Chapter V: ANIMALCULES Are destitute of tentacula or feelers, and are generally (6)

145. _The SKY-LARK_ (Alauda arvensis) _is a small bird with slender bill,
and the hind claw very long; the upper parts of its plumage are of a
varied greenish brown colour, the external webs of the two outer tail
feathers are white, and the two middle feathers are rust-coloured._

_These birds are found in every quarter of the world except America._

To all persons capable of experiencing pleasure from rural scenes, the notes of the lark are beyond description animating and delightful. During fine weather, from the earliest part of spring, for several succeeding months, they are every day heard. These birds sing whilst hovering in the air, and sometimes at so vast a height that they seem but a speck in the sky. In sprightliness their notes exceed those of any other bird except the goldfinch; and in compass and execution are inferior only to those of the nightingale.

Sky-larks, whilst in the nest, are fed on worms and insects; but when they are fledged they subsist chiefly on seeds, herbage, and other vegetable substances. It is remarkable, respecting them, that owing to the great length of their hinder claw they are not able to perch on trees, but always alight on the ground. Here they form their nest, generally in some hollow place, and lay four or five dusky eggs spotted with brown.

In the winter season sky-larks collect into large flocks, and are caught with different kinds of nets in vast numbers for the table. The neighbourhood of Dunstable is chiefly celebrated for them. The season commences about the 14th of September, and ends the 25th of February; and, during that time, as we are informed by Mr. Pennant, about 4000 dozen have been caught. In the country adjacent to the river Rhone, in France, as many larks have been caught by one person in a day as loaded two mules: and in Saxony, where they are liable to a tax, an average sum equal to about 900l. sterling is annually paid to the city of Leipsic, on account of the larks that are caught in that neighbourhood.

146. _The WOOD-LARK_ (Alauda arborea) _is a bird smaller than the
sky-lark, with slender bill, long hind claws, and a white streak over
each eye, extending backward so as to form almost a ring round the head._

_It is a very common bird in this country; and is found in other parts of
Europe, and in Siberia._

There is, in the song of these birds, a plaintiveness and mellowness of tone which exceed those of any English songster except the nightingale; but their execution is much inferior to that of most others. They are not only heard in the day-time, but also during the night: and not only whilst in flight, but also when perched upon trees. Wood-larks are tender birds, and not easily to be reared in a cage.

Towards the beginning of winter they become fat, and are then considered excellent eating.

They generally form their nests in a bush near the ground, and have about four eggs of pale red colour, clouded, and mottled with red and yellow.

147. _The NIGHTINGALE_ (Motacilla luscinia) _is distinguished by the
rusty brown colour, tinged with olive, of its upper parts, and by an
ash-coloured ring on the naked part of the thigh above the knees._

_It is a migratory bird, generally arriving in this country in the month
of April, and leaving it in September, and then retiring, as it is
supposed, into some parts of Asia._

This bird delights in solitude, and is naturally of a wild and timid disposition. His usual resort is the side of some hill, especially if there be an echo. Here, perched upon the branch of a tree or shrub, he most delights to sing; and interrupts his warblings by short pauses, as if listening and making responses to the echo of his own voice.

The song of the nightingale is peculiarly mellow and plaintive; and its compass, such as to reach through three octaves, and sometimes even more. In sprightliness it yields to the notes of the sky-lark, the linnet, goldfinch, and even the redbreast. A nightingale in singing its whole song was remarked to have sixteen different beginnings and closes; at the same time that the intermediate notes were generally varied in their succession with so much judgment, as to produce a most pleasing variety. It is to be remarked, that nightingales in general do not, in a wild state, sing more than ten weeks in the year; whilst those in cages continue their song for nine or ten months. Notwithstanding the naturally beautiful song of these birds, they readily adopt the notes of any other. They will even modulate their voice to a given key, and that so readily, that if any person whistle a note to it, the nightingale will immediately try in its strain an unison with that note.

Delightful as the song of the nightingale is, it is certain that some people have a dislike to it. We have even been told of a person who entertained so great an abhorrence for these birds as to have all the trees in his neighbourhood cut down, that, being thus without shelter, they might be driven away. It may perhaps be worth while to remark, in addition, that this person was delighted with the croaking of frogs.

The food of nightingales consists principally of insects, small worms, and the grubs of ants. They usually build their nests near the ground, among briers, in some low tree by a hedge or bush, and have four or five eggs.

148. _The WHEAT-EAR, or WHITE-RUMP_ (Motacilla oenanthe), _is a bird
about the size of a sparrow, distinguished by its back being of a hoary
colour; the forehead, a line above the eyes, and the rump being white,
and by having a black band through each eye._

_These birds are migratory, and found in the southern parts of England
from about the beginning of May till the middle or end of September. They
are also found on the continent of Europe, in Asia, and Africa._

On the downs of Sussex the number of wheat-ears is sometimes so great that more than eighty dozen have been caught by one person in a day. They become fat in the autumn, and are then much esteemed for the table. During a rainy season they are fatter than in a dry one; this is accounted for by their feeding not only on insects, but on earth-worms, which come out of the ground in much greater numbers during wet than in dry weather. These birds are caught, by the shepherds, in snares made of horse-hair, and placed beneath a long turf. Part of them are eaten in the neighbourhood, part are pickled and sent to London for sale, and many are potted. When eaten fresh, they are generally roasted, wrapped up in vine leaves.

