Chapter IX: Front Matter (9)

On the summit of the cocoa-nut-tree the tender _leaves_, at their first springing up, are folded over each other, so as somewhat to resemble a cabbage. These are occasionally eaten in place of culinary greens, and are a very delicious food; but, as they can only be obtained by the destruction of the tree that produces them, and which dies in consequence of their being removed, they are considered too expensive a treat for frequent use. The larger leaves are employed for the thatching of buildings, and are wrought into baskets, brooms, mats, sacks, hammocks, and many other useful articles.

The _trunks_ are made into boats, and sometimes constitute timber for the construction of houses; and, when their central pith is cleared away, they form excellent gutters for the conveyance of water. If, whilst growing, the body of the tree be bored, a white and sweetish liquor exudes from the wound, which has the name of _toddy_. This is collected in vessels of earthen-ware, and is a favourite beverage in many countries where the trees grow. When fresh it is very sweet; in a few hours it becomes somewhat acid, and, in this state, is peculiarly agreeable; but in the space of twenty-four hours it is complete vinegar. By distillation this liquor yields an ardent spirit, which is sometimes called _rack_, or _arrack_; and is more esteemed than that obtained by distillation from rice or sugar, and merely fermented and flavoured with the cocoa-nut juice. If boiled with quick-lime, it thickens into a syrup, which is used by confectioners in the East Indies, though it is much inferior to syrup produced from the sugarcane.

POLYANDRIA.

234. _The COMMON ARUM, CUCKOO PINT, or LORDS AND LADIES_ (Arum
maculatum), _is a well-known plant, which grows in shady hedge bottoms;
and has, about the month of May, a club-shaped spike, frequently of
purple colour at the top, issuing from a green sheath with which it is
enveloped._

The acridity of every part of this common plant, whilst in a recent state, is such that, if tasted, there is left upon the tongue an intolerably disagreeable burning and pricking sensation, which continues for a long time afterwards; and which no one, who has once tasted it, will be inclined to experience a second time. If bruised and applied to the skin, a blister will shortly afterwards be raised.

It was from this property that the _roots_, which are whitish, and each about the size of a nutmeg, were formerly used internally in medicine, as a powerful stimulant, and externally for blisters. In some parts of France they are employed in bleaching, from an opinion that, by their corrosive quality, they render the linen white. Their acrimony is wholly dissipated by drying; and, in a dried state, they afford an almost tasteless farinaceous powder, which may even be made into bread. The powdered roots of the common arum are converted, by the French, into an harmless cosmetic, which is sold at a high price under the name of _Cyprus powder_.

In consequence of a premium which was offered by the Society for Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, for discovering a method of preparing starch from materials not used as food for man, an experiment was made, by Mrs. Jane Gibbs, of Portland, in Dorsetshire, upon the roots of the common arum. A peck of the roots was found to produce about four pounds' weight of starch; and she prepared, in the whole, about two hundred weight. The process was to clean the roots, and pound them in a mortar with water: the pulp thus formed was strained, and after being allowed to settle, the water was poured off, and the starch remained at the bottom.

Whilst speaking of the arum, it may be stated that the flowers of some of the foreign species (_Arum crinitum_ and _A. dracunculus_) have so strong a smell, like carrion, that even flesh-flies are attracted to deposit their eggs in them: and that the structure of the flowers is such that, when the insects attempt to retreat, they are prevented by the reversed hairs which are there found, and are destroyed. Some of the species are considered wholesome food; one (_Arum esculentum_) is much cultivated for this purpose in the West Indies and South America. The leaves of this plant, when boiled, are much esteemed as potherbs, and the roots are eaten either baked or boiled.

235. _The SWEET CHESNUT_ (Fagus castanea, Fig. 65) _is a stately tree,
which grows wild in some of the southern and western parts of England,
and is distinguished by having spear-shaped and pointed leaves, with
tapering serratures at the edge._

_The flowers appear in long hanging spikes or clusters, about the month
of May; and the fruit, which is ripe in September, is enveloped in a husk
defended by a great number of complicated prickles._

Notwithstanding the known durability of the oak, there does not appear any well-authenticated instance of the age of an oak being equal to that of the celebrated chesnut-tree, at Tortworth, in Gloucestershire, which was known as a boundary mark in the reign of King John. This tree is supposed to have then been more than 500 years old, making its age at this time to exceed 1100 years. The diameter of its trunk is fifteen feet, and it still continues to bear fruit.

Few of our forest trees are more beautiful than the chesnut. It is true that the generality of painters prefer the oak for its picturesque form; but in the landscapes of Salvator Rosa, and other celebrated masters, chesnut-trees are very conspicuous.

The _timber_ of this tree was formerly much in use. The beams and rafters of many of our most ancient churches are formed of it; and its appearance so nearly resembles that of the oak, that it requires the eye of a good judge to distinguish them from each other. For the heads and staves of casks, the wood of the chesnut is considered peculiarly excellent; and pipes, made of it for the conveyance of water under ground, are said to be more durable than those either of elm or oak. For furniture it may be stained so as somewhat to resemble mahogany. Hop-poles, and poles for espaliers and dead fences, made of young chesnut-trees, are preferred to most others.

