Chapter V: ANIMALCULES Are destitute of tentacula or feelers, and are generally (7)

Few birds are so much in esteem for the table as these and they are fattest, and consequently in best condition, during the months of December and January. Before they were protected by the game laws, it was customary, in some of the northern parts of England, to catch woodcocks by traps. Long parallel rows of stones or sticks, four or five inches high, were made in moonlight nights on the commons frequented by them. In these rows several intervals or gateways were left in which the traps were placed. When the birds, running about in search of food came to one of these rows, they did not usually cross it, but ran along the side till they arrived at the gateways, which they entered, and in which they were caught. Notwithstanding the high opinion entertained by British epicures respecting the woodcock for the table, we are assured that the inhabitants of Sweden, Norway, and other northern countries, wholly reject them, under a notion that they are unwholesome. They, however, eat and are particularly partial to the _eggs_ of the woodcock. These are carried for sale, in great numbers, to the markets of Stockholm and Gottenburg.

In commencing its flight this bird rises heavily from the ground, and makes a flapping noise with its wings. It does not long continue in flight, and stops so suddenly as to fall apparently like a dead weight. A few moments after being on the ground it runs swiftly, but soon pauses, raises its head, and casts a glance around before it ventures to lurk in concealment under the herbage or bushes.

Woodcocks are seldom known to breed in this country. Those very few, however, that happen to remain, after the great flights have departed, construct their nests on the ground, generally at the root of some tree, and lay four or five eggs of rusty colour marked with brown spots. They feed on worms and insects.

176. _The COMMON SNIPE_ (Scolopax gallinago, Fig. 43) _is a small bird,
with long straight bill, brown legs, the plumage varied with blackish and
tawny colour above, and white beneath, and the front marked with four
brown lines._

_These birds, which usually weigh about four ounces, are found in marshy
places in most parts of the world. They are migratory, a considerable
portion of them leaving Great Britain in the spring of the year and
returning in the autumn. Many, however, continue with us through the
whole year._

Snipes, on account of their delicate flavour, are in great request for the table. But as, like woodcocks (175), they are eaten with their entrails, which contain many stimulant insects, &c. it has been supposed that a frequent indulgence in such food is apt to induce the gout, or at least to accelerate its paroxysms. It is remarkable respecting these birds that, though generally fat and rich eating, they seldom cloy even the weakest stomachs.

In winter they usually continue near marshy grounds, concealed among rushes and thick herbage; but, during severe frosts, they resort to sheltered springs, unfrozen boggy places, or any open streams of water. In summer they disperse throughout the country, and are occasionally found even among the highest mountains. When roused by the sportsman they utter a feeble whistle, and generally fly off, against the wind, in a zigzag direction. Snipes are fattest and in best season in November and December.

These birds feed on small worms, slugs, and insects. They form their nests of dried grass and feathers, in concealed and inaccessible parts of marshes, and have each four eggs of a dirty olive colour marked with dusky spots.

177. _The RUFF and REEVE_ (Tringa pugnax, Fig. 46) _are the male and
female of a species of sandpiper, which have very varied plumage, the
face coloured with yellow pimples, the three lateral tail feathers
without spots, and the covert feathers of the wings brown, inclining to
ash-colour._

_The males, or_ ruffs, _have, round their heads, after they are twelve
months old, a very singular arrangement of long feathers, which drop off
every year at the season of moulting. The female, or_ reeve, _has no
feathers of this description. The weight of the ruff is generally more
than seven ounces, and that of the reeve about four._

_These birds are found in the fens of Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire, and
Yorkshire._

In the early part of spring they begin to appear in the fens, and they disappear about Michaelmas. These birds are caught in nets, and a skilful fowler has been known to catch six dozen in one morning. In general the males only are taken, the females being allowed to escape on account of their smaller size, and that they may be left to breed. When caught they are generally put up, for some days, to be fattened; and for this purpose are fed with boiled wheat, and bread and milk mixed with hempseed, to which sugar is sometimes added. By this treatment, in the course of a fortnight, they become excessively fat. The usual mode of killing them is by cutting off their head with a pair of scissars. They are cooked, like woodcocks, with their intestines, and, when in perfection, are esteemed by epicures a most delicious food.

