Chapter V: ANIMALCULES Are destitute of tentacula or feelers, and are generally (5)

_The bulk of these animals is such that their greatest circumference is
nearly equal to their length; and their weight has been known to exceed
400,000 pounds. The mouth is of enormous size, extending as far back as
to the eyes; and the tongue is sometimes eighteen or twenty feet in
length, and nine or ten in width. Notwithstanding this, the_ gullet, _or
passage of the throat, is seldom more than four or five inches across.
The eyes are situated a little above the corners of the mouth, and are
scarcely larger than those of an ox; and the external opening of the
ears, which are merely auditory holes, is likewise very small. There is a
large fin on each side of the breast, and the horizontally flattened
tail-fin is equal to about one sixth part of the length of the animal. On
the back there is neither fin nor protuberance. The skin is very thick
and strong, entirely destitute of hair, and always covered with an oily
substance which issues through the pores, and which, when exposed to the
rays of the sun, makes the surface appear as resplendent as that of
polished metal. Whales vary much in colour; some being entirely black,
others reddish, or black above and white beneath, and others variously
mottled with black or brown and white._

_The great whales are inhabitants of the ocean, and found chiefly in the
Greenland and other seas, near the Arctic Pole; they, however, sometimes
migrate so far south as to be seen in the neighbourhood of the British
shores._

The animals of the whale tribe are of great use to mankind in a commercial view. They are pursued by the inhabitants of nearly all the maritime countries of Europe, and to us are not merely a source of profit, but, from the whale fishery requiring many ships, are the means of training a great number of seamen. To this fishery it is that we are indebted for those two valuable articles--_whale_ or _train oil_, and _whalebone_.

The fat of all the whales has the name of _blubber_, and is principally found beneath the skin, to the depth of ten or twelve inches. Its use, to the animals, appears to be for the double purpose of poising their bodies, and keeping off the immediate contact of the water from the flesh, the continued cold of which, in the frozen climates of the North, would tend to chill the blood. The _whalebone_ supplies, in these animals, the place of teeth, for catching and securing their food. It is attached to the upper jaw, and is arranged in thin plates or blades, sometimes near seven hundred in number, and parallel to each other on both sides of the mouth. The largest blades measure from ten to fifteen feet in length, and twelve or fifteen inches in width; and they all terminate in a kind of fringe of considerable length, which has the appearance of the blades split into innumerable small fibres. A large whale sometimes yields a ton and half of whalebone.

The number of ships employed in the whale fishery is very great; but, in consequence of the incessant pursuit of these animals for the last two centuries, their numbers have been greatly diminished. One of the most fortunate years that ever was known was 1697, when the following ships entered the bay of Greenland:

15 from Bremen, which had taken 190
50 from Hamburgh 515
121 from Holland 1252
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Total number of whales taken 1957
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The year 1814 was a singularly prosperous one to the British whale fishery: 76 ships, fitted out from different ports of this country, obtained 1437 whales, besides seals, &c. The British ships, during four years, ending with 1817, returned with 5030 whales, which produced 54,508 tons of oil, and 2697 tons of whalebone.

The season for the whale-fishery commences in May, and continues through the months of June and July; but the ships must come away before the end of August, otherwise they might be blocked up and destroyed by the ice.

Every ship sent out from this country carries along with it six or seven boats, each of which has one harpooner, one man at the rudder, one man to manage the line, and four men as rowers. In each boat there are also two or three harpoons, several spears, and about six lines, each 120 fathoms in length, fastened together. As soon as the men in the boats discover a whale, swimming near the surface of the water, they approach to the spot, and strike a harpoon deeply into his body. To this instrument the line is attached; and on the whale plunging into the water, this line is allowed to run out, great care being taken not only to prevent it from catching, lest the animal should overset the boat, but also (by continually wetting the place against which it runs) to prevent its rapid motion from setting fire to the wood. After a while the wounded animal is obliged to return to the surface to breathe. His direction is followed, and his re-appearance carefully marked. With great dexterity fresh wounds are inflicted, till, at length, he appears exhausted, when a long spear is thrust into his intestines, which soon destroys him. The whale is then dragged to the ship, and securely fastened to the side by ropes attached to the fins and tail. The blubber is cut out, in large square pieces, by men who get upon the animal, having their shoes armed with a kind of iron spurs to prevent their slipping. As soon as the blubber is taken on board the vessel, it is divided into smaller pieces, and thrown into the hold to drain.

The next operation is to extract the whalebone. This is done entire, along with the gums, which are hoisted on the deck, where the blades are cut and separated, and left until the men have leisure to scrape and clear them. The _tongue_ consists of a soft and spongy fat substance, which, when boiled down, yields five or six barrels of oil; the oil that is drained from the two upper jaw-bones is the peculiar perquisite of the captain. As an encouragement to the whale fishery, a bounty of twenty shillings is allowed by Government for every ton of blubber which is imported into this country.

From Milford, in Pembrokeshire, and some other British sea-ports, vessels are also fitted out for the South Seas, in pursuit of whales which frequent the ocean in those torrid climates, particularly near the coast of South America.