Much of the _fruit_ of the chesnut is consumed as food by the poorer classes of people on the Continent, but particularly by those of Spain and Italy; and, when dried and powdered, it is no mean substitute for flour, in bread and puddings. Chesnuts are imported into this country in considerable quantities, both from France and Spain, and are roasted and eaten in desserts: those which are grown here being much smaller than what we receive from abroad. On the Continent they are sometimes used for making starch, and in the bleaching of linen.

236. _The BEECH_ (Fagus sylvatica, Fig. 64) _is a forest tree known by
its waved and somewhat oval leaves, and its triangular fruit, consisting
of three cells, and enclosed, by pairs, in a husk which is covered with
simple prickles._

There are beech woods in many parts of England, but the trees flourish best in rich, calcareous soils. These woods, it has been observed, are peculiarly dry and pleasant to walk in; and, under their shade, afford to the botanist many interesting plants, such as the bird's nest (_monotropa_), winter green (_pyrola_), and some rare _orchideæ_. Beech-trees bear lopping well, and may be trained so as to form lofty hedges, which are the more valuable for shelter, as the leaves, though faded, remain through the winter, and the twisted branches may be formed into a very strong fence.

The _wood_ is hard and brittle, and, if exposed to the air, is liable soon to decay. It is, however, peculiarly useful to cabinet-makers and turners. Carpenters' planes, tool-handles, and mallets, are made of it. When split into thin layers, it is used to make scabbards for swords. Chairs, bedsteads, and other furniture, are occasionally formed of beech.

The fruit of this tree, which has the name of _beech-mast_, and is ripe in September, is palatable to the taste; but, if eaten in great quantity, it occasions giddiness and head-aches. When, however, it is dried and powdered, it may be made into a wholesome bread. The inhabitants of Scio, one of the Ionian Islands, were once enabled to endure a memorable siege by the beech-mast which their island supplied. This fruit has, occasionally, been roasted and used as a substitute for coffee. When subjected to pressure, it yields a sweet and palatable _oil_, which, if properly made, is equal, in quality, to the best olive-oil, and has the advantage of continuing longer than that without becoming rancid. Beech-oil is manufactured in several parts of France; and is used by the lower classes of Silesia instead of butter. The cakes which remain after the oil is extracted are a wholesome food, and may also be advantageously employed for the fattening of swine, poultry, and oxen.

In some countries the _leaves_ of the beech-tree are collected in the autumn, before they have been injured, by the frosts, and are used instead of feathers for beds; and mattresses formed of them are said to be preferable to those either of straw or chaff.

237. _The OAK_ (Quercus robur, Fig. 68) _is a well-known timber tree, of
native growth in this country, as well as other countries in northern
temperate climates._

It is to this valuable tree that our navy is indebted for its existence; and without it this invincible barrier of the country could not be supported. _Oak timber_ being hard, tough, tolerably flexible, and not very liable to splinter, is, in Europe, preferred to every other kind for the construction of ships of war. It is also well adapted to every purpose of rural and domestic economy, particularly for staves, laths, and the spokes of wheels. Until the introduction of mahogany, it was very generally used for furniture; and, in large mansions, it was customary even to line the walls of rooms with _wainscot_, or panelling of oak.

This tree is remarkable for the slowness of its growth, for its great longevity, and the dimensions to which it attains. It has, however, been remarked that the trunk of the oak seldom increases to a greater proportionate diameter than about fourteen inches in eighty years. As to its dimensions, it is stated that an oak belonging to Lord Powis, and growing, in 1764, in Bromfield Wood, near Ludlow, measured sixty-eight feet in girth and twenty-three feet in height, and contained in the whole 1455 feet of timber.

Before oak timber is in a state to be used it is requisite that the trees should be barked, and suffered to stand uncut for three or four years, that they may become perfectly dry. The _bark_ thus obtained is extensively used in the tanning of leather; and afterwards it serves as fuel, and for making hot-beds for the growth of pines, and some other plants. The astringent properties of oak-bark render it of use for medical purposes. The _saw-dust_ of this tree, and even the _leaves_, though much inferior to the bark, have been found useful in tanning. The former of these is the principal vegetable production of this country, which is used in the dyeing of fustian.

On the leaves and buds of the oak certain excrescences are formed, in consequence of the puncture of insects, as the lodgment for their eggs and a habitation for their future young. These are termed _galls_, and if, when arrived at a certain state, they are infused in a weak solution of vitriol, they impart to it a purple or violet tinge; and, after the whole colouring matter is extracted, this becomes perfectly black. Considerable quantities of galls are used in dyeing, and for other purposes.

_Acorns_, or the seeds of the oak, possess an astringent quality, and have a bitter taste, both of which may be extracted by steeping them, for some time, in cold water, or by boiling them. After this simple process, they are not an unpalatable fruit. With the ancient Britons they were an article in great request, and even constituted an important part of their food; and there can be little doubt that, carefully prepared, dried, and reduced to powder, they might, in times of scarcity, be adopted as a substitute for bread-corn. By pressure an oil is obtained from them which may be used for lamps; and a kind of coffee is prepared from them in some parts of the Continent.

The branches of the oak, as well as those of several other kinds of trees, are burned for the formation of _charcoal_; and it is a remarkable circumstance that the properties of charcoal, from whatever wood it may be made, are nearly the same. One of the most remarkable of these is, that it is not liable to decay by age. Hence it was customary, with the ancients, to char or burn the outside of stakes, or other wood, which were to be driven into the ground, or placed in water. Charcoal may be preserved without injury for an almost indefinite length of time; and, in the ancient tombs of the inhabitants of northern nations, entire pieces of charcoal are at this day frequently discovered.