It is a very singular habit of the males, which are much more numerous than the females, to take possession each of a small piece of ground, upon which they run in a circle until all the grass is worn away. These _hills_, as they are called by the fowlers, are near each other; and as soon as a female alights, all the ruffs of the neighbourhood immediately begin to fight for her. It is during this contest that the fowlers seize the opportunity of entangling them in their nets.

The reeves form their nests of a few straws and dried grass loosely put together upon the ground; and lay each four white eggs marked with large rust-coloured spots.

178. _The LAPWING, or PEE-WIT_ (Tringa vanellus), _is a well-known marsh
bird, which has a crest at the back of the head, the upper part of its
plumage green, the breast black, and the legs red._

_Its general weight is seven or eight ounces. This bird frequents moist
heaths and marshy grounds in nearly all the temperate parts of Europe,
Asia, and Africa._

The name of Lapwing has been given to these birds, on account of the flapping noise which they make with their large wings during flight; and that of pee-wit has been obtained from their cry. They associate in flocks during the winter-time, and are caught, by nets, in the same manner as ruffs (177), but are killed as soon as they are caught. Lapwings are in considerable demand by the London poulterers, particularly about the month of October, when they are fat and excellent eating. Their _eggs_, which are olive-coloured spotted with black, are esteemed a peculiar delicacy during the whole season in which they can be obtained.

Lapwings feed chiefly on worms, and the females lay each two eggs on the ground, in some hollow place, on the dry parts of marshes.

179. _The DOTTEREL_ (Charadrius morinellus) _is a species of plover
distinguished by its roundish and obtuse bill and black legs, its breast
being rust-coloured, and by having a white line over each eye, and
another upon the breast._

_These birds seldom weigh more than three or four ounces. About the
latter end of April, during the month of May, and part of June, they are
found, in flocks of eight or ten together, on the heaths and moors of
Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire, and Derbyshire, and among the mountains of
Westmorland and Cumberland. They are also seen on the Wiltshire and
Berkshire downs in the months of April and September._

Such is the singularity of manners of these birds that it is possible to catch them, even with the hand, by a very simple artifice. It was formerly customary for the fowler to proceed, in the night, with a candle and lantern, to the places where he knew the birds were in the habit of roosting. Roused, but unalarmed, by the light, if he approached with caution they would continue immoveable until he was able to discover them. He would now stretch out one of his arms, which induced the imitative birds to stretch their wing; then a foot, which the birds likewise mimicked. This he did alternately until he was sufficiently near to extend and entangle them in his net. There were other contrivances besides this: but the greater facility of killing these birds by the gun has of late years rendered them all useless.

When dotterels are best in season they are very fat and delicate eating.

There are several birds which are sold by the London poulterers under the appellation of _plovers_. These are chiefly the GOLDEN PLOVER (_Charadrius pluvialis_), the GREY SAND-PIPER (_Tringa squatorola_), and the GREEN SAND-PIPER (_Tringa ochropus_), all of which are much esteemed for the table.

180. _The LAND-RAIL, or CORN-CRAKE_ (Rallus crex), _is distinguished by
having a short and strong bill, and the legs situated far back; the
feathers of the back black, edged with bay, and the wings of a reddish
rusty colour._

_The usual weight of these birds is from six to eight ounces. They are
found, during summer, in corn-fields, but are migratory, and seldom seen
after the middle of September._

The remarkable cry of "crek, crek, crek," uttered by these birds in meadows and corn-fields before the grass and corn are cut, is well known. It is heard from the thickest part of the herbage: and, when any person approaches the spot, so great is the rapidity with which they run, that it is, almost in an instant afterwards, heard forty or fifty paces distant.

When pursued by dogs, these birds persist in keeping upon the ground, and they may sometimes be taken even with the hand. They often stop short and squat, and the dog, overshooting the mark, loses his trace. When driven to the last extremity they rise, but they fly heavily, and generally with their legs hanging down. They do not fly far before they alight: they then run off, and, before the sportsman can reach the place, are at a considerable distance. Sometimes the land-rail will alight upon a hedge, in which case it will perch and sit motionless till the pursuer (who thinks it is upon the ground) almost touches it.

