known edible root, which is
cultivated to great extent in almost every part of England._

To the farmer turnips are, in various particulars, a most valuable crop. They afford a profitable intervening crop with corn. Both the _tops_ and _roots_ are eaten by sheep. Horses and cattle may be advantageously fed upon the roots during winter; but the milk of cows receives an unpleasant flavour from them. This flavour is also communicated to the butter; but it may be taken off by dissolving a little nitre in spring water, and putting a small tea-cupful of it into about eight gallons of milk, when warm from the cow. Turnips also serve as food for mankind, either boiled or roasted. In the years 1629, 1636, and 1693, during the pressure of a severe famine, bread is stated to have been made of turnips in several parts of England, particularly in the county of Essex. The process was to put the turnips into a kettle over a slow fire, till they became soft; they were then taken out, squeezed as dry as possible, mixed with an equal quantity of flour, and, after having been kneaded with yeast, salt, and a little warm water, were made into loaves and baked. In bread thus made the peculiar taste of the turnip is said to be scarcely perceptible.

These roots have been much recommended as sea store, from the possibility, with care, of preserving them for a great length of time uninjured, and from their furnishing an agreeable and wholesome food for sailors, on long voyages. The young and tender _tops_ of turnips, when boiled, afford an agreeable substitute for greens.

For the cultivation of turnips a light soil, particularly such as consists of a mixture of sand and loam, is found preferable to rich and heavy land. Turnips are raised from seed, which it has long been the established custom to sow in the month of June. As soon as the young plants have attained a tolerable size, they are hoed, for the purpose of thinning them. In their growth they suffer much by the attacks of slugs, caterpillars, and insects of different kinds, particularly of a small, dark beetle with two longitudinal yellowish stripes (_Chrysomela nemorum_), which is called by farmers the _turnip-fly_. For the destruction of this insect many plans have, at different times, been devised.

Turnips are either eaten on the land by cattle, or are drawn out and stacked, or preserved under ground for winter use; and, in this state, they may be kept sound till April.

There are several kinds of turnips; but of these the _common white_, or _Norfolk turnips_, and the _Ruta-baga_, or _Swedish turnips_, are the principal. The latter, which indeed constitute a distinct species, are generally of a yellowish colour, and are so hardy as to suffer no injury even from the most intense cold; but their substance is so compact as sometimes to break the teeth of sheep which feed upon them.

189. _The COMMON CABBAGE_ (Brassica oleracea) _is a well-known plant, the
original stock of which grows on cliffs by the seaside, in Kent,
Cornwall, Yorkshire, and Wales._

_This wild plant is likewise the original of the various kinds of_
colewort, borecole, cauliflower, _and_ brocoli.

The effects of cultivation on the cabbage are very remarkable. In the wild plants the leaves are extended: but in the common garden cabbage they are set so close together as to lie upon each other, almost like the scales of a bulb, and, increasing in compactness as they increase in size: those in the interior being excluded from the effects of the light, do not assume a green, but are of yellow colour.

Other plants of this species form their stalks into a head, as the _cauliflower_ and _brocoli_; and others grow, in a natural way, without forming either their leaves or stalks into heads, as the _coleworts_, or _Dorsetshire kale_, the _borcoles_, _turnip-rooted cabbage_, and others.

In some parts of England, cabbages of different kinds are much cultivated as food for cattle, and they succeed well in rich and finely prepared land. The seed is sown in February or March. In April or May the young plants are taken out, and set in rows, at a little distance from each other; and, in the ensuing autumn and winter, the cabbages afford a valuable stock of food.

All the kinds of cabbage are useful for domestic purposes; and some of them afford a peculiarly sweet and delicate food. An agreeable pickle is made of them, and the Germans, and people of other northern countries of the Continent, prepare from them a favourite food called _sour-crout_. These plants were known to, and much used by, the ancient Greeks and Romans.

Cabbages are biennial plants, or are sown one year, produce seed in the ensuing year, and then die.

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CLASS XVI.--MONADELPHIA.

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TRIANDRIA.