Besides the great use of charcoal in the composition of gunpowder, and to artists and manufacturers of different kinds, it has lately been employed, with considerable success, in correcting the rancid and disagreeable smell of train oil, so as to render it fit to be burned in chamber lamps; and several manufactories of this oil have been established in the neighbourhood of London. Newly-made charcoal, if rolled up in clothes which have contracted a disagreeable odour, will effectually destroy it; and if boiled with meat beginning to putrefy will take away the taint.

This substance is used by artists in the polishing of brass and copper-plates, for the drawing of outlines, and numerous other purposes. When purified, it forms perhaps the best tooth-powder that is known. The mode of purifying it is to reduce it to powder, wash it repeatedly with water, and then dry it by means of a strong heat in close vessels. This heat expels the foreign contents with which it is impregnated; but however intense, if the vessels are closed, it in no respects alters the quality of the charcoal. The vapour of burning charcoal is extremely pernicious; and persons exposed to it in confined rooms are liable to be suffocated in a very short time. The best remedy is immediately to take them into the strongest draught of cold air that can be obtained, to loosen all their garments, and apply volatile spirits to their nostrils.

238. _CORK is the external bark of a species of oak_ (Quercus suber)
_which grows in Spain, Portugal, and other southern parts of Europe, and
is distinguished by the fungous texture of its bark; and by its leaves
being evergreen, oblong, somewhat oval, downy underneath, and waved._

The principal supply of the cork that is consumed in Europe, is obtained from Catalonia in Spain; and the culture and the preparation of it yield to the inhabitants of that province near 250,000_l._ per annum.

In the collecting of cork, it is customary to slit it with a knife, at certain distances, in a perpendicular direction from the top of the trees to the bottom; and to make two incisions across, one near the top and the other near the bottom of the trunk. For the purpose of stripping off the bark, a curved knife with a handle at each end is used. Sometimes it is stripped in pieces the whole length, and sometimes in shorter pieces, cross cuts being made at certain intervals. In some instances the perpendicular and transverse incisions are made, and the cork is left upon the trees until, by the growth of the new bark beneath, it becomes sufficiently loose to be removed by the hand.

After the pieces are detached they are soaked in water; and, when nearly dry, are placed over a fire of coals, which blackens their external surface. By the latter operation they are rendered smooth, and all the smaller blemishes are thereby concealed: the larger holes and cracks are filled up by the artful introduction of soot and dirt. The pieces are next loaded with weights to make them even; and lastly they are dried, stacked, or packed in bales for exportation.

Many of the uses of cork were well known to the ancients. Its elasticity renders it peculiarly serviceable for the stopping of vessels of different kinds; and thus preventing either the liquids therein contained from running out, or the external air from passing in. The use of cork for stopping glass bottles is generally considered to have been introduced about the fifteenth century. The practice of employing this substance for jackets to assist in swimming is very ancient; and it has lately been applied in various ways towards the preservation of life, when endangered by shipwreck. The floats of nets used for fishing are frequently made of cork: pieces fastened together make buoys, which, by floating on the surface of the water, afford direction for vessels in harbours, rivers, and other places. In some parts of Spain it is customary to line the walls of houses with cork, which not only renders them warm, but prevents the admission of moisture. The ancient Egyptians sometimes made coffins of it. On account of its lightness, cork is used for false legs; and, from its being impervious by water, it is sometimes placed betwixt the soles of shoes to keep out moisture. When burned, it constitutes that light black substance known by the name of _Spanish black_.

In the cutting of corks for use, the only tool employed is a broad, thin, and sharp knife; and, as the cork tends very much to blunt this, it is sharpened upon a board by one whet, or stroke on each side, after every cut; and, now and then, upon a common whet-stone. The corks for bottles are cut in the length way of the bark, and consequently the pores lie across. Bungs, and corks of large size, are cut in a contrary direction: the pores in these are therefore downward, a circumstance which renders them much more defective in stopping out the air than the others. The parings of cork are sold to the makers of Spanish black.

239. _The WALNUT is a well-known shell fruit, produced by a tree_
(Juglans regia, Fig. 69), _which grows wild in the northern parts of
China and Persia, and has winged leaves; the leaflets, about nine in
number, large, oblong, smooth, thick; and the end one with a stalk._

Although greatly admired, both for the beauty of its foliage, and for the excellence of its fruit, the cultivation of the walnut-tree in England is by no means attended to so much as it was formerly, when its _wood_ was considered the most ornamental timber produced in our island. It is pleasingly veined, and admits of a fine polish, but its colour is much less rich than that of mahogany; and consequently, except for the making of gunstocks, it has, of late, been wholly superseded by that more favourite wood. On the Continent, however, the walnut-tree is still in request for furniture of various kinds.

The _fruit_ of the walnut-tree is covered externally with a thick and smooth green husk, the juice of which stains the fingers black. In an unripe state, before the shells are formed, the whole fruit may be made into a pickle, and also into ketchup. In medicine the unripe fruit is considered of use for the destruction of worms, and is usually administered in the form of an extract.

Walnuts become ripe about the beginning of October; and, as they grow in clusters, generally at the ends of the branches, it is customary to beat them down with long poles. The kernel, which is covered with a tough, yellow, and bitter skin, is more esteemed than that either of the hazel-nut or filbert. It yields, on pressure, a sweet kind of oil, which, in quantity, amounts to about half the weight of the kernel.