When they first appear these birds are quite lean, but, before their departure, they become so fat that the author of Rural Sports informs us he has frequently been obliged to wrap his handkerchief round them, when killed, to prevent the fat which exuded from the shot-holes from soiling other birds.

The females lay twelve or more eggs of reddish cinereous white colour, marked with rusty and ash-coloured spots and blotches. The nest is loosely formed of moss or dry grass, generally in some hollow place among thick grass.

ORDER VI.--SWIMMERS, OR ANSERES.

181. _The WILD SWAN, or HOOPER_ (Anas cygnus), _is distinguished from the
tame swan (182) by having the cere or naked skin at the base of the bill
yellow and not black; and being of smaller size._

_These birds are found in the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and
America._

On several of the lochs or lakes of Scotland wild swans are very numerous; and they are known, at a great distance, by their cry, which is not much unlike the sound of a clarionet blown by a novice in music.

About the month of August these birds change their feathers, during which, in some countries, they are killed with clubs or hunted by dogs. Their _flesh_ is esteemed a wholesome and palatable food, and the _eggs_ are considered peculiarly delicious. Of the _skins_, which are used in England, with the down upon them, for muffs, tippets, and powder-puffs, the inhabitants of Iceland and Kamtschatka make garments of different kinds. The North American Indians sometimes weave the down into ornamental dresses; and form the large feathers into caps and plumes to decorate the heads of their warriors.

182. _The TAME Swan_ (Anas olor, Fig. 47), _the largest of all British
birds, is distinguished from the wild swan (181) by its larger size, and
by the cere or naked skin at the base of the bill being black and not
yellow._

_It is an inhabitant both of Europe and Asia._

So highly were these beautiful and stately birds esteemed by our ancestors that, by an act of Edward the Fourth, no person who possessed a freehold of less yearly value than five marks was permitted to keep them. At this day the stealing of swans is considered a felonious act; and there is a penalty for stealing the eggs, of twenty shillings each.

Swans were formerly served up at almost every great feast. At Archbishop Neville's feast in the reign of Edward the Fourth, there were no fewer than 400 of these birds. At present, the _cygnets_, or young swans, only are eaten. Considerable numbers of these are annually fattened near Norwich, about Christmas, and chiefly for the table of the corporation of that city.

The nest of the swan is formed, about the month of February, of grass, and generally among reeds near the water. The eggs are six or eight in number, of large size and white colour.

183. _The WILD GOOSE_ (Anas anser) _is distinguished by having a somewhat
cylindrical bill, the body ash-coloured above and paler beneath, and the
neck striate._

_Large flocks of wild geese frequent all the fenny districts of England,
and are also found in the northern parts of the continents of Europe,
Asia, and America._

These birds are killed on account of their _flesh_ which is an excellent and nutritive food; and they are the stock from which our common or _tame geese_ have been obtained.

Vast numbers of the latter are kept in the fens of Lincolnshire, and other parts of England, and chiefly for the sake of their quills and feathers. Of these they are unmercifully stripped, whilst alive, once every year for the former, and five times for the latter. The _quills_, or large feathers of the wings, are termed firsts, seconds, and thirds, from the order in which they grow. The last two kinds are those principally used in writing, on account of the larger size of their barrels. And as the utility and value of quills, in the making of pens, greatly depend on their firmness and elasticity, different expedients have been contrived to harden them. The most simple of these is to thrust the barrels, for a few moments, into hot sand or ashes, afterwards to press them almost flat with a penknife, and then to restore their roundness by the fingers, with the assistance of a piece of leather or woollen cloth, removing at the same time their external roughness by the friction. But when great numbers are to be prepared, other methods are adopted. Aqua-fortis is frequently employed in the preparation of quills, by which they are stained a yellow colour.