190. _TAMARINDS are the pulp and needs produced by the pods of a large
tree with winged leaves_ (Tamarindus Indica, Fig. 51), _which grows in
the East and West Indies, America, and several parts of Asia._

_This tree is from thirty to forty feet in height; and its leaves consist
usually of fourteen pairs of leaflets. The flowers are formed in
clusters, from the sides of the branches, and have each three yellowish
petals, beautifully marked with red veins._

_The fruit of the tamarind-tree is a roundish but somewhat compressed
pod, four or five inches in length, the external part of which is very
brittle. Each pod contains three or four hard seeds, enveloped in tough
skins, surrounded by a dark-coloured, acid pulp, and connected together
by numerous tough and woody fibres._

Previously to the exportation of tamarinds, the pulp, with the seeds and fibres, are freed from their shell: and those which we receive from the West Indies are usually preserved in syrup. In Jamaica the fruit is gathered about the month of July. When fully ripe, and after the pods are cleared away, the remainder is placed in layers, in small casks: and boiling syrup, just before it begins to granulate, is poured upon them until the casks are filled, after which the heads are put in and fastened up for exportation.

The East Indian tamarinds are generally packed without any admixture. They are more esteemed than the others; and, when in the pods, are easily distinguished from them by their being longer, and containing six or seven seeds; the pulp also is drier and of darker colour.

It is said that we are indebted to the Arabians for a knowledge of the use of tamarinds. In hot climates they are a most refreshing and delicious fruit; and, dissolved in water, are much used as a cooling and agreeable beverage, particularly by persons suffering under fever. They also give great relief in sore throats, and other complaints.

POLYANDRIA.

191. _The SOUR-GOURD, BOABAB, or AFRICAN CALABASH-TREE_ (Adansonia
digitata) _is probably the largest of all vegetable productions. The
trunk, although not usually more than twelve or fifteen feet high, is
frequently from sixty to eighty feet in girth. The lowest branches extend
almost horizontally; and, as they are sometimes near sixty feet in
length, they bend, by their own weight, to the ground; and thus the whole
tree forms an hemispherical mass of verdure, which measures from 120 to
130 feet in diameter._

_The fruit is oblong, about ten inches in length, pointed at both ends,
and covered with a greenish down, under which there is a blackish and
woody rind. Its interior consists of a whitish, spongy, and juicy
substance, with several brown seeds._

_This tree is a native of Senegal and other parts of Africa._

The virtues and uses of the sour-gourd tree and its fruit are numerous and of great importance to the inhabitants of the countries in which it is found. The _bark_ and _leaves_ are dried, powdered, and preserved in bags, to be employed as a seasoning for food. Two or three pinches of this powder are put, by the negroes, into their messes, under an impression that it promotes perspiration and moderates the heat of the blood.

The pulp of the _fruit_ has an agreeably acid flavour. This is not only eaten when fresh, but is dried and powdered for medicinal uses; a kind of soap is also prepared from it.

In Senegal, when the trees are decayed, the _trunks_ are hollowed, by the negroes, into burying-places for their poets, musicians, and buffoons. These persons are much esteemed whilst they live, although they are supposed to derive their superior talents from sorcery or an alliance with demons. When dead, however, their bodies are regarded with horror, and are not allowed the usual burial, under a notion that the earth would, in such case, refuse to produce its accustomed fruits. The bodies inclosed in these trees are said to become perfectly dry without decaying, and thus to form a kind of mummies, without the process of embalming.

192. _COTTON is a soft vegetable down, which is contained in the seed
vessels, and envelopes the seeds of the cotton-plant_ (Gosypium
herbaceum, Fig. 52), _which is cultivated in the East and West Indies,
and numerous other countries of hot climates._.

_This, though an annual plant, grows to a considerable heights It has
leaves of bright green colour, marked with brownish veins, and each
divided into five lobes. The flowers have only one petal, in five
segments, with a short tube, and are of pale yellow colour, with five red
spots at the bottom._

The cotton pods are of somewhat triangular shape, and have each three cells. These, when ripe, burst, and disclose their snow-white or yellowish contents, in the midst of which are contained small black seeds, in shape somewhat resembling those of grapes.

We are informed, by Mr. Edwards, that the plants are raised from seed, the land requiring no other preparation for them than to be cleared of its native incumbrances. The seeds are usually sown in rows six or eight feet asunder, and the holes in which they are put are about four feet apart. At the end of five months the plants begin to flower, and in two months more the pods are formed. After the cotton is gathered, it is freed from the seeds to which it is attached, by a very simple machine, consisting of two small rollers that are close and parallel to each other, and move in opposite directions. The cotton is next hand-picked, to free it from decayed leaves, broken seeds, and other impurities; after which it is packed, for sale, in bags of about two hundred pounds each.

