Chapter V: ANIMALCULES Are destitute of tentacula or feelers, and are generally (9)

It will afford some idea of the astonishing supply of these invaluable fish, when it is stated that, about seventy years ago, near 400,000 barrels of herrings were annually exported from different parts of the coast of Norway; that, previously to the late war, about 300,000 barrels were annually cured by the Dutch fishermen; and that a considerably greater quantity than this is every year obtained on the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland.

There is, in some countries, a considerable trade in the _oil_ that is obtained from herrings during the process of curing them. The average annual quantity of this oil exported from Sweden is about 60,000 barrels.

242. _The PILCHARD_ (Clupæa pilcardus) _is a fish of the herring tribe,
and so nearly resembling the common herring, that the best mode of
distinguishing the one from the other appears to be by the situation of
the dorsal fin. If the pilchard be held by this fin, the head will dip
downward; the herring held in similar manner continues in equilibrio._

_The length of the pilchard is from eight to about ten inches._

_These fish annually appear in vast shoals off the coast of Cornwall, and
some other south-western parts of England. Their utmost range seems to be
the Isle of Wight in the British, and Ilfracomb in the Bristol channel._

To the inhabitants of Devonshire and Cornwall the pilchard fishery is of as much importance as that of herrings is to the people on the eastern and northern coasts of Britain. Many hundred families are almost wholly supported by it. The first appearance of the fish is generally about the middle of July, and they usually continue until the latter end of October.

As soon as the pilchards are caught they are conveyed to a warehouse, where they are covered with bay-salt, and suffered to lie for three weeks or a month. After this they are washed in sea-water and dried. As soon as they are dry the fish are closely pressed into barrels to extract the oily particles from them, which drain through holes that are made in the bottom. Thus prepared they become fit for use, and, when properly dressed, they are considered preferable to herrings.

Pilchards are generally caught in nets. These are sometimes 200 fathoms in length, and about eighteen fathoms deep. The approach of the shoals is known by great numbers of sea-birds which accompany and prey upon them; and the progress of the shoals is marked by persons who are stationed on the cliffs to point them out to the fishermen, and who are called _huers_, from their setting up a hue for this purpose.

The principal towns in the neighbourhood of which pilchards are caught are Fowey, Falmouth, Penzance, and St. Ives; and the average annual quantity that is sent to market is about 30,000 hogsheads.

243. _The SHAD_ (Clupæa alosa) _is a species of herring known by the
belly being strongly serrated and covered with large transverse scales,
the sides being marked with round black spots placed longitudinally, and
the under jaw sloping upward._

_These fish weigh from half a pound to four or five pounds and upwards._

_They are found on the shores of all the temperate and warm countries of
Europe, and, at certain seasons of the year, they ascend the rivers, to
considerable distances, in order to deposit their spawn._

In the Thames and Severn these fish are generally found in the months of April, May, and June. Those that are caught in the Thames are coarse and insipid; whilst such as are caught in the Severn, especially that part of it which flows by Gloucester, are generally sold at a higher price than salmon. Shad that are taken in the sea are thin and of bad flavour, and the longer they continue in the rivers the fatter and more eatable they become. They are generally caught in nets, but sometimes with lines having an earth-worm for a bait. The London fishmongers are frequently supplied with shads from the Severn. These are distinguished by the name of _allis_, or _alose_, the French name for shad.

244. _The SPRAT_ (Clupæa sprattus) _is a very small fish of the herring
tribe, distinguished by its belly being strongly serrated, the dorsal fin
having seventeen rays, the anal fin nineteen, and the ventral fins each
six._

_It seldom exceeds the length of about five inches, and is generally much
smaller._

_These fish are caught on most of the British shores, and they ascend the
river Thames nearly as high as London Bridge, in the beginning of
November, and leave it in the month of March._

To the lower classes of inhabitants in London, during the winter, sprat a afford a cheap and very acceptable supply of food. They are caught in nets, and, in some instances, as many have been taken at a single haul as would have filled thirty barrels. Sprats are generally eaten fresh, though, both at Gravesend and Yarmouth, they are cured in the manner of red herrings. In some countries they are pickled, and, in this state, they are little inferior to anchovies, though the bones will not dissolve like those of anchovies.

Immense numbers of sprats, larger in size than ours, are every year caught on the coast of Sardinia. These are salted, packed in barrels, and exported to various parts of the world under the name of _Sardines_.

245. _The ANCHOVY_ (Clupæa encrasicolus) _is a small fish of the herring
tribe, known from all the others by its upper jaw being considerably
longer than the under jaw._

_These fish seldom exceed the length of four or five inches._

_They are chiefly caught in the Mediterranean, and the principal fishery
for them is on the shores of Gorgona, a small island west of Leghorn.
They are also caught off the coast if France, and occasionally off our
own shores._

There are few persons fond of good eating to whom the anchovy, either in the form of sauce or as an article of food, is unknown. With us, however, it is seldom eaten in a recent state, the greater proportion of the anchovies consumed in this country being brought in pickle from the Mediterranean.

They are generally caught in nets during the night, being attracted together by fires lighted on the shore, or by torches fixed to the boats which are engaged in the fishery. As soon as they are caught the heads are cut off and the entrails taken out; after this they are salted, or pickled, and packed in barrels or earthen vessels for exportation.