All the best _feathers_ that are used in this country for making beds, bolsters, and pillows, are those of geese: and such as are obtained in the county of Somerset are generally esteemed the best. Great quantities of goose and other feathers are annually imported from the north of Europe; but these being insufficient for the demand, the feathers of cocks and hens, and also of ducks and turkeys, all of which are much inferior to those of geese, are frequently mixed with them. The best mode of preserving feathers is to expose them, in a room, to the rays of the sun; and, as soon as they are thoroughly dried, to put them loosely into bags, in which they should be well beaten to cleanse them from dust and filth. Of late years feathers have been manufactured into hats.

The usual weight of a fine goose is fifteen or sixteen pounds, but it is scarcely credible how far this weight may be increased, by cramming the birds with bean-meal, and other fattening diet. It some places it is customary to nail them to the floor by the webs of the feet, to prevent any possibility of action, and thus to fatten them the more readily. In Vienna the _livers_ of geese are esteemed a great delicacy. They are eaten stewed, and some of the German poulterers have a method of making them grow to an enormous size.

In the choosing of geese for the table, care should be taken that the feet and legs be yellow, which is an indication of the bird's being young: the legs of old geese are red. If recently killed, the legs will be pliable, but if stale they will generally be found dry and stiff.

These birds are denominated _green geese_ until they are three or four months old; and, at this immature age, they are held by many persons in great esteem for the table.

Besides the present, there are several other species of goose, which are useful on account of their quills and feathers, and likewise as supplying mankind with food.

184. _The WILD DUCK_ (Anas boschas) _is distinguished by the general
cinereous colour of its plumage, by having a narrow white mark round the
neck, the bill being straight, and the tail feathers of the male curved
upward._

_The male is called_ mallard, _or_ drake, _and the female has the name
of_ duck.

_Wild ducks are very common, in most of the fenny parts of England: they
are also found on the continent of Europe, in Asia, and America._

One mode of catching wild ducks, in the fens of Lincolnshire and some other countries, is by what are called _decoys_. These are ponds, generally formed in marshy situations, and surrounded with wood or reeds, and if possible with both. The wild birds are attracted into nets placed in the ditches of the decoy, by ducks trained for the purpose, and called decoy-birds. The latter fly abroad, but regularly return, for food, to the pond of the decoy, where they mix with tame ducks, which never quit the place. When it is required to catch the wild birds a quantity of hemp-seed is thrown into the ditches. The decoy and tame ducks lead them in search of this, along the ditches, which generally have reed-skreens at certain intervals on each side, to prevent the decoy-man from being seen. And as soon as they have advanced to the part of the ditch over which the net is extended, the man appears behind. Fearful of returning past him, and unable to escape by flight, they proceed onward to the end of the net, which terminates on the land, and are there caught by a man stationed for the purpose. The trained birds return back, past the decoy-man, into the pond again. The general season for catching wild ducks is from the latter end of October until the beginning of February; and we are informed that, in ten decoys which are near Wainfleet, as many as 31,200 wild ducks, wigeon, teal, and other water fowl, were caught in a single season.

These birds are the original to which we are indebted for our valuable breed, the common or _tame duck_.

185. _The TEAL and WIGEON_ (Anas crecca _and_ penelope) _are two small
species of duck, of which the former has a green spot on each wing, and a
white line about and beneath the eyes; and the latter has the tail
somewhat pointed, the under part near the tail black, the head brown, the
front white, and the back waved with ash-coloured and blackish marks._

Both these species are common in England, and are killed for the table.

186. _The EIDER DUCK_ (Anas mollissima, Fig. 48) _is about twice the size
of the common duck, and known by its bill being cylindric, and the cere
or naked skin at the base being divided into two parts at the back, and
wrinkled._

_These birds inhabit the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America, and
generally form their nests on small islands not far from the sea-shore._

The nests of eider ducks are constructed, externally, of marine plants, and lined with white down, which the birds pluck from their own breasts. This is the substance called _eider down_. It is collected, from the nests, by the bird-catchers, who, for that purpose, carefully remove the females, and then take away a certain portion both of down and eggs from each. More down is plucked from their breasts, and more eggs are laid to supply the place of those that have been taken. The nests are plundered in the same manner as before; and when the young ones are fledged, the whole of the down that remains is collected. It is generally reckoned that the down of one nest, after it has been picked and cleansed, will weigh about a quarter of a pound; and the bulk of the whole quantity may easily be imagined, when it is stated that three quarters of an ounce of eider down is more than sufficient to fill the crown of a large hat. The use of this down is for making beds, but, particularly, for making what are called down quilts, a kind of covering almost like a feather bed, which is used in the northern countries of Europe, as a protection against cold, instead of a common quilt, or blanket.