Though the cotton plant flourishes best in tropical climates, it is capable of cultivation in such as are not so hot; and it is now an object of attention in several of the southern parts of Europe.

We receive great quantities of cotton from America, and the East and West Indies. The whole quantity imported into this country, in the year 1802, exceeded 60,000,000 pounds' weight; whilst the average annual importation, anterior to 1780, did not amount to one tenth part of this; so rapid has been the increase and prosperity of our cotton manufactories. Calicoes and muslins of all kinds are made of cotton; fustians, corderoys, and innumerable other articles. Nankeens, which are manufactured in India, are made of a kind of cotton which is naturally of a reddish buff colour.

After the cotton is imported into England, the first process which it goes through is that of _carding_. Some years ago, this was performed by the hand, upon the knee, with a single pair of cards; but it is now performed with cylindrical cards, worked by machinery. The next and most important improvements in the manufacture of cotton, were made at Cromford, in the county of Derby, by the late Sir Richard Arkwright; who, in 1768, first introduced the method of _spinning_ cotton by machinery. By this contrivance cotton was _carded_, _roved_, and _spun_, with the utmost expedition, correctness, and equality. Other machines have, at different subsequent periods, been invented by various mechanics and manufacturers, particularly that called a _jenny_, by which one person is able to spin a hundred hanks of cotton yarn a-day, containing, in the whole, near a million of yards. The concluding operation is that of weaving, which is performed with a machine called a loom, in the same manner as flax (97) and hemp (259).

Cotton is capable of being manufactured into paper, which is little inferior to that made from linen rags.

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CLASS XVII.--DIADELPHIA.

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DECANDRIA.

193. _The COMMON BROOM_ (Spartium scoparium) _is a shrub common on sandy
pastures and heaths in nearly all the southern parts of England; and is
distinguished by having large, yellow, butterfly-shaped flowers, leaves
in threes, and single, and the branches angular._

Few of our wild plants are applicable to more numerous purposes of domestic utility than this. Its _twigs_ are tied in bundles, and formed into brooms. Some persons roast the _seeds_, and make them into a kind of coffee. The fibrous and elastic parts of the _bark_, after having been separated by soaking in water, may be manufactured into cordage, matting, and even into a coarse kind of cloth. The twigs and young branches have been successfully employed as a substitute for oak bark, in the tanning of leather. They may also be rendered serviceable as thatch for houses, and corn ricks; and some persons mix them with hops in brewing; but it is doubtful whether, in this respect, they are wholesome. The _flower buds_, when pickled, have occasionally been used as a substitute for capers.

The _wood_, where the dimensions are sufficient for the purpose, is employed by cabinet-makers for veneering; and it is stated by Dr. Mead, that a decoction of the green tops, in conjunction with mustard, has been found efficacious in the cure of dropsy.

194. _SPANISH BROOM, or SPART_ (Spartium junceum), _is a well-known
ornamental flowering shrub in our gardens, which has opposite, round
branches, that flower at the top, and spear-shaped leaves._

In the province of Valencia, and other parts of Spain, great attention is paid to this manufacture of various articles from the _twigs_ and _bark_ of this shrub. They are plaited into mats, carpets, coverings for plants, baskets, ropes, and even shoes. A great portion of these twigs was formerly exported to different French ports in the Mediterranean, particularly to Marseilles; but, in 1783, on account of the employment of which it deprived the Spanish people in working them, their exportation was prohibited by the government.

195. _FURZE, GORZE, or WHIN_ (Ulex Europæus), _is a well-known thorny
shrub, which is common on heaths and waste ground in almost every part of
England._

The chief use to which furze is applied, is for the heating of ovens; and, in this respect, it is valuable, from its burning rapidly, and emitting a great degree of heat. Its _ashes_ are used for a ley, which is of considerable service in the washing of linen.

In some parts of the country, furze is sown on banks, round fields, for the purpose of a fence; and it will flourish even close to the sea side, where the spray of the sea destroys almost every other shrub. But it will not bear severe cold, and it is often destroyed by intense frost. Furze does not often occur in the northern parts of our island.