The inhabitants of Greenland, and of other northern countries of the world, eat almost every part of the whale. The _skin_, the _tail_, and the _fins_, are sometimes eaten even raw. The _flesh_ is eaten both fresh and dried. That of the young animals is of red colour; and, when cleared of fat, broiled and seasoned with pepper and salt, is said to eat not unlike coarse beef. That of an old whale appears black, and is exceedingly coarse and unpalatable. The Esquimaux, however, eat both the flesh and fat of the whale, and drink the oil with greediness. Indeed some of the tribes carry, in their canoes, bladders filled with whale oil, which they use in the same way, and with a similar relish, that a British sailor does a dram. They also eat the _skin_ of the whale raw. It is not unusual for female Esquimaux, when they visit whale ships, to select for eating, pieces of skin to which a portion of blubber is attached. They also give it for food to the infants suspended at their backs, who suck it with great apparent delight. The _heart_ of a young whale which was caught in the year 1793, and measured fifteen feet in length, is said by Captain Colnett to have afforded a delicious repast to his ship's crew. Of the _intestines_ of the whale the Greenlanders prepare a substance which serves instead of glass for their windows. They make fishing-lines of the _filaments_ which terminate the blades of whalebone; and in many countries, the ribs and other large _bones_ supply the place of timber, in the construction of houses, and as fences to surround gardens and fields. The smaller bones are converted into harpoons and spears. The _tendons_ are split into filaments, and used as cordage, and for nets of various kinds. With the Esquimaux some of the membranes of the abdomen are used for an upper article of clothing; and the thinnest and most transparent of them are adopted, instead of glass, in the windows of their huts. The _blubber_ of the whale, when pickled and boiled, is said to be very palatable; and the _tail_, when parboiled and fried, is often adopted in the Greenland ships as food. The blubber, when in a fresh state, is destitute of any unpleasant smell: indeed it is not until the termination of the voyage, when the cargo is unstowed, that a Greenland ship becomes disagreeable. The use of the _whalebone_ in our own country is well known; but, since ladies have left off wearing stays, it is at present comparatively in little demand. By a late invention it is manufactured into hats, bonnets, and brushes.

Whales are sometimes seen in troops sporting about near the surface of the ocean. They spout water through the spiracles on the top of their heads, with the rushing noise of a cataract, and to the height even of thirty or forty feet. Such are their powers in the water that, in some instances, their motion through that element has been calculated at thirty feet in a second, or upwards of twenty miles in an hour. Great caution is required in attacking them, as, with a single blow of their tail, they are able to upset a tolerably large boat. They feed only on the smaller kinds of fish and other marine animals, as their throat is not sufficiently wide to admit of their swallowing any substance of large size, and they are not furnished with teeth to cut or grind their food into small pieces. The females produce only one young one each: this they suckle for many months, and are peculiarly affectionate and attentive towards it.

These animals are occasionally stranded on the British shores, in which case, by the ancient laws of the land, they are deemed royal fish; the king being entitled to the anterior, and the queen to the posterior half.

119. _The FIN-BACKED WHALE, or FIN-FISH_ (Balæna physalus), _is a marine
animal from sixty to ninety feet in length, with a thick fin on the
hinder part of the back, the muzzle tapering, and the jaws somewhat
pointed._

_This species is of more slender form than the last, its greatest
circumference not in general exceeding fifteen or twenty feet. The
spiracle or breathing hole is double, and situated on the middle of the
fore part of the head; and the colour of the body is generally dark or
blackish olive above, and white below. The whole surface appears polished
and shining._

_These whales are chiefly found in the northern frozen ocean, and
particularly about the coast of Greenland and Spitzbergen. But they
sometimes enter the Mediterranean, and are not uncommon in the South
American and Indian seas._

Although a smaller proportion of _oil_ is obtained from these than from the great whales, it is of much better quality than that. The inhabitants of Greenland consume it with their food, preferably to burning it in lamps, if oil of less value can be obtained for that purpose. The _whalebone_ is too short and narrow to be of much value. From the small quantity of oil, and little value of the whalebone, added to the difficulty and danger which are attendant on the pursuit of these active and powerful animals, they are not very eagerly sought after by the whale-fishers.

We are assured that the _flesh_ of the fin-backed whale is as well tasted, and, in every respect, as excellent, as that of the sturgeon. In most of the northern countries, both of Europe and America, the _fins_, the _skin_, and the _tendons_, all serve for many useful purposes.

There are other species of whales which are useful, in a certain degree, to mankind, for the oil that is yielded by their bodies; but few of them are objects of pursuit, on account of the difficulty there is in killing them, or of the very inferior quantity of oil which they afford. The blades of their whalebone are also too small to be of any use as an object of commerce.

120. _The BLUNT-HEADED CACHALOT, or SPERMACETI WHALE_ (Physeter
macrocephalus) _is a marine animal from sixty to seventy feet in length,
with large teeth in the under jaw, which fit into corresponding sockets
of the upper jaw; the orifice of the spiracle single, and at the upper
part of the extremity of the muzzle; and without any fin upon the back._

_The head occupies about one-third of the length of the whole body. The
colour of this whale is generally black, but, in the old animals, the
under parts become whitish. The skin is smooth, oily, and almost as soft
to the touch as silk._

_It is most frequently seen in the northern ocean, in the latitudes of
Greenland, Spitzbergen, and Iceland; yet it is occasionally observed off
the British coasts, and sometimes even in the Mediterranean._

Lucrative as the several parts of these animals are, the whale-fishers have a great dread of them, in consequence of their astonishing activity in the water. Much care is requisite, in striking the harpoon, to keep the boats out of danger of being overturned, and great dexterity in following their track. From the relation given by the Danish voyagers Olafsen and Povelsen, it would appear that the spermaceti whales become occasionally so ferocious as even to seize the fishing boats with their teeth, and, in an instant, to destroy the whole crew. Notwithstanding all these dangers, so highly valued are they that they are searched for with much assiduity: and happy are the owners of those vessels which can obtain the greatest number of them.