Wheat-ears breed in old rabbit-burrows, in holes of cliffs, under old timber, and in other situations on the ground. They form a large nest, and have from six to eight light blue eggs.

149. _The REDBREAST_ (Motacilla rubecola) _is distinguished by the dusky
olive colour of its plumage and its red breast. It is found in nearly
every country of Europe._

This interesting little bird is by no means despicable as a songster, being equal or superior to the goldfinch in every particular except the sprightliness of its notes; and its song is more valuable, as it is occasionally heard even in winter and the earliest part of spring. So quick are its powers of imitation, that a young red-breast, educated under a very fine nightingale, which began already to be out of song, and was perfectly mute in less than a fortnight, sang three parts in four of the nightingale's notes.

These birds are serviceable to mankind by the myriads of injurious insects which they devour.

They form their nests in thickets or holes of old buildings; and have from five to seven eggs of dull white colour sprinkled with reddish spots.

150. _The SWALLOWS are a tribe of birds chiefly distinguished by their
short and depressed bills, their long wings, and the tail being generally
forked._

_Only four species are found in this country. These are all migratory.
The common or CHIMNEY SWALLOW_ (Hirundo rustica) _usually appears about
the middle of April, and departs about the end of October; the MARTIN_
(Hirundo urbica) _appears in the beginning of March, and leaves us about
the middle of October; the SAND MARTIN_ (Hirundo riparia) _appears after
the middle of March, and departs about the middle of September; and the
SWIFT_ (Hirundo apus) _appears before the middle of May, and departs in
the beginning of September._

All the English species of swallow skim along the air in pursuit of flies, gnats, and other insects; which, if it were not for the all-wise ordination of Providence, in directing their regulation by supplying food to these and other species of birds, would soon fill the atmosphere and destroy all our comfort. Hence (to say nothing worse of it) we see how injurious it is to destroy these birds, as is frequently the case, for mere amusement, and under an idle pretext, by many persons of improving their skill in shooting game.

Chimney swallows are sold as food in the markets of France, Spain, and Italy.

151. _The ESCULENT SWALLOW_ (Hirundo esculenta) _is a very small bird,
distinguished by being blackish above and whitish beneath, and having the
tail tipped with white._

_It is found in Sumatra, Java, and some other islands in the Eastern
seas._

There is a great trade to China in the nests of these birds. They are of texture resembling isinglass, and are, in shape, somewhat like a saucer with one side flatted. Their thickness is little more than that of a silver spoon, and their weight from a quarter to half an ounce. They are very brittle, and have a shining gummy appearance internally when broken; and are wrinkled or slightly furrowed externally. The best and clearest of these nests are nearly as white as writing paper, and, semi-transparent, having a few downy feathers hanging about them; but their general colour is white inclining to red. They are usually packed one within another, to the length of twelve or fifteen inches, and secured with split canes to prevent their breaking. The use to which they are principally applied is for the thickening of soups and broths, and to these they are said to communicate an exquisite flavour. Or, after having been softened in water, they are mixed with ginseng, and put into the body of a fowl, and the whole is stewed together, and constitutes a very favourite dish with the Chinese epicures. It has been calculated that the island of Batavia alone exports to China more than twelve tons' weight of these nests annually. A few are brought into Europe as curiosities and presents.

Sir George Staunton speaks of having seen great numbers of them in two caverns which ran horizontally into the side of a rock, in the Island of Cass, near Sumatra. They adhered to each other and to the sides of the cavern, mostly in rows, without any break or interruption. The nests are not taken until after the young ones are fledged; and, in general, this is done by persons who descend to the places where they are situated, by rope ladders.

152. _The WILD PIGEON, or STOCK-DOVE_ (Columba ænas), _is distinguished
by its bluish plumage, the neck being of a glossy green colour above; by
the wings being marked with two black bars, and the tip of the tail
blackish._

These birds are in some degree migratory; large flocks of them arriving in England from the northern regions of the Continent at the approach of winter, and returning in the spring. Many of them, however, remain in this country during the whole year, and only change their quarters to procure food. Similar, but much more extensive, flights of wild pigeons are observed in some parts of Italy, where great numbers of them are caught for sale as food.

They build their nests in the holes of rocks, in old castles, churches, and towers, and sometimes in the hollows of trees, but never on the boughs; and they lay two white eggs.

The name of Stock-dove has been given to these birds, from their being the stock or origin of our _domestic pigeon_. In a domesticated state artificial cavities are formed for them to breed in; and they are frequently known to have young ones eight or nine times in the year. Thus, although they have only two eggs for each brood, their increase is sometimes extremely rapid.

The uses of pigeons in cookery are well known. The young ones only are selected for this purpose; and they are generally taken just before they are fledged.