Horses, sheep, and cattle may be fed on this shrub; and, in several places, the seeds of it are sown, either by themselves, or with barley, oats, or buck-wheat (126). The plants are mown a year afterwards. They will grow for several years, and produce from ten to fifteen tons per acre of food, which is equal, in quality and excellence, to the same quantity of hay. They are bruised before they are eaten, either in a machine, or by heavy mallets on blocks of wood. This operation is requisite, in order to break the prickles, and prevent these from being injurious to the mouths of the animals that eat them.

196. _COWHAGE, or COW-ITCH, is a sharp and barbed kind of down or hair,
which thickly clothes the pods of a bean-like climbing plant_ (Dolichos
pruriens, Fig. 53), _that grows in the West Indies, and other countries
of warm climates._

_This is an herbaceous plant, which entwines round the adjacent trees or
shrubs, and often rises to a considerable height. The leaves grow in
threes upon long foot-stalks; and the flowers are large, butter-fly
shaped, of purplish colour, and form long and pendant spikes, which have
a very beautiful appearance._

It is the property of cowhage, when rubbed upon the skin, immediately to penetrate it, and to cause an intolerable itching. Hence it is sometimes wantonly employed for mischievous purposes; and hence also it is found very troublesome to cattle and domestic animals, in places where the plants grow. Notwithstanding this, it may be swallowed in safety, and, if taken into the stomach and intestines, is said to be an useful remedy for the destruction of worms. As a medicine, it is mixed with syrup or treacle into the form of an electuary.

197. _SOY is a dark-coloured sauce, which is prepared from the seeds of a
Chinese plant_ (Dolichos soja), _that has an erect and hairy stem, erect
branches of flowers, and pendulous bristly pods, each containing about
two seeds._

There is a joke amongst seamen, that soy is made from beetles or cockroaches. This probably originates in the seeds of the plant from which the sauce is manufactured having some fancied resemblance, in shape and colour, to a beetle. These _seeds_ are used in China and Japan as food. They are made into a kind of jelly or curd, which is esteemed very nutritious, and which is rendered palatable by seasoning of different kinds.

The liquid which we know by the name of _soy_ is thus prepared:--After the seeds have been boiled until they become soft, they are mixed with an equal weight of wheat or barley meal, coarsely ground. This mixture is fermented; and a certain proportion of salt and water being added, the whole is allowed to stand for two or three months, care being taken to stir it every day; and, by the end of that time, it is ready for use.

Soy is chiefly prepared in China and Japan; but that imported from Japan is considered preferable to any other. The quantity annually vended at the East India Company's sales is from eight hundred to two thousand gallons, at an average price of sixteen or eighteen shillings per gallon.

198. _BEANS_ (Vicia faba) _are well-known seeds, originally introduced
from Persia, of which there are several kinds or varieties; some of these
are cultivated in fields, and others in gardens._

_Field_, or _horse-beans_, as they are frequently called, are small and somewhat round. The cultivation of them is pursued to a considerable extent. They are esteemed, in many respects, an advantageous crop to the farmer, and will thrive on any land where the soil is sufficiently stiff. They are usually sown in the month of February; sometimes in the autumn; but, in case of severe frost, all the plants that are not well and deeply covered with snow will perish. There is also much uncertainty in the crop, owing to the state of the weather in the spring and summer; and particularly to the ravages of small black insects, myriads of which are frequently seen to crowd the tender tops of the plants.

The bean-harvest is seldom completed till nearly the end of September, owing to the bulk and succulence of the plants; and the produce is from two and a half to five quarters per acre.

There are several varieties of field-beans; but the fine and very small ones usually bear the highest price. Bean flour is not only thought more nutritive, but is found to be more abundant than that of oats. Beans are chiefly applied to the feeding of horses, hogs, and other domestic animals; and it is supposed that meal-men often grind them amongst wheat, the flour of which is to be made into bread. By some persons they are roasted, and adopted as a substitute for coffee. With the Roman ladies bean-flour was in much repute as a cosmetic.

_Garden-beans_ are almost wholly confined to culinary uses. What are called _French-beans_, and _Kidney-beans_, belong to a different tribe from the present.

Bean _stalks_, if subjected to a certain process, are capable of being converted into paper.

199. _VETCHES are a small species of beans_ (Vicia sativa) _which grow
wild in dry meadows, pastures, and cornfields, and are also cultivated in
most parts of England._

_The pods are generally in pairs; and the leaves winged, having each
about six pairs of leaflets, with a branched tendril at the extremity. At
the bases of each of the leaves there is a small stipule, marked with a
dark spot._

The principal use of vetches is as provender for horses and cattle. They are grown so early as to allow of being fed off, or cut for this purpose, in sufficient time for turnips to be sown the same year. When the land is to be prepared for a wheat crop it is sometimes customary to plough in the vetches as manure. The _seeds_ afford a grateful food for pigeons.