The _oil_ that is obtained from them is not in great quantity, but is of excellent quality. In burning it yields a bright flame, without exhaling any noxious smell.

The white and fatty substance known in our shops by the name of _spermaceti_ is found in an immense cavity of the skull, distinct from that which contains the brain. This sometimes occupies nearly the whole front and upper part of the head, and, in some instances, is known to measure sixteen or eighteen feet in length. It is divided horizontally into two parts by a strong membrane, and each of these parts is again subdivided, by vertical membranes, into numerous cells, which communicate with each other, and contain the spermaceti. This, which is frequently mistaken for the brain, is sometimes found in such quantity as to fill eighteen or twenty butts. Whilst the animals are alive, the spermaceti is in a fluid state; but, when dead, it is found in somewhat solid lumps, and is of whitish colour. Spermaceti is of considerable use, medicinally, in pains and erosions of the intestines, in coughs, and other complaints. It is also applied externally in ointments, and for other purposes. It is converted into a very beautiful kind of candles, which appear to be a medium between those made of wax and tallow. Good spermaceti is in fine white flakes, glossy, and semi-transparent, soft, and unctuous to the touch, yet dry and easily friable, in taste somewhat like butter, and of faint smell, not much unlike that of tallow. If exposed to the air, it soon becomes rancid and yellow. Its quality and colour may however be recovered by steeping it in alkaline liquors, or in a sufficient quantity of spirit of wine.

The _flesh_ of this kind of whale is of pale red colour, appears not much unlike coarse pork, and is not unpalatable as food. The _skin_, _intestines_, and _tendons_, are all useful to the inhabitants of the northern countries of Europe. The _tongue_ is considered excellent eating. The _teeth_ are formed into the heads of spears and arrows, and may even be used as ivory; the _bones_ are sometimes applied as timber for tents and cottages; and a very tenacious glue or size is manufactured from the _fibres of the flesh_.

It is to these, and some other animals nearly allied to them, that we are indebted for the drug or perfume called _ambergris_. This is generally found in the stomach, but sometimes in the intestines, and in lumps from three to twelve inches in thickness, mixed with many substances very different from itself, such as macerated vegetables, the remains of marine shell-animals, the bones and other hard parts of fish; and the ambergris itself frequently contains the beaks or jaws of different species of sepiæ, or cuttle-fish. The latter are the cause of those yellowish, whitish, or dusky spots that are often observable in this drug. As we see it in the shops, ambergris is an opake substance, which varies in solidity, according to its exposure to a warm or cold atmosphere. It is however, in general, sufficiently hard to be broken. Its smell is extremely powerful and agreeable to some persons, but unpleasant and even nauseous to others. When first taken from the stomach or intestines of the animals which produce it, ambergris is quite soft to the touch; and, as may well be conjectured from the situation in which it is found, has a fetid and most disgusting smell; but after it has, for some time, been exposed to the influence of the atmosphere, it becomes harder, and yields the powerful and peculiar odour by which it is characterized.

Oil, spermaceti, and ambergris, are supposed to be yielded in greater or less quantity from every species of cachalot.

121. _The COMMON or TRUE DOLPHIN_ (Delphinus delphis) _is a cetaceous
animal nine or ten feet in length, with a row of large teeth in each jaw,
and a single orifice near the top of the head; an oblong and roundish
body, a fin on the back, and the snout narrow and pointed, having a broad
transverse band or projection of the skin on its upper part. The body is
black, with a bluish tinge above, and white below._

_Dolphins are found in nearly every part of the ocean._

Few animals have had greater celebrity than these. Their activity in playing about near the surface of the ocean, their undulating motion, and the evolutions and gambols of whole shoals of them together, occasionally afford to mariners and others a very entertaining spectacle. By the ancient Greeks and Romans dolphins were supposed to entertain a kind of friendship towards mankind, and were consecrated to the gods. In cases of shipwreck they were believed to be in waiting to rescue and carry on shore the unfortunate mariners. Pliny, the Roman naturalist, was credulous enough to believe that dolphins had been rendered so tame as to allow of persons mounting on their backs, and being carried in safety over a considerable space of sea. As these animals, in their progress through the water, often assume a crooked form, in order to spring forward with the greater force, both ancient and modern artists have depicted the dolphin with its back curved.

The _flesh_ of the dolphin is hard and insipid, yet it was formerly in repute as food even in this country. We are informed by Dr. Caius, that a dolphin which was caught, in his time, at Shoreham, in Sussex, was sent to the Duke of Norfolk, who had part of it roasted and served up at table with a sauce made of the crumbs of white bread mixed with vinegar and sugar. The _tongue_ of the dolphin is said to be very agreeable to the taste, and to be in every respect delicate eating. The _fat_, which, as in other cetaceous animals, lies, for the most part, immediately beneath the skin, is not in great abundance.