There is a mode of enticing pigeons to resort to and reside in any place, by putting there what is called a "salt cat." This is made of loam, old rubbish and salt, and is a substance they are so fond of that instances have been known of farmers having thus deprived their neighbours of their whole stock of pigeons. But, by act of parliament, this practice is now rendered illegal. The shooting of pigeons is also an offence against the law. With respect to the formation of pigeon-houses, it may not perhaps be generally known that, although a lord of a manor may build them on his own land parcel of the manor, and a freeholder on his own ground, yet a tenant cannot do this without his lord's license.

Pigeons are generally considered an injurious stock to the farmer, as they subsist almost wholly on grain, and devour, in the course of a year, infinitely more than would amount to their own value.

There are more than twenty different varieties of the domestic pigeon, of which those called carriers, tumblers, croppers, and powters, are perhaps the best known.

153. The CARRIER PIGEON, which is easily distinguished from others by a broad circle of naked white skin round each eye, and by the dark bluish colour of its plumage, is remarkable for the celerity and certainty with which it has been known to convey letters from distant parts. This arises from the natural attachment which the birds have for the places where they have been bred. The mode of employing them is to take them to the spot whence intelligence is to be brought, to tie the letter under their wing, and let them loose. They rise to a great height into the air; then, by an unaccountable instinct, they dart onward in a direct line to their home. The rapidity of their motion is such that they have been known to fly at the rate of near thirty miles an hour.

154. _The RING DOVE_ (Columba palumbus) _is a species of pigeon known by
its cinereous plumage, the tail feathers being black on the hind part,
the first quill feathers being whitish on the outer edge, and the neck
white on each side._

_It is common in our woods, and is also found in most other parts of
Europe._

These birds differ from the last in the habit of constructing their nests on the branches of trees, and particularly on those of the fir-tree, and not in holes of rocks and buildings. As they are of considerably larger size than the domestic pigeon, and, whilst young, are almost equally good for the table, several attempts have, at different times, been made to domesticate them, by hatching their eggs in dove-houses under pigeons; but it has always happened that as soon as they were able to fly, they have escaped to their natural haunts in the woods.

155. _The CROWNED PIGEON_ (Columba coronata, Fig. 33) _is a bird about
the size of a turkey, of blueish colour, with a crest four or five inches
high upon its head, and the shoulders somewhat rust-coloured._

_It is found in New Guinea, and some of the adjacent islands._

By the inhabitants of New Guinea crowned pigeons are killed for food; and, from their great size, they often afford a very important supply. As they are easily domesticated, they are frequently reared in poultry yards in the East Indies; and their appearance there is highly pleasing and ornamental.

156. _The PASSENGER PIGEON_ (Columba migratoria) _is known by its long
tail, the circles round the eyes being naked and blood coloured, and the
breast being of reddish colour._

_These birds are found in different parts of North America._

Some idea of the immense numbers of passenger pigeons may be formed by stating that one continued flight of them is calculated by Mr. Weld to have extended at least eighty miles; and that a person is known to have killed more than a hundred and twenty at one shot with a blunderbuss. They migrate, at certain seasons, from one part of the country to another in search of acorns, berries, and other food. During these migrations they are very fat, and are either killed with clubs and guns, or caught in nets extended upon the ground, into which they are allured by tame pigeons, of their own species.

Passenger pigeons are brought, for sale, in sacksful to Quebec, where they are eagerly purchased as food. Such numbers of them are killed by the American Indians that they prepare their fat so as to be eaten like butter. And we are informed that some years ago there was scarcely any Indian town in the interior of Carolina in which 100 gallons of this fat might not at any time have been purchased.

It will easily be imagined, that, in every part of the country where these pigeons feed, they must prove, beyond all calculation, injurious to the farmer, by devouring the fruits of the harvest.

ORDER IV.--GALLINÆ, OR GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.

157. _The TURKEY_ (Meleagris gallo-pavo) _is found wild in the woods of
America, and is distinguished by its forehead and chin having a red and
naked shin, and the breast of the male being tufted._

Wild turkeys are hunted with dogs by the inhabitants of those parts of America where they are found. As soon as their haunts are discovered, the hunters send into the flock a dog that has been trained to this pursuit. The turkeys do not attempt to escape by flight, but run before him until they become fatigued, when they seek for safety in the trees. The dog gives notice to his followers of the places where they are concealed, and they are then easily knocked off the branches with poles, and secured.

Such is the size of these birds that they frequently weigh more than forty pounds each. The Indians not only esteem them as food, but make an elegant clothing of the _feathers_. The webs of these they twist, into a double string, with hemp or the inner bark of the mulberry-tree, and work or weave them somewhat, like matting. The article thus produced is said to have a rich and glossy appearance, and to be as fine in texture as silk shag. The inhabitants of Louisiana make fans of the tails; and the French, in the American colonies, used formerly to construct parasols by joining four of these tails together.

It does not appear that turkeys were known in England anterior to the reign of Henry the Eighth; and it is supposed that the first of these birds which appeared in Europe were brought from Mexico, after the conquest of that country, in 1521.

These birds, in a domestic state, subsist on grain and insects, and breed early in the spring; the females, whenever they have opportunity, wander to a considerable distance from the poultry yards to construct their nests, and lay and hatch their eggs. These are from fourteen to seventeen in number, of large size, and white colour, marked with reddish or yellow freckles. Young turkeys are so tender as to require much attention in rearing them. The housewives of Sweden frequently plunge them into cold water the day they are hatched; and, after having forced each of them to swallow a pepper-corn, restore them to the care of the parent.