In the choice of anchovies such should be selected as are small, round-backed, fresh pickled, whitish on the outside and red within. The most effectual method of concentrating the excellences of these fish is to reduce the fleshy part to a soft pulp, and to boil this gently, for a few minutes, with a certain proportion of water and spices. The substance thus prepared is denominated _essence of anchovies_.

246. _The CARP_ (Cyprinus carpio, Fig. 70) _is a fresh-water fish known
by having one dorsal fin, three bony rays to the gill membrane, the mouth
with four fleshy beards, the second ray of the dorsal fin serrated
behind, and the body covered with large scales._

_These fish sometimes grow to a very large size._

_They inhabit slow and stagnated waters in various parts of Europe and
Persia, and were first introduced into England about the year 1514._

Carp are a useful species of fish for the stocking of ponds, and for the supply of the table. In Polish Prussia they are an important article of commerce; being sent alive in well-boats to Sweden, Russia, and other parts. They are bred by the principal landholders of the country, to whom, in many instances, they yield a very important revenue. If the rearing of carp were better understood and practised in the marshy parts of England than it now is, they would amply repay every expence and trouble that might be bestowed upon them. The increase of these fish is very great: we are informed by Bloch that four male and three female carp, put into a large pond, produced in one year an offspring of no fewer than 110,000 fish. They are also extremely long lived, instances having occurred of carp living to the age of considerably more than 100 years. To fatten carp and increase their size, the growth of vegetation in the ponds where they are kept should be particularly attended to, as, during the summer-time, they principally feed upon this. In winter, when the ponds are frozen over, care must be taken to break the ice, that they may have access to the atmospheric air, without which, if they are in great numbers, they will die.

Carp are much esteemed as food, but a principal part of their excellence depends on the mode in which they are cooked. They are best in season during the autumnal and winter months. The usual mode of catching them is with nets, and the most proper time at daybreak. These fish, if kept in a cellar, in wet hay or moss, and fed with bread and milk, will live many days out of the water, and will even become fat.

With the roes of carp, in the eastern parts of Europe, a kind of _caviar_ is made, which is sold in considerable quantity to the Jews, who hold that of the sturgeon in abhorrence. The _sounds_, or air-bladders, of carp are converted into a species of isinglass, and their _gall_ is in much repute, with the Turks, for staining paper and for making a green paint.

247. _The TENCH_ (Cyprinus tinca, Fig. 63) _is a fish of the carp tribe,
distinguished by its mouth having only two beards, the scales being
small, the fins thick, and the whole body covered with a slimy matter._

_The weight of these fish seldom exceeds four or five pounds, but
instances have occurred of their weighing more than eleven pounds._

_They are found in stagnant waters in nearly all the temperate parts of
the globe._

There are not many fresh-water fish that are more excellent for the table than these; yet the ancient Romans so much despised them, that they were eaten by none but the lowest classes of the people. In the kingdom of Congo, on the contrary, they were formerly so much esteemed that they were allowed only to be eaten at court, and any person was liable to the punishment of death who caught a tench and did not carry it to the royal cook. Such tench as are caught in clear waters are much superior to those which have inhabited muddy places. They thrive best in still waters, where there are weeds at the bottom; and they are in season from the beginning of October until the end of May.

248. _The GUDGEON_ (Cyprinus gobio) _is a small fish of the carp tribe,
with a thick and round body, two fleshy beards near the mouth, and the
dorsal and caudal fins spotted with black._

_Its length is usually about six inches, and its weight seldom more than
three or four ounces._

_This fish is an inhabitant of gentle streams, with gravelly or sandy
bottom, in most of the northern parts of Europe._

The flesh of gudgeons is white, firm, and of excellent flavour; but the smallness of their size prevents these fish from being much in demand. They are found in small shoals near the bottom of the water; and are caught both with nets and lines. The bait that is used is generally a small earth-worm, which they seize with great eagerness. The season when they are in greatest perfection is from September till the end of the year.

Gudgeons are found to thrive well in ponds, if these be fed by brooks running through them. Under favourable circumstances they have sometimes attained an unusually large size. They feed on aquatic plants, worms, water-insects, and the spawn of fish.

249. _The BLEAK_ (Cyprinus alburnus) _is a small fish of the carp tribe,
with somewhat pointed muzzle, and no beards; and the scales thin, shining
and slightly attached._

_It seldom exceeds the length of five or six inches._

_These fish inhabit fresh-water rivers, in nearly all the temperate parts
of Europe, and are extremely common in many if those of our own country._

There is, in Paris, a great consumption of bleaks on account of their _scales_, which are used in the manufacture of _artificial pearls_. The scales are scraped off into clear water, and beaten to an extremely fine pulp. After this the water is several times changed until they are entirely free from colour. The silvery matter that is left precipitates to the bottom; and the water is carefully poured off from it, by inclining the vessel. This substance, mixed with a little size, is introduced, in small quantity, into thin glass bubbles, by a slender pipe, and moved about until their whole interior surface is covered. The remaining part of the bubble is then generally filled with wax. The inventor of this art was a Frenchman of the name of Jannin, a bead merchant in Paris.

In some countries bleaks are pickled in the manner of anchovies. When of large size they are well flavoured, but they are too bony to be in much request as food, even by the poor. They are considered in greatest perfection in the autumn.

ORDER VI.--CHONDROPTERIGIOUS FISH.