The _flesh_ and the _eggs_ of these birds are used for food, and their _skins_ are sewed together and made into under garments by the inhabitants of Greenland.

187. _The PUFFIN_ (Alca arctica, Fig. 49) _is a marine bird about the
size of a pigeon, and distinguished by having a large bill compressed at
the sides and marked with four grooves; the top of the head, a ring round
the throat, and all the upper parts of the plumage, black, and the under
parts white._

_These are birds of passage, arriving in this country about the beginning
of April, and leaving it in August. They are chiefly found on rocks and
elevated ground, in unfrequented places, near the sea-shore._

The breeding of puffins is encouraged in the island of Prestholme, North Wales, and other parts of the British dominions, as a source of profit. The birds, which, in some places, are numerous beyond all calculation, form their nests in holes in the ground, each nest containing only a single white egg. The young ones are seized before they are quite fledged; and, after the bones are taken out, the skin is closed round the flesh, and they are pickled in vinegar impregnated with spices. In this state they are sold as a delicacy for the table. The flesh of the old birds is rank and unpalatable, in consequence of their feeding on seaweeds and fish. We are informed, by Dr. Caius, that in Roman Catholic countries, puffins are permitted to be eaten instead of fish during Lent, and on other fast days.

188. _PENGUINS_ (Fig 50.) _are a tribe of marine birds with straight and
narrow bills, furrowed at the sides; the legs situated so far back that
they walk in an upright position; and the wings small, not calculated for
flight, and covered with a broad and strong membrane._

_Most of the penguins are found in different islands of the South Seas._

Vast numbers of these birds inhabit the Falkland islands, and, to mariners, they have sometimes afforded a very seasonable supply of food. They are in general extremely fat, and must be skinned before they are eaten. Sometimes they have been salted and packed in casks to supply the place of beef. These birds are so fearless of the approach of mankind, that there is no difficulty in knocking them down and killing them with sticks.

Penguins form their nests in holes in the ground, and generally lay one egg in each nest. The _eggs_ are an excellent food.

189. _PELECANS, or CORVORANTS, are a tribe of birds distinguished by
their bills being hooked at the end, and furnished with a nail at the
point and a pouch beneath, and having their face naked._

_There are more than thirty known species of pelecans, some of which are
found in nearly every part of the world._

Of these the most remarkable species is the great, or WHITE PELECAN (_Pelecanus onocrolalus_). It is furnished with a bag attached to the lower mandible of its bill, so large as to be capable of containing a great number of fish. On these the pelecan feeds, and, by means of this bag, is enabled to convey them as food for its offspring. We are informed that the inhabitants of Mexico sometimes obtain a supply of fish by cruelly breaking the wing of a live pelecan, and then tying the bird to a tree. Its screams are said to attract other pelecans to the place, which give up a portion of the provisions they have collected to their imprisoned companion. As soon as this is observed the men, who are concealed at a little distance, rush to the spot, and take away all except a small portion, sufficient for the support of the prisoner.

The Chinese train one of the species (_Pelecanus sinensis_) to catch fish, and the birds are so well trained that they do not appear to swallow any, but such as are given to them for encouragement and food.

190. The GANNET (_Pelecanus bassanus_, Fig. 51) is a species of pelecan so numerous, and, at the same time, so important to the inhabitants of some parts of Scotland, that, in the island of St. Kilda only, more than 20,000 are said to be annually killed by the inhabitants as food. The young birds, however, alone are eatable; and, to obtain these and the eggs, the bird-catchers undergo the greatest risks. They not only climb the rocks, but even allow themselves to be lowered from the top of the most dangerous precipices, by ropes, to the ledges on which the nests are placed. As gannets and their eggs are a principal support of the inhabitants of St. Kilda throughout the year, they are preserved, for this purpose, in a frozen state, in small pyramidal stone buildings covered with turf and ashes.