Few birds are more in request for the table than these. The principal countries in which they are fed are Norfolk and Suffolk; and, about Christmas, the demand for them in London is so great that the coaches are sometimes laden with them, even to the exclusion of living passengers. Occasionally turkeys are driven along the roads in flocks of several hundreds together, the drivers having no other implement for keeping them in order, than a long stick with a piece of scarlet rag tied at the end, to which colour they have a very extraordinary antipathy.

158. _The PEACOCK_ (Pavo cristatus) _is a well-known bird, a native of
the woods of the East Indies and other parts of Asia, as well as of
several parts of Africa._

_It is peculiarly distinguished by having on its head a crest of
twenty-four feathers, and, a single hard spur at the back of each leg.
The male has, over its tail, several feathers, sometimes four or five
feet in length, and each marked, at the extremity, with an eye-like spot:
the real tail consists of a range of short, brown, and stiff feathers,
which are beneath these._

In some parts of the East Indies the shooting of wild peacocks is not an uncommon diversion, and the size and heavy flight of the birds are such that it does not require a good marksman to bring them down.

Peacocks are mentioned, in the Sacred Writings, as constituting part of the cargoes of the fleet which conveyed the various treasures of the East to the court of King Solomon. They were so much esteemed for the table, by the Romans, that one person, who had devised a mode of fattening them, obtained thereby alone an annual income equal to about 500l. of our money. In England these birds were formerly introduced at sumptuous dinners, and sometimes the skin and all the feathers, particularly those of the tail, were kept to serve them up in. The flesh of the old birds is coarse and unfit for food; but young pea-fowls are at this day much esteemed by epicures.

The _train feathers_ of the peacock are used among the Chinese for ornamental work of different kinds, and particularly for decorating the caps of the mandarins; and they are an article of traffic from the East Indies to that country. Peacocks' _crests_, in ancient times, were among the ornaments of the kings of England; and it appears from records that, in fines to the crown, these crests were sometimes among the articles to be paid.

Pea-fowls are fed in the same manner as turkeys (157); and the females, when allowed to range at liberty, always deposit their eggs in some sequestered place. These birds are very injurious in gardens, from their scratching up the ground in search of food. They love to perch on the highest trees; and their voice is a harsh scream in two notes, one of which is an octave of the other.

159. _The COMMON PHEASANT_ (Phasianus colchicus, Fig. 34) _is
distinguished by the general reddish chesnut colour of its plumage, its
head and neck being blue, and each eye being surrounded with a red,
naked, and warty skin._

_There is a small and moveable tuft of feathers on each side of the head.
The plumage of the female is much less brilliant and beautiful than that
of the male._

_These birds, though now found wild in our woods, are supposed to have
been originally brought into Europe from the banks of the Phasis, a river
of Colchis, in Asia, situated to the East of the Black Sea. Pheasants are
also found in other parts of Asia, and in Africa._

These birds constitute a rich and wholesome nutriment. They breed in woods and fields, forming their nests, upon the ground, in places where the herbage is thick and close; and laying from twelve to fifteen eggs. These are sometimes taken away and committed to the care of poultry hens, which will hatch them, and rear the young ones as their own. Pheasants feed on corn, wild berries, beech-mast, acorns, and other similar food. They roost on the branches of trees, and, in the short days of winter, generally fly into them for this purpose about sun-set; the male birds making a noise, which they repeat three or four times successively, called "cocketing," and the hens uttering one shrill whistle. Poachers, well acquainted with these sounds, easily discover the place, and either shoot them on their perch, bring them down by burning sulphur underneath, or catch them by a snare made of brass-wire, and fixed to the end of a long pole. They are also caught by snares placed in tracks through which they are known to run, towards the adjacent fields, to feed.

If noblemen and gentlemen of extensive landed property did not preserve the breed of pheasants by forbidding them, except under certain regulations, to be destroyed, the race would soon be extinct in this country.

160. _The ARGUS PHEASANT_ (Phasianus argus) _is a splendid bird, of pale
yellow colour, spotted with black, the feathers of the wings grey, with
eye-like spots; and the two middle feathers of the tail very long, with
similar spots._

_It is a native of Chinese Tartary, the inland of Sumatra, and other
parts of the East, and is about the size of a turkey._

The beauty of the plumage of the argus pheasants, but particularly of their wing feathers, and the two long feathers of the tail, has rendered them objects of considerable attention. These feathers were, some years ago, in considerable request in England as an ornament in female head-dress; but from their natural stiffness both of texture and appearance, they are at present but little regarded.

In their native country these birds are killed as food, their _flesh_ being as much esteemed as that of the common pheasant is with us.

161. _DOMESTIC POULTRY_ (Phasianus gallus, Fig. 35) _are birds of the
pheasant tribe, and found in a wild state in some of the forests of
India, and the Indian islands._

There are few birds so important to mankind as these. Whilst living, they supply us with eggs; and when dead, their bodies afford us food, and their feathers are useful for making beds.