250. _The COMMON STURGEON_ (Acipenser sturio, Fig. 71), _is a large kind
of sea-fish with five rows of bony tubercles along the body; the mouth
beneath the head, and four fleshy beards betwixt the mouth and the
extremity of the muzzle._

_This fish sometimes growes to the length of sixteen feet and upwards._

_It inhabits the European and American seas, and annually ascends the
rivers in the early part of the year._

It is to this and to a still larger species of sturgeon called the BELUGA (_Acipenser huso_), which is found in the river Wolga, that we are indebted for much of the well-known substance called _isinglass_. The mode of making isinglass was long kept a secret by the Russians, and has only of late years been made public. This article consists of certain membranous parts of fishes deprived of their viscous quality and properly dried. The sounds, or air bladders, are those of which it is chiefly made. They are taken out, while sweet and fresh, slit open, washed from their slime, divested of a very thin membrane which envelopes them, and then left to stiffen in the air. After this they are formed into rolls, each about the thickness of the finger, and put into the shape in which we see them, by small wooden pegs, and left to dry. The kind called _cake isinglass_ is formed of bits and fragments put into a flat metal pan with very little water, heated just enough to make the parts adhere, and subsequently dried in the air.

Although by far the greatest quantity of isinglass is obtained from the beluga, as being the largest and most abundant fish in the rivers of Muscovy, yet it has been ascertained that this substance may be made from the air-bladders of every species of fresh water fish. The principal consumption of isinglass is by brewers and others, for the fining of fermented liquors: this it appears to do merely by the mechanical effect of its organization, which forms a kind of strainer, or fine net-work, and carries the gross impurities before it, as it subsides. It is sometimes employed in medicine; and also in cookery, for making jellies, and other purposes.

_Caviar_ is a kind of food made generally from the roes of the sturgeon. For this purpose they are washed, when fresh, by rubbing them, with the hands, in a sieve, to free them from the fibres by which the several eggs are connected together. They are then washed in white wine or vinegar, and spread out to dry. After some further processes, they are either formed into cakes, each about an inch in thickness and three or four inches in diameter, or they are packed in small kegs for use.

The _flesh_ of the sturgeon is firm, white, and of excellent flavour; and, by some persons, has been compared to veal. It is considered best when roasted; though it is commonly sold in a pickled state, and, in this state, is chiefly imported from the rivers of the Baltic and North America. All sturgeons that are caught near London are taken to the Lord Mayor, and are by him presented to the King. In Italy the _back bones_ of these fish are cut into pieces, salted and smoked for food. The Russians frequently convert the _skins_ of sturgeons into a kind of leather, which they use for the covering of carriages.

251. _The SHARKS and DOG-FISH_ (Squalus, Fig. 64) _constitute a tribe of
sea-fish noted for their voracity, and peculiarly characterized by
having, instead of gills, from four to seven breathing apertures, of
curved form, on each side of the neck._

_They are found in all seas, and some of them are of enormous magnitude,
measuring from twenty to thirty feet and upwards in length._

The _skins_ of nearly all these animals, which are rough, with hard and minute prickles, are in frequent use for polishing wood, ivory, and even iron. Those of the larger species are cut into thongs and traces for carriages; and, in Norway, a sort of leather is prepared from them, which is employed for shoes and many other purposes. The skin of the SPOTTED DOG-FISH (_Squalus canicula_) is converted into the well-known substance called _shagreen_, or _chagreen_. For this purpose it is extended on a board and covered with mustard seed; and, after having been exposed for several days to the effects of the weather, it is tanned. The best shagreen is imported from Constantinople. This is of brownish colour, and very hard; but when immersed in water, it becomes soft and pliable, and may be dyed of any colour. Shagreen is often counterfeited by preparing morocco leather in the same manner as the skins of the dog-fish. Such fraud may, however, easily be detected by the surface of the spurious manufacture peeling or scaling off, whilst that of the genuine article remains perfectly sound. Shagreen is employed principally to cover cases for mathematical instruments, and was formerly used for watch-cases and the covers of books. _Sharks' fins_ are an article of trade from the Arabian and Persian gulfs to India, and thence to China: they are generally packed in bales weighing each about 700 pounds.

The _flesh_ of all the species of sharks is hard, and in general unpleasant both to the smell and the taste; yet it is sometimes eaten by seamen, after having been macerated for a while in water to soften it. The _eggs_ of sharks are also eaten. The _livers_ of all the species yield a considerable quantity of oil, which is useful for burning and for other purposes. From the livers of some of the larger kinds as much as seven or eight butts of oil have been obtained, worth twenty or thirty pounds and upwards.

252. _The SKATE_ (Raia batis, Fig. 72) _is a species of ray of large
size, with flat and somewhat diamond-shaped body, and the mouth on the
under side: the teeth sharp, and a single row of spines in the tail._

_It is found in almost every part of the European ocean._

No fish of its tribe is so excellent for the table as the skate, particularly when it is young and has not fed in a muddy part of the sea. The flesh is white and of good flavour, but is usually crimped before it is cooked. The best season for skate is from January to March; and from July to September. So great is the size which these fish sometimes attain, that Willoughby mentions one that would have served 120 men for dinner. In several parts of the Continent skate are salted and dried for sale. The fishermen also sometimes dry the _stomach_ as an article of food; and extract from the _liver_ a white and valuable kind of oil.