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CLASS III.--AMPHIBIA.

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ORDER I.--REPTILES.

191. _The GREEK TORTOISE_ (Testudo græca) _is a species of reptile of
dirty yellow and black colour; with four feet, and a somewhat
hemispherical shell, consisting of thirteen middle convex pieces, and
about twenty-five marginal ones._

_These animals are about eight inches long, and three or four pounds in
weight. They are found in woods of many of the countries of the
Continent, and in most of the islands of the Mediterranean._

In nearly all countries where these tortoises abound they are considered valuable as food; and are cooked in various ways, but are chiefly used for soup. By some people the _blood_ is eaten without any culinary preparation.

Each tortoise towards the end of June lays, in the sand, from thirty to forty _eggs_, of round shape, and about the size of those of a pigeon. These eggs, when boiled, are in particular esteem for the table. In some parts of Italy it is customary to collect and bury them in places dug in the earth; and when the young ones appear, they are fed and taken care of until they are in a fit state to be killed for the table.

In their habits the animals are mild and peaceable; and, being furnished with a house which they continually carry about with them, and into which they can, in an instant, withdraw their head, legs, and tail, they have no danger to fear from their enemies. So great is the strength of their shell that instances have occurred of their having been run over, even by waggons, without injury. Tortoises have been known to live to the age of more than 100 years.

192. Several other kinds of tortoises serve for food as well as the present; particularly the _ROUND TORTOISE (Testudo orbicularis)_, which is in great request for the tables of the opulent inhabitants of Germany and Hungary.

193. _The HAWK'S-BILL TURTLE_ (Testudo imbricata, Fig. 53) _is a marine
species of tortoise, of yellowish and brown colour, which has fin-shaped
feet each with two claws, thirteen plates in the middle of the shell, and
twenty-one round the margin, lying somewhat loosely over each other at
the edges._

_This animal, which is from two to three feet in length, is a native of
the American and Asiatic seas; and is also sometimes found in the
Mediterranean._

The plates or scales of the hawk's-bill turtle constitute that beautifully variegated and semi-transparent substance called _tortoise-shell_. This, after having been softened by means of boiling water, is capable of being moulded into almost any form; and is in request by opticians and other artists for many purposes both useful and ornamental. The ancient Greeks and Romans were so partial to the use of tortoise-shell that they decorated with it their doors, the pillars of their houses, and even their beds; and the great consumption of it at Rome may be imagined by the relation of Velleius Paterculus, who informs us that, when the city of Alexandria was taken by Julius Cæsar, the magazines or warehouses were so full of this article that he proposed to have it made the principal ornament of his triumph.

The best tortoise-shell which is brought into this country pays an import duty of 1s. 4½d. per pound; and the quantity vended at the East India Company's sales in 1808 was no less than 13,728 pounds.

The _flesh_ of the hawk's-bill turtle is not only of bad flavour, but is said to be even in some degree poisonous; persons who have partaken of it having been seized with vomiting and other unpleasant symptoms. The _eggs_, however, are esteemed peculiarly delicious.

194. _The COMMON, or GREEN TURTLE_ (Testudo mydas, Fig. 52), _is a marine
species of tortoise, distinguished by its oval shape; by the fore-feet
only having two claws, the scales neither folding upon each other, nor
having any ridge, and the middle scales being thirteen in number._

_These, which are the largest kind of tortoise that is known, are
sometimes six feet and upwards in length, and five or six hundred pounds
in weight._

_They are found, and generally in great numbers, on the unfrequented
sea-shores of most countries within the torrid zone._

This species of turtle is one of the most valuable gifts of Providence, to the inhabitants of tropical climates, and to mariners frequenting those climates. It affords them an abundant supply of agreeable and nutritive food. So numerous are they, in some places, that instances have occurred of forty or fifty having been obtained in the course of three hours. They are generally caught whilst asleep on the shore. The seamen go gently to the places where they are found, and successively turn them on their backs. From this position they are unable to recover their feet, and thus are perfectly secured until a sufficient number can be collected for conveyance on ship-board. Turtles are sometimes killed with spears whilst lying at the bottom of the sea in shallow water, or whilst swimming on the surface.