It is said that hens will sometime lay as many as two hundred _eggs_ in twelve months. The chickens are naturally produced by the warmth of the parents sitting upon them, and generally in about three weeks after the operation has commenced. In Egypt, however, it is customary to hatch chickens in ovens by artificial heat. These ovens are sometimes so large as to contain from 40,000 to 80,000 eggs; and it has been calculated that more than 100,000,000 of chickens are annually brought to life in this manner. A similar mode of hatching them was, some years ago, introduced into France by M. de Reaumur; but the practice does not appear to have been much followed.

Some villages in Sussex are famous for poultry, which are fattened to a size and perfection not known elsewhere. They are fed on ground oats made into gruel, by a mixture with hog's grease, sugar, pot-liquor, and milk; or on ground oats, treacle, suet, &c. They are kept warm, and crammed for about a fortnight before they are sold to the higlers. The cramming is performed by rolling their food into pieces of sufficient size to be passed down their throats. When full grown these fowls weigh six or seven pounds, and are sold at four shillings and sixpence or five shillings each. What are called _Darking fowls_ are a very large breed which are also reared in Sussex.

To ascertain whether eggs are fresh, some persons hold them up against a strong light, to see that the white has not lost its transparency; others put their tongue to the large end, and if this feel warm they are considered to be good. If, on shaking them, they are heard to rattle, they are bad. It is said that eggs may be preserved, for many months, by being covered with a thin coat of mutton suet, or other fat substance; but perhaps a better mode than this would be to cover them with a cheap varnish, by which, as well as by the fat, the air would be prevented from penetrating the shells, and thereby rendering the eggs putrid.

Eggs are an agreeable and nourishing food, and are used in various ways in cookery. The whites are of use in medicine. They have been employed with advantage in burns, and have been recommended as a specific for the cure of jaundice. They are likewise used by gilders and artisans. The yolks are employed in medicine in several different ways, but most frequently in emulsions. The shells of eggs serve for various purposes, but chiefly as a white colour, in painting, which is considered preferable to that called flake white.

The _feathers_ of poultry are used, to considerable extent, for making beds, pillows, and bolsters; but they are by no means so excellent as those of geese.

162. _The GUINEA-FOWL, GALLINA, or PINTADO_ (Numidia meleagris), _is an
African bird, which is now domesticated in most parts of Europe, and is
known by the red or bluish wattles, under the throat, a naked
protuberance on the head, their slender neck, and beautifully spotted
plumage._

The flesh of Guinea fowls is tender and sweet, and, by some persons, is thought to resemble that of the pheasant. In Guinea and the adjacent parts of Africa, their native country, where they are not unfrequently seen in flocks of two or three hundred together, they are hunted and caught by dogs. These birds chiefly delight in marshy and morassy places, and subsist on insects, worms, and different kinds of seeds. Their eggs are a very delicate food.

Guinea fowls were originally introduced into England somewhat earlier than the year 1260, and they are now common in our poultry yards, the females always endeavour to lay their eggs in some concealed situation; and the chicks, when hatched, require warmth and quiet, and should, for some time, be fed on rice swelled with milk, or with bread soaked in milk.

These are restless and clamorous birds, and have a harsh and, to some persons, an unpleasant cry, which consists of two notes, sounding like "camac, camac, camac," frequently repeated.

163. _The RED GROUS, or RED GAME_ (Tetrao scoticus, Fig. 36), _is a
species of feathered game from fifteen to nineteen ounces in weight,
which has its plumage beautifully mottled with deep red and black, and
the six outer tail feathers blackish._

_Over each eye is an arched and naked scarlet spot, and the feet are
feathered to the claws._

_This bird inhabits the mountainous heaths of Derbyshire, Yorkshire,
Wales, and Scotland._

It is generally supposed that red grous are peculiar to the British Islands. They are found in "packs," consisting sometimes of forty to fifty birds; and are an object of eager pursuit by sportsmen. They principally frequent high and heathy grounds, where they feed on mountain berries and the tops of heath; and they seldom descend into the valleys. The birds are eaten roasted, like most other game, but they are sometimes potted, and are in general much admired for the table.

Red grous have been bred, and successfully reared, in confinement, by supplying them almost every day with fresh pots of heath.

164. _BLACK GROUS, or BLACK GAME_ (Tetrao tetrix, Fig. 37), _is a species
of feathered game of violet black colour, with the tail forked, and the
secondary quill feathers white towards the base._

_Its weight is from two to four pounds. These birds are found in
mountainous and woody parts of the north of England, and in the New
Forest, Hampshire; in Scotland, and several countries of the Continent._

The pursuit of this and other species of grous is a much more important occupation in the northern parts of the Continent than it is in this country. In some parts of Russia they are caught in traps of wickerwork baited with corn. Huts full of loop-holes are sometimes formed in woods that are frequented by them, and upon the adjacent trees artificial decoy-birds are placed. The persons in the huts fire upon the grous as they alight, being careful to kill those first which are upon the lower branches; and, in this case, so long as the men are concealed, the report of the guns does not alarm the birds.

These birds feed on mountain fruits, and in winter on the tops of heath; and, although they always roost on trees, they form their nests on the ground. Each female lays six or eight eggs, of dull yellowish white colour, marked with numerous small rust-coloured specks, and towards the smaller end with some blotches of the same colour. The young male birds quit their parents in the beginning of winter, and usually associate in small packs until the spring. Black grous will live and thrive, but they have not been known to breed, in aviaries.