There are several varieties of walnut, which are well known to the cultivators of that tree.

240. _The HICKORY-NUT_ (Juglans alba) _is a North American species of
walnut, the shell of which is very hard, does not split asunder like that
of the walnut, and is of smoother and lighter colour than that_.

Its kernel is sweet and well tasted, and affords a considerable portion of oil.

241. _The HAZEL-NUT and FILBERT are well-known fruits, the former of a
shrub_ (Corylus avellana, Fig. 67) _which grows in hedges and thickets;
and the latter of a somewhat similar shrub, which is cultivated in
orchards and kitchen gardens._

Each of these kinds of _nuts_ is much esteemed, but particularly the latter; the flavour of its kernels being very delicious. They are, however, difficult of digestion, and, when eaten in considerable quantity, sometimes produce very unpleasant effects. The oil which is obtained from hazel-nuts by pressure is little inferior in flavour to that of almonds, and, under the name of _nut-oil_, is often used by painters. Chemists employ it as the basis of fragrant oils artificially prepared, because it easily combines with and retains odours. This oil is found serviceable in obstinate coughs.

If nuts be put into earthen pots and well closed, and afterwards buried eighteen inches or two feet deep in the earth, they may be kept sound through the winter.

In many parts of the country _hazels_ are planted in coppices and hedge-rows for several useful purposes; but particularly to be cut down, periodically, for charcoal, for poles, fishing-rods, &c. Being extremely tough and flexible, the branches of the hazel are used for making hurdles, crates, withs or bands, and springles to fasten down thatch. They are formed into spars, handles for implements of husbandry; and, when split, are bent into hoops for casks. Charcoal made from hazel is much in request for forges; and, when prepared in a particular manner, is used by painters and engravers to draw their outlines.

In countries where yeast is scarce, it is not unusual to twist loosely together the slender branches of this shrub, and to steep them in ale-yeast during its fermentation. They are then hung up to dry; and, at the next brewing, are put into the wort instead of yeast. The _roots_ are used by cabinet makers for veneering: and, in Italy, the _chips_ of hazel are sometimes put into turbid wine for the purpose of fining it.

242. _The HORNBEAM_ (Carpinus betulus, Fig. 73) _is a forest tree which
grows to the height of sixty or seventy feet, yet seldom exceeds fifteen
or eighteen inches in diameter, has smooth white bark, marked with grey
spots, and leaves about three inches long and two broad, oval, pointed,
and serrated._

As a timber-tree the hornbeam is more esteemed on the Continent than in this country. It grows readily in stiff soils, particularly on the sides of hills; and is easily transplanted. The _wood_, which is white, hard, and tough, is used by turners; and is wrought into cogs for mill-wheels, screw-presses, the heads of beetles, handles of working tools, and other instruments and machinery in which great strength is required. As fuel it is preferred, on account of its readier inflammability, to most other kinds of wood. The _inner bark_ is used, in some countries, for dyeing yellow.

From the foliage of the hornbeam being luxuriant, and admitting of being clipped, without injury, into any of those forms which the old French garden style required, this tree was formerly much more planted in England than it is at present. It preserves a great portion of its withered leaves through the winter; and, if properly planted as a hedge, it forms an excellent fence. The German husbandman, when he erects a fence of hornbeam, throws up a parapet of earth, with a ditch on each side, and plants his sets (which he raises from layers) in such a manner that every two plants may be brought to intersect each other, in the form of a St. Andrew's cross. In that part where the plants cross, he scrapes off the bark, and bends them closely together with straw. In consequence of this operation the two plants consolidate into a sort of indissoluble knot, and push, from the place of junction, horizontal slanting shoots, which form a living palisado or _chevaux de frise_; so that such a protection may be called a rural fortification. These hedges, being annually and carefully pruned, will, in a few years, become impenetrable in every part. It is not uncommon in Germany, to see the high roads thus guarded for many miles together; and great advantage might be derived from adopting the same plan in many parts of our own kingdom.

243. _The PLANE-TREE_ (Platanus orientalis, Fig. 71) _is distinguished by
having broad leaves, each with about five principal divisions, and these
subdivided into smaller ones._

By the ancient Greeks and Romans the plane-tree was highly valued, on account of its grateful shade; and the latter were much delighted by training it in such manner as to admit of their sitting beneath its branches. Wherever they built their magnificent colleges for the exercise of youth, in the gymnastic arts, as riding, wrestling, running, leaping, throwing the discus, &c. and where also the gravest philosophers met to converse together and improve their studies, they planted avenues and walks of plane trees for refreshment and shade.

Though now frequently planted in parks and pleasure grounds, the sycamore (122) is, in many instances, preferred to it. The plane, though a native of Asia and the southern parts of Europe, is very hardy, grows rapidly, and will flourish in any common soil, and in any aspect.

Its _wood_, at a certain age, becomes much veined; and, consequently, is valuable for many kinds of domestic furniture, but particularly for tables.