It is to be remarked that seamen give the name of dolphin to another kind of animal, the DORADO (_Coryphæna hippuris_). The latter, however, is a genuine species of fish, and not, like the present, a warm-blooded and mammiferous animal.

122. _The PORPESSE_ (Delphinus phocæna) _is a cetaceous animal, six or
seven feet in length, with a somewhat conical body, a row of pointed
teeth in each jaw, a single spiracle near the top of the head, a broad
fin about the middle of the back, and a short and bluntish muzzle._

_Its colour is bluish black above, and white beneath, and the skin is
bright, smooth, and soft to the touch._

_These animals are found in the Baltic sea, near the coasts of Greenland
and Labrador, in all parts of the Atlantic, and even in the Pacific
Ocean._

In most of their habits the porpesses have a near resemblance to the dolphin, but they are not so active. They generally associate in troops of from six or seven to thirty and upwards in number, and feed on fish of all kinds, but particularly on such as swim in large shoals, as mackerel, herrings, and the different species of the cod.

In proportion to the size of their body, porpesses yield a great quantity of excellent _oil_; but from the difficulty there is in catching them, in sufficient number to repay the labour, they are seldom thought worth pursuing. The _flesh_, as well as that of the dolphin, was formerly in great estimation in England. Among the provisions for the celebrated inthronization feast of George Neville, Archbishop of York, in the reign of Edward the Fourth, are enumerated no fewer than twelve porpesses and seals. These animals, however, are now entirely neglected with us as food; yet the inhabitants of Greenland and Lapland consider the flesh of the porpesse as highly excellent. The former even eat the _fat_, the _entrails_, and the _skin_; but they seldom cook the flesh till its hardness is destroyed by long keeping. The Americans use the _skins_ (dressed in a peculiar manner) for making waistcoats and breeches; they also form them into an excellent covering for carriages.

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CLASS II.--BIRDS.

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ORDER I.--ACCIPITRES, OR RAPACIOUS BIRDS.

123. _The AQUILINE or EGYPTIAN VULTURE_ (Vultur percnopterus) _is a large
bird of prey, which has a naked head and neck; a black and hooked beak,
yellow at the base; and the quill feathers of the wings, except the first
two, black, edged with hoary._

_The male is of a dirty white colour, and the female brown, with, the
above exception of the quill feathers._

_Immense flocks of aquiline vultures are observable near all the
principal towns of Egypt, Syria and Persia._

Filthy and disgusting as these birds are, not only in their appearance but in all their habits, they are of almost indispensable utility to mankind in those countries where they are found. They may be considered the scavengers of hot climates. In conjunction with other animals of similar appetites and propensities, they clear away, by devouring them, all the remains of animal substances which otherwise would be left to putrefy, and would infect the air with the most noxious effluvia. They are consequently protected and encouraged by mankind. The ancient Egyptians held them in such veneration as to punish with death any person who destroyed them. In consequence of this protection, they have become fearless of mankind, and, even in the streets of the most populous towns of Egypt, may be seen to feed with the greatest familiarity.

These vultures devour also the eggs and young ones of the crocodiles, and destroy myriads of rats and mice, as well as reptiles of every description, which abound among the mud, and in all the grounds that are fertilized by the overflowing of the Nile.

124. _The CARRION VULTURE_ (Vultur aura) _is an American bird of prey,
about four feet and a half high, with a small head covered with red skin,
the bill hooked and white; and the plumage dusky, except the quill
feathers, which are black._

In America these birds are protected for the same services as are performed by the aquiline vulture (123) in Africa and Asia. They not only devour the filth of the towns and villages, but also destroy, in great numbers, the eggs of alligators; which animals otherwise would become intolerable by their prodigious increase. The vultures watch the females in the act of depositing their eggs in the sand; and, as soon as they retire into the water, dart to the spot and feed upon their contents.

125. _The CINEREOUS EAGLE_ (Aquila albicilla) _is a species of eagle
about the size of a turkey, of cinereous brown colour, with while tail,
the quill feathers white, the middle ones tipped with black; and the base
of the bill, and the feet, yellow._

_This bird is found in England, and in nearly every other country of
Europe._

The _flesh_ of the cinereous eagles is eaten in Greenland, and is said not to be of bad flavour. Their _skins_ sewed together, are used as under garments; and are also frequently employed as beds. The _beak_ and _claws_ are employed as amulets or charms; and are considered efficacious for the cure of various complaints. The Greenlanders either kill these birds with arrows, or catch them in snares laid in the snow, and baited with flesh.

The cinereous eagles feed on dead animals of every description, as well as on fish, young seals, and several kinds of birds.

126. _The SECRETARY FALCON_ (Falco serpentarius) _is a bird of prey of
large size, with a bill hooked at the point and bearded at the base,
black plumage, a crest on the hind part of the head, the tail feathers
white at the tip, the two middle ones the longest, and the legs of great
length._

_This bird is about three feet in height, and, in its general appearance,
has some resemblance both to the eagle and the crane._

_It is an inhabitant of the interior of Africa, of some parts of Asia,
and several of the Asiatic islands._

As a destroyer of noxious reptiles and other injurious animals, the secretary falcon is of great service to mankind. He attacks without fear even the most poisonous serpents, approaching them with the point of one of his wings, and either trampling them to death with his feet, or catching them on the pinion of the other wing, and throwing them into the air several times successively until they are dead.