165. _The PTARMIGAN, or WHITE GAME_ (Tetrao lagopus, Fig. 38), _is a
species of grous which, in summer, is of pale brown colour, elegantly
mottled with small bars and dusky spots; and has the bill and the tail
feathers black. In winter it is almost wholly while._

_These birds, which, are somewhat larger than a pigeon, are inhabitants
of the extreme northern countries of the continents both of Europe and
America. They are also found among the mountains of Scotland, and are
sometimes seen in the alpine parts of Westmoreland and Cumberland._

By the inhabitants of Greenland not only the _flesh_ but even the intestines of these birds are much esteemed as food. The _skins_, with the feathers on, are made into clothing; and the black _tail feathers_ were formerly much in request among this people for female headdresses.

So numerous are these birds in the northern parts of America, as, at the commencement of winter, to assemble in flocks of 150 or 200 in number; and more than 10,000 have, in some years, been caught near Hudson's Bay, betwixt the months of November and May. They are killed in various ways; by snares, with nets, and with guns; and indeed so fearless are they of the approach of mankind that they may be knocked down with sticks or clubs, instances have occurred of their having been driven, almost like poultry, into nets or snares that have been laid for them.

In our own country these birds associate in small packs, and live among rocks, perching on the stones, and, when alarmed, taking shelter beneath them. They feed on mountain berries, the buds of trees, and the young shoots of the heath. The females form their nests on the ground, and lay in them from six to ten eggs, which are of a dusky colour with reddish brown spots.

It is a very extraordinary ordination of Providence, that these birds at the commencement of winter should assume a white plumage, by which, being incapable of defence, they are able, amidst the winter's snows, to elude the pursuit of their enemies. And not only this, but, as an additional protection against the cold, all the feathers except those of the wings and tail are now doubled.

As food, these birds are said very much to resemble the red grous in flavour.

166. _The WOOD GROUS, or CAPERCAILE_ (Tetrao urogallus), _is a bird
nearly as large as a turkey, its plumage varied, but bay above, marked
with blackish lines; the tail rounded, and the under parts at the base of
the wings white._

_This bird is found in the northern parts of Europe and Asia; and (though
very rarely) in the Highlands of Scotland north of Inverness._

There can be no doubt but, in ancient times, these birds were common in the mountainous parts of South Britain. In countries where pine forests are numerous, they feed on the buds of fir-trees, and on the young cones, so as sometimes to render the taste of their flesh extremely unpalatable. They are also partial to the berries of the juniper.

The females form their nests on the ground, and lay from eight to sixteen eggs, which are of a white colour spotted with yellow.

167. _PARTRIDGES_ (Tetrao perdix) _are particularly distinguished, by
having, under the eyes, a naked scarlet spot; the tail rust-coloured, the
breast brown, and the legs of light colour._

_These birds are found in nearly all the countries of Europe, and in many
of the temperate parts of Asia._

In the autumn and winter, partridges are generally found in coveys, as they are called, of ten or fifteen birds, consisting of the parents and their brood. They are killed, by sportsmen, in immense numbers, for the table; and in all the ways in which they are cooked they are an highly esteemed food.

Partridges are remarkable for never perching nor alighting on trees. They live in cultivated lands, constructing their nests upon the ground, and having usually from fifteen to eighteen eggs. These are hatched towards the beginning of June, and the young ones are able to run as soon as they come into the world. If the eggs happen to be destroyed, the female will, in many cases, form another nest, and produce a second offspring. The birds of this brood are not perfectly fledged till the beginning of October; and are always a puny race. If the eggs of partridges be placed under a common hen, she will hatch them, and rear the young ones without difficulty. But these, after they are grown, almost always escape into the fields and become wild. It is said that the inhabitants of Scio, one of the islands of the Grecian Archipelago, rear large flocks of partridges, which, during the day, are permitted to visit the fields, and in the evening always return home to roost. At the commencement of the breeding season they abscond for some time; but, after having hatched their coveys, they return with their families to the farm-yard.

The attachment of partridges to their offspring, and the stratagems which they adopt to draw off the attention of their enemies whilst these seek their safety by flight or concealment, are well known to almost all persons who are resident in the country.

It is usually considered that the dark-coloured feathers on the breast of the partridge are peculiar to the male; but it has been ascertained beyond a doubt that these are also common to the female. The males can be distinguished from the females only by a superior brightness of the plumage about the head.

168. _The QUAIL_ (Tetrao corturnix) _is a bird considerably smaller than,
but much resembling, the partridge: its form, however, is more slender,
the body is spotted with grey, the eyebrows are white; and the
tail-feathers have a rust-coloured edge and crescent._

_These birds are found in some parts of England; but in other countries
of Europe, as well as in several districts of Asia and Africa, they are
extremely numerous._

Quails are migratory birds, generally arriving in this country betwixt the middle of August and the middle of September, and departing in April. They are greatly esteemed for the table; and are usually eaten roasted (without being drawn), and served on toast, in the same manner as woodcocks. So numerous are they, in many countries of the Continent, that they may be purchased, even by dozens, at a very low price. In some parts of Italy thousands of quails are caught in a day, at the periods of their migration. The Russians also take them in immense numbers, and, packing them in casks, send them for sale to Petersburgh and Moscow. We formerly imported great numbers of these birds alive from France. They were conveyed, by the stage coaches, in large square boxes, divided into five or six compartments one above another, and just high enough for the birds to stand upright, each box containing about a hundred quails. These boxes had wire in front, and each partition was furnished with a small trough for food. The object of this importation was solely for the table.