The females dig hollow places in the sand of the sea-shore, a little above high water mark; and in these they deposit sometimes more than a hundred eggs, carefully concealing them, from observation, by scratching over them a thin layer of sand. These eggs, which are wholesome food, are nearly globular, each two or three inches in diameter, and covered with a strong membrane, somewhat like wet parchment. They consist of a yolk, which by boiling hardens like that of other eggs, and of a white that is incapable of being hardened by heat.

The parts of the turtle most in esteem are those about the belly, which are of delicate white colour, somewhat resembling veal; and the green fat, which possesses a very peculiar odour. The whole is extremely nutritious, and of a soft gelatinous nature; but, as it contains a large proportion of strong fat, it should not be eaten without salt and pepper, or other spice; and should be carefully avoided in every form by invalids and persons whose digestive powers are impaired. The flesh of the turtle is sometimes cut into pieces and salted, and in this state forms an article of traffic in the West Indies. Not only the flesh, but even the intestines and eggs are salted. The _fat_ yields a greenish yellow oil, which is used in lamps for burning, and when fresh with food. The inhabitants of some countries convert the upper _shells_ of turtles into canoes, troughs, bucklers, and other useful articles; and sometimes adopt them as a covering for houses.

It does not appear that the turtle has been introduced into England, as an article of luxury for the table, more than seventy or eighty years. We import these animals chiefly from the West Indies.

195. _The EDIBLE FROG_ (Rana esculenta) _is distinguished by its back
being angular, and by having three yellowish stripes which extend from
the muzzle almost to the hind legs._

_These animals are not only common in England, but are found in ponds,
ditches, and fens, in nearly all the temperate parts of Europe._

As an article of luxury for the table the Edible frogs are in great request in France, Germany, and other countries of the Continent. They are generally caught, in the autumn, by rakes with long close-set teeth, by nets, and in numerous other ways. Some persons amuse themselves by catching them with lines and hooks baited with insects or worms. At this season they are collected in thousands, and sold to the wholesale dealers, who have large conservatories for them. These are holes dug in the ground, to the depth of four or five feet, covered at the mouth with a board, and over this, in winter, with straw. We are informed, by Dr. Townson that at Vienna, in the year 1793, there were only three great dealers in frogs; by whom most of those persons were supplied who carried them to the markets for sale.

The parts that are eaten are chiefly the hind quarters.

196. In America the species called _BULL-FROGS_, which sometimes measure eighteen inches and upwards in length, from the nose to the hind feet, are not unfrequently adopted as food.

197. _The CROCODILE and ALLIGATOR_ (Lacerta crocodilus _and_ alligator)
_are two immense animals of the lizard tribe, the principal distinction
between which is founded on the head and part of the neck of the former
being more smooth than those of the latter; and in the snout being
proportionally more wide and flat, as well as more rounded at the
extremity._

_The length of the crocodile, when full grown, is from eighteen to about
twenty-five feet; and that of the alligator somewhat less. Crocodiles are
chiefly found in the river Nile; and alligators in rivers and lakes of
some parts of America._

The _flesh_ of both these animals has a strong, unpleasant, and somewhat musky flavour; yet it is eaten by the natives of most of the countries in which they are found. It is white and juicy; and the parts that are preferred are those about the belly and tail. The flesh of the young ones is, however, said to be devoid of any unpleasant taste, and to be sufficiently palatable even to Europeans. The _eggs_ also are eaten. Of the _teeth_ of the alligator, which are as white as ivory, the Americans make snuff-boxes, charges for guns, and several kinds of toys.

There is an unfounded opinion that the upper jaws of these animals are moveable; and that they have no tongue. They swim with great velocity, and sometimes float asleep on the rivers, like immense logs of wood. Their voracity is excessive; springing in a very surprising manner upon animals on which they prey, they instantly drag them into the water, sink to the bottom, and there devour them. The females deposit their eggs, from eighty to a hundred in number, in the sand, and leave them to be hatched by the heat of the sun.