This bird is easily domesticated, in which state he is not only serviceable in destroying reptiles and serpents, but he might probably also be useful in devouring rats and mice. Poultry of all kinds ought, however, to be kept out of his way, or he would devour them also.

127. _The GENTIL FALCON_ (Falco gentilis, Fig. 31) _is a British bird of
prey about two feet in length, distinguished by its ash-coloured plumage,
with brown spots; the tail having four blackish bands, and the base of
the bill and the legs being of yellow colour._

_It inhabits several of the mountainous parts of Europe and North
America._

This was one of the several kinds of birds that were in great repute in _falconry_; a sport which, some centuries ago, was pursued in all the principal courts of Europe, and anterior to that by the ancient Greeks and Romans. The estimation in which this sport was held may well be supposed when it is stated that, at one period, scarcely any person of rank appeared abroad without a hawk on his hand; and that, in old paintings, this representation is considered even a criterion of nobility. The English laws enacted for the preservation of falcons were so rigorous, that in the reign of Edward the Third it was rendered felony to steal one of these birds; and for a person to take the eggs, even in his own grounds, he was liable to be imprisoned for a year and a day, besides a fine at the king's pleasure. The falcons or hawks chiefly used in the British dominions, were the present species, the _Peregrine falcon_ (_Falco peregrinus_), _Iceland falcon_ (_Falco islandus_), _Goshawk_ (_Falco palumbarius_), and _Gyrfalcon_ (_Falco candicans_). After the invention of gunpowder this sport fell gradually into disuse; until, at length, hawks were discarded, and the whole pleasure of killing feathered game was confined to shooting.

128. _OWLS are birds of prey, distinguishable by their round head, a
circular arrangement of feathers round each eye, the bill being hooked,
and the nostrils being covered with bristly feathers._

These birds are of great service to farmers by devouring mice and other small animals, the uninterrupted increase of which would be extremely injurious to the fruits of the harvest. The late Rev. Gilbert White, in his Natural History of Selborne, states that he had paid considerable attention to the manner of life of a pair of white owls, which constantly bred under the eaves of the church. He says that, generally, about an hour before sunset they sallied forth in quest of mice; that he has often minuted the birds with his watch for an hour together, and found that the one or the other of them returned to the nest about once in five minutes, with a mouse in its claws.

Though serviceable in thus destroying mice, these birds also destroy young rabbits, hares, and partridges, for which they are execrated by sportsmen; and they sometimes enter pigeon-houses, where their ravenous propensities cause them to commit great devastations.

129. _The GREAT or CINEREOUS SHRIKE_ (Lanius excubitor) _is a small bird
of prey, distinguished by having a straightish black bill with a notch in
each mandible near the end: the back hoary, the wings black, with a white
spot, and the tail white at the sides._

_There is likewise a black stripe on each side of the head, extending
backward from the base of the bill. The length of this bird is about
eight inches._

_It inhabits the woods of Europe and America._

Such are the courage and address of the cinereous shrike, that it is capable of being trained to hawk for and catch small birds. We are informed that Francis the First, king of France, was frequently in the habit of chasing the smaller kinds of game with shrikes.

In some parts of the Continent where these birds are very numerous, they are considered so useful, by waging continual war against rats and mice, and destroying great numbers of noxious insects, that the farmers will not allow them to be destroyed.

It is the singular propensity of the cinereous shrike to stick the insects on which it feeds upon the thorny branches of trees, previously to eating them. Even when confined in a cage, it often adopts a similar mode with respect to its food, by sticking it against the wires.

ORDER II.--PICÆ, OR PIES.

130. _The RAVEN_ (Corvus corax) _is a bird of the crow tribe, known by
its large size, its plumage being of bluish black colour, and its tail
being roundish at the end._

_It is found in almost every country of Europe, Siberia, and North
America._

In Egypt these birds are held nearly in equal veneration with the vultures (123), on account of their propensity to devour dead animals, and putrid substances of almost every description. They also destroy rats, mice, and small reptiles. It is said that in the Bermudas the inhabitants were, for several years, annoyed by a prodigious increase of rats, which devoured the corn and plants, and swam from island to island, committing great depredations in every place; and that, at length, they suddenly disappeared, without any other assignable cause than the unexpected presence of several flocks of ravens. By the ancients these birds were esteemed of much importance, from a notion that, by the various modulations or tones of their voice, certain future events might be predicted.

Ravens are easily domesticated, and in this state may be trained to fowling, somewhat in the same manner as falcons (127). They may also be taught to fetch and carry small objects, like spaniels; but they are so mischievous that they ought not to be trusted in any place where spoons or other valuable articles are deposited, lest they also carry them away and hide them.

The _flesh_ of the raven is eaten by the inhabitants of Greenland; and the _skin_, with the feathers on, is preferred to most other substances as a warm under garment. The _beak_ and _claws_ are used, in that country, as amulets. With us the _quills_, cut to a point, were formerly much in request for what are called the jacks of harpsichords, to strike the wires in playing. They are now chiefly employed for drawing and writing with.