200. _PEAS_ (Pisum sativum) _are a kind of seeds too well known to need
any description._

There are several kinds of peas, some of which are cultivated in gardens, and others in fields. The former are principally used for culinary purposes. In the early part of the year, gardeners in the neighbourhood of London raise them on hot-beds. The kind they select for this purpose are the dwarf peas. These are sown about the middle of October in warm borders; and afterwards, towards the end of January, they are removed into the hot-beds. The inducement, of course, is the enormous prices that are paid for the earliest peas brought into the market. The podding or picking of green peas for the London market is also a valuable branch of the business of some farms within a few miles of the metropolis. Many attempts have been made to preserve green peas for use in winter; one of these is by bottling them, and another by drying them in an oven, and afterwards keeping them in paper bags; but none of the modes have been attended with complete success.

Field peas are sown about March or April, and succeed best in light, rich soils. They are generally considered an uncertain crop; but this is owing, in a great degree, to want of due attention to their culture.

In common with most other seeds of this class, peas yield a nutritive food to persons of strong stomachs. When boiled in a fresh or green state, they are both wholesome and agreeable; and, when ripe and ground into meal, they are peculiarly serviceable for the fattening of swine. The flour of peas is not unfrequently mixed by bakers amongst that of wheat for bread; but bread made of this flour alone is heavy and unwholesome. Three parts of rye-flour and one of ground peas are said to yield a palatable and nourishing bread. Peas that are freed from their husks, and split in mills constructed for the purpose, are used for soup. The haulm or _straw_ of field peas, if saved in favourable seasons, affords not only an excellent fodder for working horses, but is also an useful food for horses, cattle, and sheep.

It has been presumed that the _everlasting pea_, which is commonly grown as an ornamental flower in our gardens, would be an advantageous green food for horses and cattle.

201. _LIQUORICE is the root of a perennial plant_ (Glycyrrhiza glabra),
_with winged leaves, and purplish butterfly-shaped flowers, which grows
wild in the south of Europe, and is cultivated near Pontefract in
Yorkshire, Worksop in Nottinghamshire, and Godalming in Surrey, and by
many gardeners in the vicinity of London._

_The stalks of the liquorice-plant are usually four or five feet high.
The leaves are winged, and the leaflets egg-shaped, with an odd one at
the extremity. The flowers grow in long spikes from the junction of the
leaves and branches. The roots are long, round, tough, of brown colour
externally, and yellow within._

The principal use of liquorice is in medicine. It contains much saccharine matter, joined with some portion of mucilage; and is one of the few sweet substances which tend to allay thirst. Liquorice is an excellent medicine in coughs and hoarsenesses. When boiled in a little water, it gives out nearly all its sweetness; and this, when the moisture is evaporated, produces, by different processes, what are called _Spanish liquorice_, _liquorice cakes_, _liquorice lozenges_, and _Pontefract cakes_. The former of these is used to great extent in the brewing of porter. It is said that more than two hundred tons' weight of it are annually manufactured in Spain, a considerable portion of which is sold to the London brewers for this purpose. Liquorice powder, which is used in medicine, is often adulterated with flour, and probably also with less wholesome articles. The root itself may be employed as stopples for beer or wine bottles.

The soil in which liquorice is cultivated should be deep, light, and sandy; and the roots, which strike deeply into the ground, should be planted in rows, at the distance of a foot and half or two feet from each other. Three years elapse, after the roots are planted, before the liquorice is in perfection.

202. _SAINT-FOIN_ (Hedysarum onobrychis) _is a British perennial plant
with winged leaves, somewhat pyramidal bunches of butterfly-shaped
flowers, marked with red, white, and purple; and oblong, hairy pods, each
containing a single seed._

This plant is cultivated in several of the farming districts of England, as food for horses and cattle; and it succeeds best on dry and chalky lands, in high and exposed situations. The seed should be sown in February or March, and, during the first year, the plants should remain untouched. In the ensuing summer a crop of hay may be obtained from them; and after this the saint-foin may regularly be mown twice every year, for ten or fifteen years. When intended for hay, saint-foin should not be cut before it is in full bloom, about the beginning of July, as otherwise the quality of the hay would be much injured. Some farmers assert that saint-foin, when cows are fed with it, both increases the quantity and improves the quality of their milk; but, in the opinion of others, the quality is rather injured than improved by it. No pasture is considered more excellent for sheep than this. Saint-foin is also sometimes sown with clover, and sometimes with barley.