244. _The CABBAGE-TREE_ (Areca oleracea) _is an American species of palm,
which grows to the height of a hundred feet and upwards, and is destitute
of leaves until within a few feet of the summit. The leaves, sometimes
near twenty feet long, are winged, and the leaflets are entire._

Such is the general elegance of this tree that it is frequently denominated the queen of woods. Its _fruit_, which grows in bunches from the top, is an oblong and obtuse kind of berry, of bluish purple colour, and about the size of an olive. The sheaths of the flowers, and the floral leaves, when first developed, are folded round each other, enclosed in a thin, green, and spongy bark, eight or nine inches in circumference, and constitute the part which is denominated the _cabbage_. This is white, and, when boiled, is esteemed a great luxury. It is also eaten raw as a salad, and fried with butter; and its taste is said to resemble that of an artichoke. This part is likewise frequently made into a pickle with vinegar and spices.

We are informed that the cabbage-tree was first introduced into Jamaica by Admiral Knowles, when governor of that island; and that it has since been cultivated there with great attention. But it is chiefly planted for its beauty, being considered too valuable to be often cut down for the small portion of food which it thus affords, however delicious that may be.

In the _leaves_ of this tree there is a thread-like substance, which is sometimes spun, like hemp, and made into different kinds of cordage. The sockets or grooves formed by the broad part of the footstalks of the leaves are used by the negroes as cradles for their children; and on the inner sides of the very young footstalks there are tender pellicles, which, when dried, may be converted into paper. The _trunks_, when cleared of the pith, serve as water pipes and gutters. Of the _pith_ a kind of sago is made; and in this pith, after the trees are felled, there is bred a large species of caterpillar which the inhabitants of some of the West Indian islands eat as a great delicacy.

245. _The CATECHU, ARECA, or BETEL-NUT-TREE_ (Areca catechu), _is a
species of palm which grows in the East Indies._

_It is generally from thirty to forty feet high, and its trunk is six or
eight inches in diameter. The leaves, which grow on the summit, are
winged, having the leaflets folded back; and the fruit is a pulpy berry
with thin skin, containing a nut about an inch in length, and of a
rounded conical form._

The _kernel_ of the areca-nut, which is covered by a thin, smooth, and yellowish shell, is somewhat like a nutmeg, but contains, in the centre, a white, soft, greyish, and almost liquid substance, which becomes hard as the nut ripens. This fruit is in general use by the Indians, who cut it into slices, mix it with other substances, wrap it in the leaves of betel (22), and chew it much in the same manner as the common people of our country chew tobacco. The consumption of these nuts in India is almost beyond calculation. They are an article of considerable trade, from port to port; and also from India to China, but they are seldom brought into England, though they might be of use in some of our manufactures.

The drug called _catechu_, and formerly _terra japonica_, was supposed to be an extract prepared from the above nuts; but it is now ascertained to be made from the wood of a species of mimosa.

MONADELPHIA.

246. _The SCOTS FIR_ (Pinus sylvestris), _which has its name from growing
wild in different parts of Scotland, is known from other trees of the
same tribe by having its slender and somewhat needle-shaped leaves in
pairs; its cones or seed-vessels somewhat egg-shaped, mostly in pairs, as
long as the leaves, and the scales blunt._

This useful tree flourishes with greatest luxuriance on the north and north-east sides of hills, in a poor and sandy soil, especially where this is mixed with loam. If planted among rocks, or in bogs, it seldom attains a large size; in black soil it becomes diseased; and in chalky land it frequently pines away and dies.

Its _timber_, under the name of _deal_, is employed as the wood-work of houses; for rafters, flooring, doors, the frames of windows, tables, boxes, and other purposes, infinitely too various to be enumerated. Frigates, and other ships of large size, have sometimes been constructed of deal but these are by no means so durable as vessels that are built of oak. Much of the deal which we use is imported from Norway, and other northern parts of Europe. That from Christiana, which is called _yellow deal_, or _red deal_, is frequently brought over in planks, but more commonly in boards, each about ten inches and half in width. The wood of such trees as are raised in England is equal to the foreign wood in weight and durability, but its grain is generally coarser.

The _outer bark_ of the fir-tree may be used in the tanning of leather; and it is said that, in the northern parts of Europe, the soft, white, and fibrous _inner bark_ is, in times of scarcity, made into a kind of bread. For this purpose it is dried over a fire, reduced to powder, kneaded with water, and a small portion of corn-flour, into cakes, and baked in an oven. Children in Norway are very fond of the fresh bark, in the spring of the year, either shaved off with a knife, or grated with a rasp.

_Common Turpentine_ is the resinous juice chiefly of the Scots fir, obtained by boring holes into the trunks of the trees, early in spring, and placing vessels beneath for its reception. It is of brown colour; and has a strong odour, and disagreeable taste. In the distillation of turpentine an essential oil is produced, called _oil of turpentine_, which is extremely pungent. When the distillation is continued to dryness, the substance which remains is known by the name of _common resin_ or _rosin_; but, if water be mixed with it, while yet fluid, and incorporated by violent agitation, a substance is formed called _yellow resin_.

Common turpentine is mostly employed as an ingredient in the plasters used by farriers. The oil is occasionally used in medicine; and, lately, it has been considered efficacious in cases of worms. It is much employed by painters for rendering their colours more fluid; as well as in the composition of different kinds of varnish used in floor-cloth, umbrella, and other manufactures. The noxious spirit called gin was formerly flavoured with juniper berries; but as these are now too expensive, oil of turpentine, the taste of which in a slight degree resembles that of juniper, is applied to the same purpose; and considerable quantities of turpentine are thus consumed. The common resin is used in plasters, for which its great adhesiveness renders it peculiarly applicable. It is also of considerable importance in the arts; and musicians rub the bows and strings of violins with it, to take off the greasy particles which are there collected, as well as to counteract the effects of moisture. Yellow resin is used in plasters, and for other purposes in medicine.