131. _The ROOK_ (Corvus frugilegus) _is a bird of the crow tribe,
distinguished by its black and glossy colour, the base of the bill being
naked and dusky, and the tail being roundish._

_These birds are found in Europe and Siberia._

Notwithstanding the prejudices which are entertained, by many farmers, against these birds, arising from a supposition that they feed upon grain, and consequently are destructive to the crops, there can be little doubt that the services they perform are infinitely greater than any injury they commit. Often may flocks of them be seen following at a little distance the ploughs, to devour the grubs or caterpillars of such insects as may be thereby exposed to their attacks. These of the cockchafer are destroyed by them in thousands; and it is remarkable that the nostrils, chin, and sides of the mouth, in old rooks, are white, and bared of feathers, in consequence, as it is supposed, of their frequent habit of thrusting their bill into the ground in search of these insects. The late Mr. Stillingfleet was informed, by an intelligent farmer in Berkshire, that, one year, while his men were hoeing a field of turnips, a great number of rooks alighted in a part of it where they were not at work; and that the consequence was a remarkably fine crop in that part, while in the remainder of the field there were scarcely any turnips.

Young rooks are sometimes used as food; but it is requisite to skin them, previously to their being cooked, as otherwise they would be too strong-tasted to be eaten.

132. _The RED-BELLIED TOUCAN_ (Ramphastos picatus) _is a bird about
twenty inches in length, with an enormously large bill of yellowish green
colour, and serrated at the edges; the upper part of the body blackish,
the breast yellow, and the belly and the tip of the tail red._

_This bird is found in Africa, and in several of the eastern parts of
South America._

We are assured, by travellers in South America, that the red-bellied toucans are held in great esteem by the Indians, not only on account of their _flesh_ as food, but also for their _plumage_; particularly the feathers of the breast, which are used to ornament their dresses. The Indians even cut out the skin of this part, with the feathers on, and, after it has been dried, glue it to their cheeks, considering it a great addition to their beauty. We are informed by one of the French voyagers that, whilst he was off the island of St. Catherine, near the coast of Brazil, the governor, among other presents, sent on board the ship fifty skins of toucans which had been dried with the feathers on.

133. _The BIRD of PARADISE_ (Paradisea apoda, Fig. 32) _is characterized
by its having a chesnut-coloured body, the neck being of a gold green
colour beneath, the feathers of the sides being longer than the body, and
the two middle tail-feathers very long and bristly._

_These birds inhabit New Guinea and the adjacent islands of Aroo; being
found on the former in the fine, and the latter in the rainy seasons._

To the inhabitants of the islands of Aroo the birds of paradise have, for many centuries, been an important article of commerce. They are shot with blunt-headed arrows; or caught by birdlime or in snares. As soon as they are killed their legs are cut off, as, by that means, the skins are more easily preserved, and also because the persons who purchase them prefer them thus. The entrails and breast-bone are taken out, and they are dried with smoke and sulphur, for exportation to Banda and other commercial settlements.

They are in great demand both in Persia and India to adorn the turbans of persons of rank, and even the handles of sabres and the trappings of horses. Many of them are also sold to the Chinese; and, a few years ago, they were a very fashionable ornament for female head-dress in England.

The appellation of birds of paradise has been given to these birds from a notion, formerly prevalent, that, destitute of feet, they were constantly in flight, even during their sleep; or that, if they did rest, it was only for a few moments together, and then suspended from the branches of trees by the long feathers of their tail: that the female deposited her eggs in a hollow place on the back of the male, and there sat upon and hatched them, that they fed only on dew: that, destitute of stomach and intestines, the whole abdominal cavity was filled with fat; and, lastly, that they never touched the earth until their death. It is somewhat difficult to account for the origin of notions so absurd, unless we are to suppose them the inventions of persons who traded in the skins of these birds, and founded merely in the very extraordinary nature of their plumage, and the circumstance of such skins being always sold without the legs.

Birds of paradise generally associate in flocks of forty or fifty together. They form their nests in trees, and feed on fruit and insects. Their legs are so short that, when they alight upon the ground, they cannot, without difficulty, rise again into the air.

134. _The BEE CUCKOO, or MOROC_ (Cuculus indicator), _is an African bird
somewhat larger than a sparrow, of rusty grey colour above, and whitish
beneath; it has naked and black eyelids, a yellow spot on the shoulders,
and the feathers of the tail somewhat rust-coloured, marked with white._

The great partiality which these birds have to honey and the maggots of bees, as food, is the cause of their pointing out the hives of wild bees to the inhabitants of those countries in which they are found. As soon as the moroc has itself discovered a nest of bees, it utters a loud and continued cry, as if for the purpose of exciting attention to its wants. If followed by any person, it flies slowly towards the place, alighting from time to time, to give opportunity for its attendant to come up. If the hive be in the cleft of a rock, a hollow tree, or in some cavity of the earth, the moroc will hover over the spot for a short time, and then sit, at a little distance, in expectation of the result, and apparently with a view of sharing in the plunder. When the bee-hunter has taken the nest, he generally leaves a share of the comb to supply the wants and repay the services of the bird. We are informed by M. Le Vaillant that the Hottentots have so great a regard for these birds that they consider it criminal to kill them.