So irritable is the disposition of the quail, that, whenever the males are kept together, they always fight. This propensity rendered them esteemed by the ancient Greeks and Romans, for the same purposes as game cocks are by many of the moderns. The fighting of quails is, at this day, a fashionable diversion with the Chinese, and in some parts of Italy. The ancients did not eat these birds, under a supposition that they were an unwholesome food.

Quails are not so prolific as partridges. They seldom have more than six or seven eggs, which are of whitish colour marked with ragged rust-coloured spots.

169. _The BUSTARD_ (Otis tarda, Fig. 39), _the largest land bird which is
produced in England, is distinguished by its plumage being waved and
spotted, with black and dusky, and whitish beneath; and the bill being
convex and strong, with a tuft of feathers on each side of the lower
mandible._

_These birds are about four feet in length, and are found in small flocks
on open plains of different countries of Europe, Asia, or Africa. They
were formerly seen on Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, and other parts of
England; but, in consequence of the enclosures which have of late years
been made, the breed is supposed to be nearly extinct in this country._

When these birds were more numerous than they now are, they were hunted by grey-hounds for amusement, and, as they run with great rapidity (seldom being known to rise on wing), the chase was sometimes very long.

Their flesh has been compared to that of the turkey, and epicures on the Continent are stated to prefer the thigh of the bustard to most other kinds of game.

Such is the timidity of these birds that they seldom allow any person to approach within gun-shot of them. They fly slowly, and have some difficulty to rise from the ground, but, when in flight, they are able to continue their course for many miles without resting. Bustards feed on green corn and vegetables; and on worms, frogs, mice, and other animals. They form no nest, but the female lays her eggs, two in number, on the ground. The eggs are as large as those of a goose, and of pale olive-brown colour, marked with brown spots.

170. _The OSTRICH_ (Struthio camelus, Fig. 40) _is a bird of immense
height, measuring from seven to nine feet from its head to the ground;
and is distinguished by its extremely long neck, somewhat, conical bill,
the wings not being formed for flight, and the feet having each only two
toes._

_It inhabits extensive plains and deserts in the torrid regions of Asia
and Africa._

Ostriches are pursued by the Arabs principally on account of their _feathers_, which are a considerable article of traffic. This people use the _fat_ of these birds in cookery; and they occasionally subsist upon the _flesh_.

The _eggs_ of the ostrich are of large size, and, in the South of Africa, are considered a great delicacy. They are prepared for eating in various ways; but the best way is simply to bury them in hot ashes, and, through a hole made in the larger end, to stir the contents till they acquire the consistence of an omelet. Ostriches' eggs are capable of being preserved for a great length of time even at sea; and without any trouble of constantly turning them, as is requisite with hen's eggs. This is owing to the great thickness of the shells. At the Cape of Good Hope they are usually sold at the rate of about sixpence sterling each. The Egyptians suspend the shells of these eggs as ornaments, under the vaulted roofs of their houses; and they are frequently hung between lamps in the mosques of the Mahometans, and also in the Greek and Coptic churches. The _shells_ are cut by the Hottentots into necklaces, bracelets, and ornaments for the waist. In the eggs of the ostrich are frequently found a kind of small oval-shaped stones about the size of a marrowfat pea, which are sometimes set and used for buttons. The _skins_ of ostriches are employed by the Arabians as a substitute for leather.

But no parts of the ostrich are so valuable as the _feathers_ of the wings and tail. These are divided into loose and silky filaments, and are most admired when plucked from the birds whilst alive. They are packed in bundles by the Arabs, who put them, large and small, good and bad, together for sale. In Europe they are used for female head-dresses; and for this purpose the shortest and lightest are most esteemed. The ostrich feathers that are imported into this country from the Cape of Good Hope are not considered so good as those which we receive from Barbary; they are of better colour, but not so perfect in the flue or feather, and are thin and irregular. There is a permanent tax of 1l. 15s. and a war tax of 11s. 8d. per pound on all ostrich feathers which are imported into England.

Two, three, or sometimes four ostriches deposit their eggs, thirty or forty in number, in the same hollow place in the sand; and they do not, as is generally supposed, leave them entirely to the heat of the sun to be hatched. These birds are sometimes reared in a domestic state.

ORDER V.--WADERS, OR GRALLÆ.