253. _The THORNBACK_ (Raia clavata) _is a species of ray, which differs
from the skate chiefly in having blunt teeth, and a row of curved spines
along the middle of the body and on the tail._

_This is a very common fish near all the coasts of Britain._

The flesh of thornback is much inferior to that of the skate, yet it is sometimes eaten. That of the young ones, which have the denomination of _maids_, is however peculiarly excellent. The Norwegian fishermen catch thornbacks chiefly on account of their _livers_; from these they extract a considerable quantity of oil, which they sell with great advantage to strangers who frequent their harbours.

254. _The TRUE LAMPREY_ (Petromyzon marinus, Fig. 73) _is an eel-shaped
fish having seven breathing-holes on each side of the neck, and somewhat
oblong mouth with many rows of yellowish pointed teeth disposed in a
circular form._

_These fish are of dusky colour, irregularly marked with dirty yellow;
and they sometimes weigh four or five pounds each._

_They are sea-fish, but, at certain seasons, they ascend the rivers to
deposit their eggs._

Lampreys are celebrated as forming an excellent dish for the table; and they have, at all times, been held in great esteem by epicures, particularly when potted or stewed. The death of one of our monarchs, Henry the First, has been attributed to a too plentiful repast which he made of these fish. Lampreys are in best season during the month of March, April, and May; at which time they are caught in the rivers. The Severn is peculiarly celebrated for them; and the city of Gloucester, which is situated on that river, is required, by ancient custom, to present annually to the King, at Christmas, a lamprey pie with raised crust. And as, at that early season, lampreys are very scarce, it is not without difficulty that the corporation is able to supply the proper quantity.

These fish are caught in various ways, but particularly in osier pots or baskets formed to entrap them, and also in nets. In some parts of the country they are boiled, and afterwards packed into barrels with vinegar and spices.

255. _The LESSER LAMPREY_ (Petromyzon fluviatilis) _is a fresh-water
fish, distinguishable from the true lamprey by its much smaller size, the
second dorsal fin being angular and connected with the caudal fin, and
having a single row of teeth placed circularly in the mouth._

_This fish seldom exceeds the length of eight or ten inches._

_It is found in the rivers of most parts of Europe, America, and Asia;
and particularly in those of Brandenburgh, Pomerania, Silesia, and
Prussia._

In the spring of the year these fish are frequently seen sticking, by their mouth, to stones in shallow water, from which they may easily be taken with the hand. They are considered a very delicious fish for the table, in whatever way they are cooked. The best season for them is betwixt the months of December and April.

Great numbers of Lesser Lampreys are caught in the Severn, the Dee, and the Thames; but particularly in the latter, near Mortlake in Surrey. Anterior to the late war more than 400,000 of them were annually sold to the Dutch as bait for cod, turbot, and other large fish.

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CLASS V.--INSECTS.

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256. _The SPANISH FLY, or BLISTERING LYTTA_ (Lytta vesicatoria), _is a
coleopterous insect (12), about an inch in length, of shining blue-green
colour with black antennæ._

_It is found in most parts of Europe, and feeds on the leaves of the ash,
poplar, elder, lilac, and other trees._

These insects, which are known in medicine by the name of _cantharides_, are of incalculable importance to mankind, as the basis of blistering plasters, and also as an internal remedy against many diseases. We import them in a dried state, from Spain, Italy, and the South of France; in many parts of which countries, about the middle of summer, they are found in vast abundance. As they are generally in a torpid state during the day, they are easily collected, by shaking them from the trees upon a cloth spread on the ground to receive them. When a sufficient number has been collected they are tied in bags, and killed by being held over the fumes of hot vinegar. After this they are dried in the sun, and packed in boxes for sale. The odour which is emitted by these insects is peculiarly nauseous, and so powerful, that great injury has sometimes been experienced by persons employed in picking them, and by those who have even fallen asleep under the trees where they abound.

Previously to being used they are pounded; and if, in this state, they be applied to the skin, they first cause inflammation, and afterwards raise a blister. The usual blistering plaster is formed with Venice turpentine, yellow wax, Spanish flies, and powdered mustard.

257. _The PALM-TREE GRUB, or GRUGRU, is the larva or caterpillar of a
coleopterous insect (12), the palm-tree weevil_ (Curculio palmarum),
_which is about two inches in length, of black colour, and has the elytra
or wing cases shorter than the body, and streaked or marked with several
longitudinal lines._

_This insect is found in Cayenne, Surinam, and other parts of South
America._

It deposits its eggs on the summit of the palm-tree; and the grubs that issue from these eggs subsist on the soft interior parts of the tree. They become about the size of the thumb, and are much sought after in many places for the table. They are generally eaten roasted, and are considered a peculiar delicacy. We are informed, by Ælian, of an Indian king, who for a dessert, instead of fruit, set before his Grecian guests a dish of roasted worms taken from a plant: these were probably the present insects, or a kind nearly allied to them.