_Tar_ is obtained from the roots and refuse parts of the fir-tree, by cutting them into billets, piling these, in a proper manner, in pits or ovens formed for the purpose, covering them partly over, and setting them on fire. During the burning, a black and thick matter, which is the tar, falls to the bottom, and is conducted thence into vessels which are placed to receive it, and from which it is afterwards poured into barrels for sale.

Tar is an article of great utility in manufactures, and for various economical purposes. It is much employed for smearing the rigging, and other external parts of ships, to prevent their receiving injury from moisture. It has been used in medicine both internally and externally; and particularly _tar-water_, or water impregnated with tar, was, some years ago, a popular remedy in various disorders, but its virtues have been too much extolled. Although considerable quantities of tar are prepared in this country, these are insufficient to supply the demand; consequently we, every year, import great quantities of it from Russia, Sweden, America, and other countries.

_Pitch_ is usually made by melting together coarse hard resin and an equal quantity of tar; or, as some writers state, by boiling tar with a certain portion of water, until it becomes so thick that, on cooling, it forms a hard black mass.

By the ancients pitch was much employed for giving flavour and fragrance to their wines. With us it is of extensive use to mechanics, and in numerous manufactures; but the principal demand for it is in ship-building, to secure the joints and crevices of the planks and timbers, and for other purposes. When mixed with a certain quantity of oil and suet, it is made into _shoe-makers' wax_; and, in conjunction with whale fat, forms _carriage-grease_, or the substance with which the wheels of carriages are smeared. The best pitch is imported from Sweden and Norway: and, is of a glossy black colour, perfectly dry, and very brittle.

_Lamp-black_ is a soot formed by burning the dregs and coarser parts of tar in furnaces constructed for that purpose. The smoke is conveyed through tubes into boxes, each covered with linen, in the form of a cone. Upon this linen the soot is deposited: and it is, from time to time, beaten off into the boxes, and afterwards packed in barrels for sale. This substance is employed in printing and dyeing; and has its name from the practice that was formerly adopted of making it by means of lamps.

247. _The WEYMOUTH PINE is chiefly distinguished by its leaves growing in
fives, and its cones being smooth, cylindrical, and longer than the
leaves._

This species of fir-tree grows wild in North America, and succeeds well in strong land in England. Its _timber_ is white, of more open grain than Scots fir, and not so heavy as that. In America it is principally used for the masts of ships, for which, by its toughness, it is peculiarly calculated.

248. _The SPRUCE FIR_ (Pinus abies), _a native of Norway, and other
Northern parts of Europe, is known by its short, and four-sided leaves
growing singly, and surrounding the branches; its cones being
cylindrical, the scales somewhat square, flattened, and notched at the
top_

The _wood_ of the spruce fir is what the English carpenters usually denominate _white deal_. It is considered next in value to that obtained from the Scots fir; and is remarkable for having few knots. On account of its lightness it is peculiarly adapted for packing-cases and musical instruments.

From incisions made into the trunk of the spruce fir-tree, a fine and clear _turpentine_ oozes, which, after being boiled in water, and strained through a linen cloth, acquires a somewhat solid consistence, and reddish brown colour; and is called _Burgundy pitch_. This is employed as an ingredient in several kinds of ointments and plasters: and is principally manufactured in Saxony.

The article called _essence of spruce_, which is used in making spruce beer, is prepared from the branches of this tree, and from those of a species nearly allied to it which grows in America.

249. _The LARCH_ (Pinus laryx), _a native of the Alps, and the mountains
of Germany, is a species of fir, which has its leaves in tufts, and its
cones oblong, and of somewhat oval shape, the margins of the scales bent
back, and jagged._

The cultivation of larch-trees has of late been much recommended for adoption in this country, on account of the value of their _timber_, which for strength and durability, is equal to most kinds of deal. It is well calculated for masts, and the framework of vessels, being capable of sustaining much greater pressure even than oak. For wood-work constantly immersed in water, it is peculiarly calculated, as, in such situations, it is asserted to become almost as hard as stone. In Petersburg larch timber is applied to no other use than that of ship-building. Line-of-battle ships are constructed of it in Archangel, and these generally last about fifteen years; though, in milder climates, it is imagined that they would last much longer.

For gates, pales, and similar work, exposed to the vicissitudes of weather, they are admirably serviceable; and for flooring and other internal purposes are at least equally durable. Buildings constructed of larch timber are said to have continued sound for 200 years; and, in some of the old palaces in Venice, there are beams of larch yet existing that are as sound as when they were first placed. But the very combustible nature of this wood renders it objectionable for such uses. No wood with which we are acquainted affords more durable staves for casks than larch; and, in the opinion of many persons, it is further valuable by improving the flavour of the wine contained in them. The wood is of delicate colour, not unlike the cedar used for black-lead pencils, but is knotty almost throughout.