203. _COMMON RED or BROAD CLOVER_ (Trifolium pratense) _is a well-known
field plant, much cultivated in this country._

Clover is chiefly grown in firm and good soils, either as green food for horses and cattle, or to be cut for hay. On grass farms it is sometimes sown in conjunction with spring corn, and sometimes with ray-grass (51); and its utility in the fattening of cattle is well known. This species of clover grows wild, in meadows and pastures of most parts of Europe; and, in some countries, during a scarcity of provisions, the flowers have been made into a kind of bread. In Sweden the heads are used as a green dye.

204. _LUCERN_ (Medicago sativa) _is a perennial plant with small purple
butterfly-shaped flowers, twisted pods, the stem erect and smooth, and
the leaves in threes._

Although a wild plant in nearly every country of the temperate parts of Europe, this useful vegetable has only of late years been introduced into cultivation. It flourishes most luxuriantly in deep, rich, and friable loams, and cannot be too strongly recommended as food for cattle. The value of lucern may be considerably increased by sowing it with oats; and, though an expensive crop, it yields great profit.

205. _INDIGO is a blue dye prepared from a plant_ (Indigofera tinctoria)
_with a shrubby stem, oblong, smooth, and winged leaves, bunches of
flowers shorter than the leaves, and cylindrical pods slightly curved,
which grows in America and the West Indies._

The culture of indigo is an object of considerable importance in the West Indian islands, and in some parts of America. The grounds appropriated to it are sown about the middle of March, in rows fifteen inches asunder. The plants come into flower about three months afterwards, and are in a state to be cut about the month of August. They are cut with a kind of reaping hook, a few inches above the root. The plants are then laid in strata, in a vat or cistern constructed of strong mason-work, and so much water is poured in as will cover them. In this state they are left to ferment, and the fluid or pulp, which is first green, afterwards becomes of deep blue colour. It is now drawn off into another vat, where it is strongly and incessantly beaten and agitated, until the colouring matter is united into a body. The water is then let off by cocks in the sides of the vat; and the indigo, after undergoing some further preparations, is cast, in boxes or moulds, into small pieces, each about an inch square, and packed up for sale. The vapour which issues from the fermented liquor is extremely injurious to the negroes who attend the process; and as peculiar attention is requisite both to this and the granulating of the pulp, many indigo-planters have failed in the manufacture of this article.

Indigo is employed by dyers, calico-printers, and paper-stainers, to an extent so great that nearly 500,000 pounds' weight of it are annually imported into this kingdom. The _stone-blue_ used by laundresses, and the colours called _Saxon-blue_, and _green_, are made from indigo. Painters use it as a water-colour. This article is frequently adulterated with earth, ashes, and pounded slate. The genuine drug ought to be of rich, dark blue colour, approaching to black; and, when broken, should display the lustre of copper. It ought not to sink in water, nor to leave any sediment when dissolved.

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CLASS XVIII.--POLYADELPHIA.

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DECANDRIA.

206. _CHOCOLATE is a kind of cake or hard paste, sometimes made of
different ingredients, but the basis of which is the pulp of the cacao or
chocolate nut, a produce of the West Indies and America._

_The chocolate tree_ (Theobroma cacao, Fig. 54,) _both in size and shape,
somewhat resembles a young cherry tree, but it separates near the ground
into four or five stems. The leaves are each about four inches in length,
smooth but not glossy, and of dull green colour. The flowers are
saffron-coloured, and very beautiful._

The _fruit_ of the chocolate-tree somewhat resembles a cucumber in shape, but is furrowed deeper on the sides. Its colour, while growing, is green; but, as it ripens, this changes to a fine bluish red, almost purple, with pink veins; or, in some of the varieties, to a delicate yellow or lemon colour. Each of the pods contains from twenty to thirty nuts or kernels, which in shape are not much unlike almonds. These are arranged in rows, surrounded by a sweet pulpy substance, and are called _cacao_ or _chocolate-nuts_.