258. _The LOCUST_ (Gryllus migratorius) _is an insect, not much unlike
our large grasshoppers, which is too common in most of the eastern
countries._

_It is about two inches and a half in length, has a brownish body varied
with darker spots, blue legs and jaws, the hind thighs yellowish, and the
wings of yellowish brown colour spotted with black._

We are informed, in the New Testament, that the food of John the Baptist in the wilderness was "locusts and wild honey." Some of the commentators have imagined the locusts here mentioned to have been a vegetable production--a species of pulse; but this opinion will scarcely be admitted when it is known that the insects of this name, even at the present day, serve as food to many of the eastern tribes. The Ethiopians and Parthians are recorded, from the earliest periods of antiquity, to have occasionally subsisted on this species of food. And the traveller Hasselquist, in reply to some inquiries which he made on this subject, was informed that, at Mecca, when there was a scarcity of grain, the inhabitants, as a substitute for flour, would grind locusts in their hand-mills, or pound them in stone mortars: that they mixed the substance thus formed with water, and made cakes of it; and that they baked these cakes, like their other bread. He adds, that it was not unusual for them to eat locusts when there was no famine; but that, in this case, they boiled them first in water, and afterwards stewed them with butter into a kind of fricasee. The Hottentots delight in locusts as food, and even make their eggs into a kind of soup. Some of the African tribes pound and boil these insects with milk; and others eat them, after being merely broiled for a little while on the coals. Mr. Jackson says that, when he was in Barbary, in 1799, dishes of locusts were frequently served at the principal tables, and were esteemed a great delicacy. These insects are preferred by the Moors to pigeons; and it is stated that a person may eat 200 or 300 of them without experiencing any ill effects.

259. _LAC is a resinous substance, the production of an hemipterous
insect_ (Coccus ficus), _which is found on three or four different kinds
of trees in the East Indies._

_The head and trunk of the lac insect seem to form one uniform, oval, and
compressed red body, about the size of a flea. The antennæ are
thread-shaped, and half the length of the body. The tail is a little
white point, whence proceed two horizontal hairs as long as the body._

These insects pierce the small branches of the trees on which they feed; and the juice that exudes from the wounds is formed by them into a kind of cell, or nidus for their eggs. Lac is imported, into this country, adhering to the branches, in small transparent grains, or in semi-transparent flat cakes. Of these the first is called _stick lac_, the second _seed lac_, and the third _shell lac_.

On breaking a piece of stick lac it appears to be composed of regular honeycomb-like cells, with small red bodies lodged in them; these are the young insects, and to them the lac owes its tincture; for, when freed from them, its colour is very faint. Seed lac is the same substance grossly pounded and deprived of its colouring matter, which is used in dyeing, and for other purposes; and shell lac consists of the cells liquefied, stained, and formed into thin cakes.

This substance is principally found upon trees in the uncultivated mountains on both sides of the river Ganges; and it occurs in such abundance, that, were the consumption ten times greater than it is, the markets might readily be supplied. The only trouble which attends the procuring of it is to break down the branches of the trees and carry them to market.

The uses of lac, in its different states, are various. It is employed in the East Indies for making rings, beads, chains, necklaces, and other ornaments for female attire. Mixed with sand, it is formed into grind-stones; and added to lamp-black or ivory-black, being first dissolved in water with the addition of a little borax, it composes an ink, which, when dry, is not easily acted upon by moisture. A red liquor obtained from lac is employed as a substitute for cochineal (260) in dyeing scarlet, and in painting. Shell lac is chiefly adopted in the composition of varnish, japan, and sealing-wax. A tincture prepared from lac is sometimes used in medicine.

260. _COCHINEAL is a scarlet dyeing drug, which is chiefly imported from
Mexico and New Spain, and is the production of a small hemipterous
insect_ (Coccus cacti) _that is found on the prickly pear_ (Cactus
opuntia) _and some other trees._

_The male is winged, and the female not. The latter is of an oval form,
convex on the back, and covered with a white downy substance resembling
the finest cotton. The antennæ are half as long as the body, and the legs
are short and black._

Cochineal is one of the most valuable substances that are used in dyeing. As imported into this country, it is in the form of a reddish shrivelled grain, covered with a white bloom or powder.

The cochineal insects adhere in great numbers, and in an apparently torpid state, to the leaves of the prickly pear. At a certain period of the year they are carefully picked or brushed off, either by a bamboo twig shaped somewhat into the form of a pen, or by an instrument formed of a squirrel's or stag's tail: and so tedious is the operation, that the persons employed in it are sometimes obliged to sit for hours together beside a single plant. In some parts of South America the insects, after being collected in a wooden bowl, are thickly spread upon a flat dish of earthen ware, and cruelly placed alive over a charcoal fire, where they are slowly roasted, till their downy covering disappears, and they are perfectly dried. In other parts they are killed by being thrown into boiling water, by being placed in ovens, or being exposed in heaps to the sun.

The quantity of cochineal annually exported from South America is said to be worth more than 500,000l. sterling, a vast sum to arise from so minute an insect; and the present annual consumption of cochineal in England has been estimated at about 150,000 pounds' weight.

It is for dyeing scarlet that cochineal is chiefly in demand; but although a peculiarly brilliant dye is now obtained from it, this substance gave only a dull crimson colour until a chemist of the name of Kuster, who, about the middle of the seventeenth century, lived at Bow, near London, discovered the art of preparing it with a solution of tin. Cochineal, if kept in a dry place, may be preserved, without injury, for a great length of time. An instance has been mentioned of some of this dye, 130 years old, having been found to produce the same effect as though it had been perfectly fresh.