171. _The COMMON or WHITE STORK_ (Ardea ciconia) _is a bird distinguished
by its strong and sharp red bill, its white plumage, and the orbits of
the eyes and the quill feathers being black. The feathers of the breast
are long and pendulous._

_This bird is upwards of three feet in length. It is found in every
quarter of the world, except America; and, though rarely seen in England,
is extremely common in Holland and some other parts of Europe. It is a
bird of passage, and leaves Europe in the autumn for Egypt, Barbary, and
some of the countries of Asia._

The Mahometans have the highest veneration for the stork; and any person would be held in abhorrence who attempted to kill or even to molest these birds. They frequent the streets of the most populous towns, where they devour offal and filth of almost every kind; and, in fenny countries, they are of great service by feeding upon noxious reptiles and insects. In ancient Thessaly it was a crime expiable only by death to kill one of them.

Storks are easily tamed and rendered domestic, and may be trained to reside in gardens, which they soon clear of frogs, toads, and other reptiles. In a wild state they make their nests of sticks and dried plants, on lofty trees or the summits of rocks. The inhabitants of Holland frequently place boxes on their houses for them to build in.

The _quills_ of the stork are large, and make excellent pens for writing with.

172. _The COMMON HERON_ (Ardea major, Fig. 41) _is a bird of the stork
tribe, distinguished by the cinereous colour of its plumage, by the male
having a long and pendent crest on the hind part of the head, the
feathers of the neck long; and by having a double row of black spots on
the neck._

_This bird, which is somewhat more than three feet in length, is common
in most of the fenny parts of Great Britain._

A few centuries ago heronies were nearly as common in the neighbourhood of noblemen's houses as rookeries. These birds, like rooks, delight in building their nests in society, and on the highest trees. As many as eighty herons' nests are mentioned by Mr. Pennant, to have been counted on a single tree at Cressi Hall, near Gosberton in Lincolnshire.

When heron hawking, or the pursuing of these birds with falcons, was a favourite diversion in this country, great attention was paid to the preservation of the breed, they were ranked among royal game, and were so far protected by the laws, that any person destroying or shooting at one of them was liable to a penalty of twenty shillings. A penalty of ten shillings was exacted for taking young herons from the nest, and any one taking or destroying the eggs, betwixt the twenty-first of March and the thirteenth of June, was punishable by twelve months' imprisonment, and a forfeiture of eightpence for every egg so taken. These birds were formerly as much esteemed for the table as pheasants are now, and no fewer than four hundred herons are stated to have been served up at Archbishop Neville's inthronization feast, in the reign of Edward the Fourth.

Plumes formed of feathers of the heron and egret are used as ornaments for the caps of knights of the garter.

Herons subsist chiefly upon fish, and are very destructive in fish-ponds. It has been calculated that a single heron will destroy nearly 3000 carp in a year. These birds take their prey by wading into the water, and seizing the fish as they pass by: they also sometimes catch them in shallow water by darting from the air, and securing them against the bottom.

173. _The BITTERN_ (Ardea stellaris, Fig. 42) _is a bird of the stork
tribe, distinguishable by its brownish yellow plumage, variously marked
with black; by the feathers of the neck and breast being peculiarly long;
and the bill being strong, of brown colour above, and greenish beneath._

_This bird is not quite so large as the heron. It is found in marshes of
several parts of England, as well as on the continents of Europe, Asia,
and America._

The _flesh_ of the bittern was formerly much esteemed at the table. Amongst other provisions at Archbishop Neville's inthronization feast, there appear to have been 204 bitterns. These birds are now sometimes to be seen in the poulterers' shops in London, where they are generally sold for about half-a-guinea each. The _hind claws_ were once in esteem as tooth-picks, from an opinion that the use of them tended to preserve the teeth from decaying.

Few birds of their size are more strong, or, when attacked, are more ferocious than these. They subsist chiefly on fish, frogs, mice, and other animals. During the months of February and March the males, in the mornings and evenings, make a kind of deep, lowing noise, which is supposed to be their call to the females. These birds form their nests among rushes, and generally lay four or five greenish brown eggs.

174. _The CURLEW_ (Scolopax arquata, Fig. 44) _is a bird known by having
a long arched black bill, bluish legs, and blackish wings, with snowy
spots and marks._

_Its general weight is betwixt twenty and thirty ounces._

_In winter large flocks of these birds are seen on our sea-coasts, and in
summer they often retire into mountainous parts of the interior of the
country. They are found in Europe, Asia, and Africa._

Curlews are frequently shot for food, and sometimes are very palatable, particularly if killed at a distance from the sea: but such as are killed near the sea-coasts have often a fishy and bad taste.

They feed on marine and other worms and insects, and build their nests upon the ground in unfrequented places distant from the coast, laying four eggs, which are of a pale green or olive colour, marked with irregular brown spots.

175. _The WOODCOCK_ (Scolopax rusticola, Fig. 45) _is a bird with varied
plumage, a long straight bill reddish at the base, legs ash-coloured, the
thighs clad with feathers, and the head with a black band on each side._

_The weight of the woodcock is generally about twelve ounces._

_These birds are migratory, and usually begin to arrive, in England about
the first week in October, and depart about the middle of March._

The woodcocks which arrive in the southern parts of England, probably come from Normandy; and those in the northern parts from Sweden. The latter appears evident by the time of their departure from Sweden exactly coinciding with that of their arrival in Britain, and their retreat from this country coinciding with their re-appearance there. In their migrations they chiefly fly during the night, and arrive in greatest numbers with north-easterly winds and during foggy weather.