From the _inner bark_ of the larch the Russians manufacture a soft and fine kind of white gloves. The trunk, if tapped betwixt the months of March and September, yields an extremely pure turpentine, which has the name of _Venice turpentine_; and is of considerable use in medicine. It is usually thinner than any other kind of turpentine, and of clear, whitish, or yellowish colour. The drug of this name, which is generally met with in the shops, is now imported from New England, but was formerly brought from Venice. A brown gummy substance, known in Russia by the name of _Orenburgh gum_, is obtained by a curious process from the sap of the tree. On the large branches of the larch are produced small, sweetish grains, somewhat resembling sugar; which are frequently substituted for the drug called manna (275).

The cultivation of the larch was first introduced into Britain towards the conclusion of the seventeenth century. The trees will grow in almost any soil; and the proper season for felling them is the month of July. They, however, seldom attain any large size in this country; and they are said to decay and become covered with moss, when about forty years old.

250. _The CYPRESS-TREE_ (Cupressus sempervirens) _is a dark-coloured
evergreen, a native of the Levant, the leaves of which are extremely
small, and entirely cover all the slender branches, lying close upon them
so as to give them a somewhat quadrangular shape._

_In some of the trees the branches diminish gradually in length from the
bottom to the top, in such manner as to form a nearly pyramidal shape._

In many of the old gardens in this country cypress-trees are still to be found, but their generally sombre and gloomy appearance has caused them, of late years, to be much neglected. They are, however, very valuable on account of their _wood_, which is hard, compact, and durable, of pale or reddish colour, with deep veins, and pleasant smell. We are informed by Pliny that the doors of the famous temple of Diana, at Ephesus, were of cypress wood, and that, although they were 400 years old at the time when he wrote, they appeared to be nearly as fresh as new. Indeed this wood was so much esteemed by the ancients, that the image of Jupiter in the capitol was made of it. The gates of St. Peter's church at Rome are stated to have been of cypress, and to have lasted more than 1000 years, from the time of the Emperor Constantine until that of Pope Eugenius the Fourth, when gates of brass were erected in their stead. As this wood, in addition to its other qualities, takes a fine polish, and is not liable to suffer from the attacks of insects, it was formerly much esteemed for cabinet furniture. By the Greeks, in the time of Thucydides, it was used for the coffins of eminent warriors; and many of the chests which enclose Egyptian mummies are made of it. The latter afford very decisive proof of its almost incorruptible nature.

The name of this tree is derived from the island of Cyprus, in the Mediterranean, where it still grows in great luxuriance. Its gloomy hue caused it to be consecrated by the ancients to Pluto, and to be used at the funerals of people of eminence. Pliny states that, in his time, it was customary to place branches of the cypress-tree before the houses in which persons lay dead.

251. _The CASSAVA, or CASSADA_ (Jatropha manihot) _is a South American
shrub, about three feet in height, with broad, shining, and somewhat
hand-shaped leaves, and beautiful white and rose-coloured flowers._

It is a very remarkable circumstance, that the _roots_ of the cassava, if eaten raw, are a fatal poison both to man and beast, and that, when prepared by heat, they yield a safe and valuable food; on which, indeed, many both of the Indian and European inhabitants of South America almost wholly subsist. The roots are the only edible parts of the plant. These, which are white, soft, and farinaceous, from one to two feet in length, and five or six inches in circumference, are dug out of the earth, at a certain season of the year, washed, stripped of their rind, and ground to a pulp. The juice, or poisonous part, is pressed out, and carefully thrown away; as cattle, and other animals, which have accidentally drunk of it, have almost instantly died. The flour that remains, after pressure, is formed into thin round cakes and baked. To an European, accustomed to other bread, these, though sweetish, and not unpalatable, have an insipid taste. If placed in close vessels, and preserved from the attacks of insects, cassava bread may be kept for several months without injury.

With the natives of South America, it is not unusual to throw a great number of cakes of cassava together to heat, after which they soak them in water, which causes a rapid fermentation to take place; and from the liquor thus obtained, they make a very sharp and disagreeable, but intoxicating beverage, which will not keep longer than twenty-four hours without spoiling.

From the pure flour of cassava is formed the substance called _tapioca_, which is frequently imported into this country, and is used for jelly, puddings, and other culinary purposes. It is prepared from the fibrous part of the roots by taking a small quantity of the pulp, after the juice is extracted, and working it in the hand till a thick white cream appears on the surface. This, being separated, and washed in water, gradually subsides to the bottom. After the water is poured off, the remaining moisture is dissipated by a slow fire, the substance being constantly stirred, until at length it is formed into grains about the size of sago (266). These become hard by keeping, and are the purest and most wholesome part of the cassava.

The roots of another species of this shrub, called _sweet cassava_, are usually eaten with butter, and merely after being roasted in hot ashes. They have much the flavour of chesnuts, and are an agreeable and nutritive food.

252. _The TALLOW TREE_ (Croton sebiferum) _is a native of China, and in
habit somewhat resembles a cherry-tree, but has shining egg-shaped, and
pointed leaves, that form tufts at the extremity of the branches._

The _fruit_ of this tree, from which the Chinese obtain a kind of tallow for the manufacture of candles, is enclosed in a husk, not much unlike that of the chesnut, and consists of three round white kernels. All the preparation that is requisite is to melt these kernels, adding a little oil, to render them softer and more pliant than they would otherwise be. The candles made from this substance are very white, but are sometimes coloured by adding a little vermilion. They are more firm than those of tallow, but not equal in quality to candles either of wax or spermaceti. The wicks that are used are not, like ours, made of cotton, but consist of little rods of light, dry wood, with the pith of a rush entwined round them.