The attention of the East India Company has, for many years, been directed to the production of cochineal in the East, but hitherto with little success. That which has been brought from India is very small, and greatly inferior to what is imported from New Spain.

An imitation of cochineal is made by a preparation of bullock's blood, and some other ingredients.

261. _The SILK-WORM is a smooth and somewhat lead-coloured caterpillar,
produced from the eggs of a moth_ (Phalæna mori) _which is found in great
abundance in China, the East Indies, the Levant, several parts of Italy,
and the South of Spain._

So great is the importance of _silk_, in a commercial view, that, in most of the Eastern countries of the world, a close attention is paid to the growth and cultivation of the insects by which it is produced. Each moth lays about two hundred small straw-coloured eggs. As soon as the worms are hatched they are fed with the tenderest leaves of the mulberry-tree, or with these leaves chopped very fine; and, when they have attained sufficient strength, they are removed into wicker baskets, or placed upon shelves made of wickerwork. Here they feed for about thirty days, until they are full grown, when they are furnished with little bushes of heath or broom. On these they spin the nests in which they are about to change into chrysalids. These nests have the general name of coccoons, and consist of somewhat oval-shaped balls of silk, of marigold colour. The exterior of the coccoon is composed of a rough cotton-like substance, called _floss_. Within this is the thread, which is more distinct and even; and appears arranged in a very irregular manner, winding off first from one side of the coccoon, and then from the other. Previously to the silk being wound from the coccoons they are baked for about an hour to kill the chrysalids they contain. When the silk is to be wound off, the coccoons are put into small coppers or basins, of water, each placed over a small fire. The ends of the threads are found by brushing the coccoons gently with a whisk made for the purpose; and so fine are these threads that eight or ten of them are generally rolled off into one. In winding them, they are each passed through a hole in an horizontal iron bar placed at the edge of the basin, which prevents them from being entangled.

The art of manufacturing silk was known to the ancients; but in Europe this commodity, long after its invention, was of very great value. We are informed that, in the third century, the wife of the Roman Emperor Aurelian entreated him to give her a robe of purple silk, and that he refused this under an allegation that he could not buy such a robe for its weight in gold.

It is not certain at what precise period the silk manufacture was first introduced into England. But, in the year 1242, we are told that part of the streets of London were covered or shaded with silk, for the reception of Richard, the brother of Henry the Third, on his return from the Holy Land. In 1454 the silk manufactures of England are said to have been confined to ribbons, laces, and other trifling articles. Queen Elizabeth, in the third year of her reign, was furnished by her silk-woman with a pair of black knit silk stockings, which she is stated to have admired as "marvellous delicate wear;" and after the using of which she no longer had cloth ones, as before. James the First, whilst king of Scotland, requested of the Earl of Mar the loan of a pair of silk stockings to appear in before the English ambassador, enforcing his request with this cogent appeal, "For ye would not, sure, that your King should appear as a scrub before strangers."

China may be said to be the country of silk; indeed it furnishes large quantities of raw silk to all the neighbouring nations, and to Europe; and also for clothing the greatest part of its own inhabitants. There are in China very few, except the lowest orders, who are not clad in silk garments. The best Chinese silk is that which is imported from Nankin.

The principal silk manufacture in England is carried on in Spitalfields, London.

Although the whole of the silk which is produced in Europe, and the greatest proportion of that manufactured in China, is obtained from the common silkworm; yet considerable quantities are procured, in India, from the caterpillars of other moths. Of these the most important are the TUSSEH and ARRINDY silk worms (_Phalæna paphia_ and _cinthia_), both of which are natives of Bengal and the adjacent provinces. The silk from these kinds of worms has long been used by the natives. The former, which is commonly called tusseh silk, is woven into a coarse and dark-coloured kind of cloth, called _tusseh dooties_, much worn by the Brahmins and other sects of Hindoos. Of the arrindy silk is manufactured a coarse kind of white cloth, of seemingly loose texture, but of almost incredible durability. It is employed as clothing both for men and women; and may be used for more than twenty years without decay. In the washing of it, however, care must be taken to use only cold water, as, if put into boiling water, it will become rotten, and will tear like old and decayed cloth. This kind of silk is not only employed for clothing, but, by merchants, as packing cloths, for silks, shawls, and other fine goods. Some manufacturers in England, to whom the silk was shown, were of opinion that it might be made into shawls, equal in quality to any that we receive from India.

262. _The HIVE-BEE_ (Apis mellifica) _is a well-known, hymenopterous
insect (12), of uniform brown colour, and with somewhat hairy body._

_Bees live in extremely numerous societies, either in decayed trees, or
in habitations prepared for them by mankind, called_ hives. _Each hive
contains, 1, a single female which has the name of_ queen-bee; _2, about
1600 males, called_ drones; _and, 3, about 20,000 individuals of neither
sex, called_ working-bees. _It is upon the latter that the whole trouble
devolves of constructing combs, or cells, for the honey and for the eggs
deposited by the female; collecting and forming the honey, and feeding
the grubs which proceed from the eggs, and which afterwards change into
bees._

_Bees' wax_ is the substance of the combs after the honey has been extracted from them. The best kind is hard, compact, of clear yellow colour, and an agreeable odour, nearly similar to that of honey. It is melted, and cast in moulds of different sizes and shapes. _White wax_ is prepared from common bees' wax by melting it into water, and exposing it, for a considerable time, to the action of the sun, air, and water. When sufficiently bleached, it is cast into thin cakes. The purposes for which wax is applicable are very numerous. Great quantities of white wax are annually consumed in the manufacture of candles; and in making cerates, plasters, and ointments.