135. _WOODPECKERS are a numerous race of birds, distinguished by having
a straight, strong, and angular bill, and their tongue very long,
slender, bony, hard, and jagged at the end. Their toes are formed two
forward and two backward._

The English species of woodpeckers are somewhat injurious in woods and plantations, from their propensity to pick holes in trees as places for their nests. By this means the rain has admission to the wood, and often causes its speedy decay. In forming these holes the birds fix themselves firmly against the trees by their claws and tail, the feathers of which are remarkably stiff: and they are able to pierce even the soundest and hardest timber.

It does not appear that any of the English species of woodpecker are of further use than by their subsisting on such insects as are found upon the bark, or in crevices or holes of trees; but there can be no doubt that they are very serviceable, by destroying great numbers of the grubs of these timber-eating beetles, some of which bore to great depths, and have holes of considerable size.

Some of the tribes of Turguses roast these birds; then bruise their bodies, and mixing the substance thus formed with fat, cover with it the points of arrows which they use in the chase, under a notion that such animals as are struck with these arrows immediately fall dead.

Of the bills of the _WHITE-BILLED WOODPECKER (Picus principalis)_ some of the American Indians make a kind of coronets, by setting them in a wreath with the points outward. And such is the value at which they estimate these coronets, that they frequently purchase the bills at the rate of two and even three deer's skins each.--The flesh of some of the species is accounted good eating.

ORDER III.--PASSERES, OR PASSERINE BIRDS.

136. _The SONG THRUSH, or THROSTLE_ (Turdus musicus), _is a bird known by
its almost straight bill, notched near the end of the upper mandible; and
its quill feathers being rust-coloured at their inner base._

_This bird inhabits woods of all the temperate parts of Europe._

Although the singing birds may not, on account of their melodious notes alone, be considered of any absolute use to mankind, yet these afford us so much delight, and convey to our minds so many pleasing and cheerful emotions, that they must not be overlooked even by such persons as are in search of the useful productions of nature.

For fulness and clearness of tone, the throstle is excelled by none of the British song-birds; and in plaintiveness, compass, and execution, it is much superior to the blackbird. Its notes are heard in woods and thickets during nearly nine months of the year, but are much too powerful to be pleasant when kept in a room. Some of the inhabitants of Poland catch thrushes in such numbers as even to load small vessels with them for exportation to other countries.

During long droughts in the summer-time these birds are of great service by hunting out shell-snails, which they eagerly pull in pieces as food for their offspring.

They build their nests in thickets or orchards, and sometimes in thick hedges near the ground. The outside consists of moss interwoven with dried grass or hay, and the inside is curiously and smoothly plastered. The female generally lays five or six eggs of deep blue colour, marked with black spots.

137. _The FIELDFARE_ (Turdus pilaris) _is a bird of the thrush tribe,
distinguished by the tail feathers being black, except the outermost,
which, at their inner edge, are tipped with white; and by the head and
upper part of the body near the tail being of a hoary colour._

_These birds annually visit England at the beginning of winter, arriving
in large flocks from, the northern parts of Europe. They are also found
in Syria and Siberia._

By the ancients, fieldfares, with some other species of thrush, were in great esteem as food. The Roman epicures, as we are informed by Varro, had them fattened with crumbs of bread mixed with minced figs; and the people employed for this purpose kept thousands of them in successive states of preparation for the table. With us they are sometimes eaten, but they are by no means esteemed as a luxury.

Fieldfares do not breed in this country. They generally leave us about the end of February or the beginning of March, and do not return till the commencement of winter.

138. _The BLACKBIRD_ (Turdus merula) _is a species of thrush, of black
colour, with the bill and eyelids yellow._

_The plumage of the female is generally brownish on the under parts._

_These birds are found in nearly all the countries of Europe, and in
several parts of Asia._

The song of the male blackbird is much admired in woods and fields, but it is too loud for the house. In mellowness and sprightliness it is esteemed equal to that of the thrush (136), but in compass and execution it is considerably inferior. The blackbird begins its song in the first fine days of spring, and, except during the season of its moulting, or change of plumage, continues it until the commencement of winter.

Blackbirds devour vast numbers of worms and shelled snails. They form their nests in thick bushes externally of moss, roots, and other similar materials; plastering them internally with earth, and lining them with dry grass. The eggs are four or five in number, of light blue colour, with pale rust-coloured spots. Persons who rear these birds feed them as soon as they are taken from the nest with a mixture of raw meat chopped small, bread, and bruised hempseed, somewhat moistened with water.

The song of the female is very different from that of the male.

139. _The BULFINCH_ (Loxia pyrrhula) _is a species of grosbeak, of
cinereous colour, with the head, wings, and tail black, the breast and
under parts red, the parts near the tail and the hindermost quill
feathers whiter._

_This bird is common in England and other parts of Europe._

Though in considerable esteem as song bird, the bulfinch, in a state of nature, has but three cries, all of which are unpleasant. With attention, however, it may be taught to whistle almost any simple tune of moderate compass. It is even possible to instruct these birds to whistle in duet; but, in this case, the composition should be so arranged as to be in correct harmony, let the birds begin, stop, or go on in whatever parts they please. The Germans are noted for training these birds, and great numbers of them are annually imported into this country from Germany.

Bulfinches are very common in some parts of England, building their nests in bushes or low trees about the month of May. Their eggs are four or five in number, of bluish colour, with brown and faintly reddish spots towards the large end.