253. _INDIAN RUBBER, or CAOUTCHOUC, is the dried juice of a large and
much branched tree_ (Siphonia elastica, Fig. 60), _which grows in Guiana,
and other parts of South America._

_This tree has somewhat oval leaves, entire, veined, and smooth, arranged
in threes, and on long foot-stalks._

_The flowers are small, in bunches, near the ends of the branches, and
the fruit is triangular._

It was not until about the year 1736, that this very extraordinary natural production was made known in Europe. It is obtained by making incisions through the bark of the tree, chiefly in wet weather. From the wounds thus formed the juice flows abundantly. It is of milky-white colour, and is conducted by a tube or leaf, supported by clay, into a vessel placed to receive it. Some writers assert that, on mere exposure to the air, it gradually hardens; and others that, for this purpose, it goes through a certain process, which the Indians keep a profound secret. It is usually brought to Europe in the shape of pear-shaped bottles, which are formed by spreading the juice over a mould of clay. These are exposed to a dense smoke, or to a fire, till they become so dry as not to stick to the fingers; and then, by certain instruments of iron or wood, they are ornamented on the outside with various figures. This done, the clay in the inside is moistened with water and picked out.

Indian rubber is remarkable for the flexibility and elasticity which it acquires on attaining a solid state; and also for the numerous useful purposes to which it is capable of being applied. By the Indians it is sometimes formed into boots, which are impenetrable by water, and which, when smoked, have the appearance of leather. Bottles are made of it, to whose necks are fastened hollow reeds, through which the liquor contained in them can be squirted at pleasure. One of these, filled with water, is always presented to each of the guests at their entertainments. Flambeaux are likewise formed of this substance, which give a very brilliant light; and it is said that a torch of Indian rubber, an inch and a half in diameter, and two feet long, will burn twelve hours. The inhabitants of Quito prepare a species of oil-cloth with the hardened juice of this tree.

The principal uses to which Indian rubber is applied by us are, for the effacing of black-lead marks; for flexible syringes, tubes, and other instruments used by surgeons and chemists; and for the formation, by means of turpentine or linseed oil, of a varnish for air-balloons.

Various experiments have been made to dissolve this substance, so that it may assume its naturally elastic state, under any figure that may be required. This has been effected by means of ether, but the process is too expensive for common use. A simple method of forming tubes of it is to split a piece of cane and to put between the pieces a slip of whalebone. If the Indian rubber be cut into slips, and twisted closely round the cane, and the heat of boiling water be applied, the whole will become united into one piece or tube, from which the whalebone first, and afterwards the cane, may easily be separated.

It has been proved that cloth of all kinds may be made impenetrable by water, if impregnated with the fresh juice of the Indian rubber tree; and that boots, gloves, and other articles, made of cloth thus prepared, may be joined without sewing, and only by moistening the edges with the juice. These are not only more durable, but retain their shape better than such as are made of the juice without any connecting substance.

It has lately been ascertained that, in Prince of Wales's Island, and also in Sumatra, there are trees of a class and order totally different from that above described, which yield a juice similar to this, and applicable to all the same purposes.

254. _The CASTOR-OIL PLANT_ (Ricinus palma christi) _is a native both of
the East and West Indies, and has a stem from five to fifteen or sixteen
feet in height, and large bluish-green leaves, divided into seven lobes,
serrated and pointed, the footstalks long, and inserted into the disk._

_The flowers are produced in a terminating spike, and the seed-vessels
are covered with spines, and contain each three flattish oblong seeds._

It is to the seeds of this plant that we are indebted for the drug called _castor-oil_. This is sometimes obtained by pressing the seeds, in the same way as is practised with respect to oil of almonds (152). But the mode chiefly adopted in the West Indies, whence we principally import it, is first to strip the seeds of their husks or pods, and then to bruise them in a mortar; afterwards they are tied in linen bags, and boiled in water until the oil which they contain rises to the surface; this is carefully skimmed off, strained to free it from any accidental impurities, and bottled for use. The oil which is obtained by boiling is considered more mild than that obtained by pressure, but it sooner becomes rancid. The mildest and finest of the Jamaica castor-oil is limpid, nearly colourless, and has scarcely more taste or smell than good olive-oil.

The uses of castor-oil in medicine are well known.

The plant is sufficiently hardy to grow and ripen its seeds in the open ground of gardens, in the south of England.

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CLASS XXII.--DIOECIA.

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DIANDRIA.

255. _WILLOW, OSIER, or WITHY._--Of this very extensive tribe nearly fifty distinct species have been discovered in our own island. The slender branches of many of these are applied to useful purposes, but particularly for making baskets, bird-cages, and what is called wicker-work; springles for fastening down thatch, wheels or traps for catching lobsters and eels; hoops and crates. The _wood_ is useful for the handles of hatchets, prongs, spades, and other rural implements; and also furnishes shoemakers with cutting and whetting boards, on which they cut leather and sharpen the edges of their knives.

As willows generally flourish in wet situations, some of the species are planted with a view to prevent the banks of rivers and brooks from being washed away by floods.

The _bark_ of some kinds of willow has been applied, with effect, as a substitute for Peruvian bark, in the cure of intermittent fevers. It has also been esteemed useful in the tanning of leather; and, in combination with alder, for striking a deep black colour, in the dyeing of linen.