_Honey_ is a sweet and fluid substance, which is collected from flowers, and deposited in the combs for support of the bees and their offspring. The honey made by young bees is purer than any other, and is thence called _virgin honey_. Before the discovery of sugar, honey was of much greater importance than it is at present. Yet both as a delicious article of food, and as the basis of a wholesome fermented liquor called _mead_, it is of no mean value even in this country; but in many parts of the Continent, where sugar is much dearer than with us, few articles of rural economy, not of primary importance, would be dispensed with more reluctantly than honey. In the Ukraine some of the peasants have each 400 or 500 bee-hives, and make more profit of their bees than of corn. And in Spain the number of hives is almost incredible: a single parish priest is stated to have possessed 5000.

Bee-hives that are made of straw are usually preferred to any others, as they are not liable to be overheated by the sun; they keep out the cold better than wood, and are cheaper than those formed of any other material. The profit arising from bees, when properly attended to, is very considerable; and, to obtain the greatest possible advantage from them, they should be supplied with every convenience for the support of themselves and their offspring. They should be kept in a good situation; that is, in a country abounding with flowers; at a distance from brew-houses, smelting-works, &c. and in well-constructed hives. In France floating bee-hives are very common. One barge contains from sixty to a hundred hives well defended from the inclemency of the weather. With these the owners float gently down the stream, whilst the insects gather honey from the flowers along the banks.

Many of the bee-masters in France have an ingenious mode of transporting the loaded bee-hives from one part of the country to another. They are fastened together by laths placed on pack-cloth, which is drawn up on each side, and then tied by a piece of pack-thread several times round the top. In this state they are laid in a cart, and can be carried in safety to very considerable distances.

When the young bees begin to appear, the hives become so much crowded that they _swarm_ or separate. This usually takes place in the month of May, or earlier if the season be warm.

In England it is customary, in taking the honey, to destroy the bees, by suffocating them with the fumes of brimstone; but there are modes, which not only humanity but even policy would recommend, of obtaining the honey without injuring the insects.

263. _The COMMON, or BLACK-CLAWED CRAB_ (Cancer pagurus, Fig. 76), _is a
crustaceous animal, with smooth shell, of somewhat oval shape, having a
margin with nine folds on each side, and the great claws black at the
tip._

_These crabs inhabit the rocky parts of the sea both of Europe and
India._

They are frequently caught at low water of the spring tides, under stones and in crevices of the rocks. But the usual mode is by large wicker baskets made somewhat in the shape of wire mouse-traps, and baited with garbage or fish. When caught, the large claws are tied together, or (with great cruelty) pegged in the joints, to prevent the animals from destroying each other. They are then put into store baskets, which are placed in the sea, until the crabs are wanted for sale. In these they are kept sometimes for many weeks, without any other food than what they can collect from the sea-water.

The principal season for crabs is the spring of the year; and those of middle size which are the heaviest are best. When in perfection the joints of the legs are stiff, and the body has an agreeable smell. If the eyes look dead and flaccid, the crabs are not fresh.

The article which is used in medicine called _crabs' claws_, consists of the black tips of the claws pounded, well washed in boiling water, and reduced to a fine powder.

264. _The LAND CRAB_ (Cancer ruricola) _is a crustaceous animal, common
in some parts of America, the Bahamas, and other islands in the West
Indies, which has a rounded shell without margin, and the first joints of
the legs spinous, and the second and third furnished with tufts of hair._

_The shells of the largest land crabs are about six inches in diameter,
and of various colours._

These crabs inhabit the clefts of rocks, the hollows of trees, or holes which they form in the ground. In the early part of the year they descend in myriads to the sea-coast, to deposit their eggs in the sand. They chiefly travel by night, but in rainy weather they also proceed during the day. The inhabitants of the countries where they abound are always eagerly on watch for their migrations towards the sea, and destroy immense numbers of them, disregarding, at this time, the bodies, and only taking out the spawn. It is on their return that the animals themselves are valuable as food.

265. _The LOBSTER_ (Cancer gammarus, Fig. 74) _is a well known
crustaceous animal, distinguished by its long and jointed tail, its shell
being smooth, and having betwixt the eyes a kind of beak toothed on each
side, and with a double tooth at its base._

_These animals are of bluish black colour when alive, but, in boiling,
this changes to a dingy red. They sometimes grow to an immense size._

_Lobsters are found among marine rocks in nearly all parts of Europe._

They are caught much in the same manner as crabs (263). The London markets are supplied with great numbers of lobsters from the Orkney Islands and the eastern parts of Scotland, and even from the coast of Norway. It is said that in London lobsters are sometimes boiled every day for a week or longer, to keep them sweet externally; but, notwithstanding this precaution, their inner parts become putrid. An immoderate use both of lobsters and crabs is sometimes attended with irruptions in the face, or a species of nettle rash over the whole body; and, when eaten in a state approaching to putrescence, they are sometimes productive of still more disagreeable effects.