140. _The ORTOLAN_ (Emberiza hortulana) _is a species of bunting, known
by its quill feathers being brown, the first three whitish at the edges;
and the tail feathers brown, the two lateral ones black on the outer
side._

_It is found in most countries of the Continent, but has never been
caught in England._

During the months of July, August, and September, these birds become excessively fat; and, at that season, they are in great demand by epicures on the Continent. They are caught in vast numbers at a time, are kept in dark cages, and fattened for the table with oats and millet seed.

There is a great traffic in ortolans carried on by the inhabitants of the island of Cyprus; where they are pickled in spice and vinegar, and packed in casks, each containing from 300 to 400 birds. In this state they are exported to France, Holland, and England, where they are sold at very high prices. We are informed that, in productive years, 400 such casks, or on an average 140,000 of these birds, are sacrificed, to the palate of man, in the island of Cyprus only.

By many persons ortolans are kept in cages as singing birds; and they are much esteemed on account of their song.

141. _The GOLDFINCH_ (Fringilla carduelis) _is a small bird,
distinguished by having all the quill feathers, except the two outermost,
marked with yellow in the middle; the front of the head red, and the
crown black._

_These birds are found in Europe, Asia, and Africa, and are very common
in most parts of England._

As a songster this bird ranks high, but particularly on account of the vivacity and sprightliness of its tones; and, in addition to these, the beauty of its plumage, and the facility with which it may be instructed to perform many amusing tricks, have rendered it a great favourite. One of the commonest of these that they are taught is to draw up their own food and drink, in small cups formed for that purpose. If a young goldfinch be placed with any other singing bird it will readily learn its song.

Goldfinches, during the winter season, assemble in flocks; but they separate into pairs at the commencement of spring. They frequently construct their nests in orchards or large gardens; forming them externally of moss interwoven with other soft materials, in a most beautiful, compact, and artificial manner; and internally with grass, horse-hair, wool, and feathers. The eggs are five in number, and of white colour, speckled and marked with reddish brown.

142. _The CANARY-BIRD_ (Fringilla canaria) _is a species of finch, the
bill and body of which are generally of straw-colour, and the quill and
tail feathers greenish._

_It is found wild in the Canary Islands, and also in several parts of the
Continent, particularly the woods of Italy and Greece._

It was not until about the middle of the fifteenth century that these birds were first brought into notice. They were then called _sugar birds_, from an opinion that they were peculiarly partial to the sugar-cane as food. For some time afterwards they continued so dear that they could only be purchased by persons of fortune.

In Germany, and particularly in the Tyrol, great attention has, of late years, been paid to the breeding and rearing of canary-birds. At Ymst, in the Tyrol, there was formerly a company, who, after the breeding season was over, sent out persons to different parts of Germany and Switzerland, to purchase birds from those who bred them. Each person generally brought with him from three to four hundred birds. These were afterwards carried, for sale, through almost every country of Europe: and were usually conveyed on the backs of those who sold them.

We are informed that, in the Canary Islands, these birds have no song; and it is a well-established fact that nearly all the birds which are kept in cages are indebted for their song to parents, the progenitors of which have been bred with nightingales or tit-larks.

If canary-birds be treated with proper care they will breed three or four times in the year, and become as vigorous and healthy in this country as in their native islands. They are subject to many diseases, to prevent which the greatest care should be taken to provide them with pure water and simple food.

143. _The GREY LINNET_ (Fringilla linota) _is a species of finch, of
chesnut-brown colour, whitish beneath, the wings with a longitudinal
white band, and the tail feathers edged on each side with white._

_It is a native of woods and thickets in most parts of Europe, and is
sufficiently common in our own island._

The plumage of these birds is of obscure colour, but their song is very sweet. In compass and execution it is inferior only to that of the nightingale. And so imitative are they that they will adopt the notes of almost any other bird with which they are brought up. The experiment was tried with three nestling linnets, one of which was reared under a sky-lark (145), another with a wood-lark (146), and the third under a tit-lark, and each adhered to the song of its instructor.

Linnets, when full grown, are caught, during the summer months, by twigs smeared with birdlime, or in nets; and, if properly attended to, they soon become tame. But if it be required that they should imitate the notes of other birds, they ought to be taken from the nest when only about ten days old.

These birds generally construct their nests in some thick bush or hedge, forming the outside with dried weeds and straw, and the inside of horse-hair and such soft materials as they can pick up. They lay four or five white eggs speckled with red.

144. The _COMMON SPARROW (Fringilla domestica)_ is mentioned in this place only under a hope, in some measure, of rescuing its character from the extreme degree of odium with which it is loaded, in consequence of the supposed injury that it commits by feeding upon corn. This bird is by no means without its utility, even to the very persons who incessantly seek its destruction. On a calculation made by the late Professor Bradley, it was ascertained that a pair of sparrows, during the time they have young ones, destroy on an average 3360 caterpillars every week. He observed the two parents to bring to the nest at least forty caterpillars in an hour; and, on a supposition that they might have been thus occupied twelve hours every day, it will yield the above number per week. But their utility is not confined to the destruction of caterpillars. They likewise feed their young ones with butterflies and other winged insects, each of which, if not thus destroyed, would be the parent of hundreds of caterpillars.

In many parts of the world sparrows are in considerable demand as articles of luxury for the table.