When selected for the table, lobsters ought to be heavy in proportion to their size, and to have a hard, and firm crust. During winter the male lobsters are generally preferred for the table. These are distinguished by the narrowness of their tail, and by the first two fins beneath being large and hard. The females, on the contrary, are broader in the tail, and have these fins small and soft. The roe or eggs are found under the tail of the females for some time after they have been protruded from the body, and in this state the females are generally preferred to the males. When fresh, the tails of lobsters are stiff, and pull open with a spring, but when they are stale the joints of the tail become flaccid.

266. _The SEA CRAW-FISH, or SPINY LOBSTER_ (Cancer homarus), _is a
crustaceous animal, distinguishable from the common lobster, by its shell
being covered with spines, mud by each of the legs ending in a hairy
claw._

_This species is of large size, and is found in most of the European
seas._

Sea craw-fish are very common in the London markets, where they are sold at a price inferior to that of the common lobsters. Their flesh is hard, and has a peculiar sweetness, which by many persons is much disliked. At Marseilles, and on the coast of the Mediterranean, however, they are in considerable request on account of their eggs, which are esteemed a great delicacy. These begin to appear towards the end of May, and are cast about two months afterwards.

267. _The COMMON, or FRESH-WATER CRAW-FISH_ (Cancer astacus), _is a small
crustaceous animal, in shape somewhat resembling a lobster, and
distinguished by having its large claws beset with numerous tubercles,
and the beak between its eyes being toothed on each side, and having a
single tooth at the base._

_It inhabits holes in the clayey or stony banks of many of the rivers of
England, and is seldom known to exceed the length of three or four
inches._

Craw-fish are frequently used in cookery; and their flesh is considered nutritive, but somewhat indigestible.

Those substances which in medicine are improperly denominated _crabs' eyes_ are concretions formed within the thorax of the craw-fish. They are generally about the size of peas, or larger, somewhat flatted on one side, and of whitish colour. The principal part of them are brought from Muscovy, and particularly from the banks of the river Don.

In England the usual mode of catching craw-fish is by cleft sticks, baited with flesh or garbage, and stuck in the mud near their haunts at the distance of a few feet from each other. After being suffered to remain some time, these are gently drawn up, and a basket is put under them to receive the animals, which always drop off as soon as they are brought to the surface of the water.

268. _The COMMON SHRIMP_ (Cancer crangon), _is a very small crustaceous
animal, somewhat shaped like a lobster; having four antennæ, the two
interior ones short and double, with two thin projecting laminæ beneath
them, and on each of the large claws a single moveable fang._

_Shrimps are common in shallow parts of the sea where the bottom is
sandy._

269. _The PRAWN_ (Cancer squilla, Fig. 75), _is a small crustaceous
animal, which differs from the shrimp in having a preceding and sharply
serrated horn in front of its head, four antennæ, of which the two
interior ones are long, and each in three divisions, and on each of the
large claws two fangs._

_It is found in many parts of the European ocean._

Both these species are in great demand for the table, the former chiefly as sauce, and the latter to eat as a relish at breakfast or with the last courses at dinner. They are an agreeable repast, and more easily digestible than either crabs or lobsters.

The mode in which they are caught is generally by a kind of net called a putting net, which is fixed to the end of a long pole, and pushed along upon the sand in shallow water. Prawns in some places are caught in wicker baskets, similar in shape to those which are used for the catching of crabs (263).

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CLASS VI.--WORMS.

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270. _The MEDICINAL LEECH_ (Hirudo medicinalis), _is a worm-shaped animal
of olive-black colour, with six yellowish lines on the upper part of the
body, and spotted with yellow beneath._

_When fully extended, the leech is generally two or three inches in
length. It is found in stagnant and muddy waters._

The use of leeches in medicine is to diminish the accumulation of blood in any particular part of the body. This they do by fixing themselves to the spot, forming a hole with three sharp teeth which are situated triangularly in their mouth, and sucking the blood through the wound. When they have drawn sufficient, they are easily loosened by putting upon them a small quantity of salt, pepper, or vinegar.

Leeches are caught in various ways, but one of the best is to throw bundles of weeds into the water which they inhabit. These, if taken out a few hours afterwards, will generally be found to contain a considerable number. They are collected from several of the rivers in the south of England, and are kept for sale sometimes, many thousands together, in casks or tubs of spring water. This is frequently changed, and all the slime and filth which exude from their bodies is carefully washed away.

It is said that if leeches be kept in glass vessels they will indicate a change of weather, by becoming at such times peculiarly restless and active.

271. _The OFFICINAL CUTTLE-FISH_ (Sepia officinalis), _is a marine
animal, with somewhat oval body nearly surrounded by a margin, eight
short and pointed arms, and two tentacula four times as long as the arms,
all furnished with numerous small cup-shaped suckers._

_These animals are found in considerable numbers in the European seas._

By the ancients, cuttle-fish were in great esteem as a delicacy for the table; and, even at the present day, they are frequently eaten by the Italians, and by the inhabitants of other countries on the shores of the Mediterranean.

There is, in the middle of their body, an oval bone, thick in the middle, and thin and sharp at the edges, light, spongy, and of whitish colour. These bones were formerly employed in medicine, and are still kept in the druggists' shops. When dried and pulverized, they are used by silversmiths as moulds, in which they cast spoons, rings, and other small work. When burnt or calcined, they are useful for the cleaning and polishing of silver and other hard substances, and sometimes for correcting the acidity of wines.