198. _The GUANA_ (Lacerta iguana, Fig. 55) _is a species of lizard, four
or five feet in length, which has a round and long tail; the back with an
elevated ridge of scales; and the throat with a pouch that is capable of
being inflated to a large size._

_These animals are found among rocks, or in woods, in several parts of
India and America. In Surinam, Guiana, and Cayenne, they are very
numerous: and they are occasionally caught in the West Indian islands._

Scarcely any species of animal food is so much admired by epicures in hot climates as the _flesh_ of the guana. It is preferred even to that of the turtle, and is cooked in various ways, being roasted, boiled, or converted into soup. The fat of these animals, after having been melted and clarified, is applicable to many uses. The flesh is sometimes salted, and exported for sale to distant countries.

There are several modes of catching guanas. In many parts of America they are chased by dogs, which are trained purposely to this pursuit. Frequently they are caught with snares placed near their haunts, and sometimes by a noose of cord affixed to the end of a long rod.

The _eggs_ of the guana, which are generally found in the sand near the sea-shore, are said to be preferable for sauces and other purposes of cookery to the eggs of poultry; but, when eaten alone, they are viscid in the mouth, and to an European palate have at first a very disagreeable taste.

199. _SERPENTS._--Several kinds of serpents are adopted as food by the inhabitants of countries in which they are found. The American Indians often regale themselves on _RATTLE-SNAKES_ (_Crotalus horridus_), skinning and eating them as we do eels. The _GREAT BOA_ (_Boa constrictor_), which sometimes measures more than thirty feet in length, is a favourite food with the negroes of some countries. The flesh of the _COMMON VIPER_ (_Coluber berus_) has been strongly recommended as a medicine in several complaints, such as leprosy, scurvy, rheumatism, and consumptions, but its virtues have been much exaggerated.

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CLASS IV.--FISHES.

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ORDER I.--APODAL FISH.

200. _The ROMAN EEL_ (Muræna helena, Fig. 56) _is a long and slimy fish,
of serpentine form, variously marked and spotted, and destitute of
pectoral fins._

_It is an inhabitant both of fresh and salt waters, and is chiefly found
in the Mediterranean sea, and the rivers that run into that sea._

By the Romans this fish was regarded one of the greatest delicacies which could be introduced at their tables; and instances have been recorded of wealthy persons having even fed them with the flesh of slaves that had been condemned to die, believing that they were thereby rendered still more delicious.

On many parts of the coast of Italy reservoirs were made in the sea for storing and fattening these fish in; and the luxurious Sybarites exempted from every kind of tribute the persons who sold them. Representations of them were made into ear-rings, and into other ornaments for female attire. Pliny tells us, that one of the Roman punishments for youths under the age of seventeen years was to flog them with whips made of eel-skin.

201. _The COMMON EEL_ (Muræna anguilla, Fig. 55) _is distinguishable by
its lower jaw being somewhat longer than the upper, and the body being of
an uniform colour._

_It is an inhabitant of rivers and ponds in almost every country of
Europe; and sometimes grows to the weight of fifteen or twenty pounds._

The _flesh_ of the eel affords a very rich and delicious food; and, were it not for groundless prejudices, arising from its serpent-like shape, this fish would be in much greater request for the table than it now is.

So abundant are eels, in many of the rivers adjacent to the sea, that, in the first autumnal floods several tons' weight have sometimes been caught in a day; and, in the river Ban, near Coleraine, in Ireland, there is an eel-fishery of such extent as to be let for 1000l. per annum. The modes of taking eels are various; but these are chiefly by traps or engines of different kinds, so contrived as to admit of their entering, but to prevent their return.

In the river Nyne, Northamptonshire, a small kind of eels are caught, with small head and narrow mouths, which have the name _bed-eels_. What are called, in the south of England, _grigs_, _gluts_, or _snigs_, are a variety of the common eel with larger head, blunter nose, and thicker skin. _Silver eels_ owe probably their distinction of colour to the clear and gravelly streams in which they feed.

Eels are considered in highest perfection for the table from the commencement of spring till about the end of July; yet they continue good till the end of September. The modes of cooking them are numerous and well known. In some parts of the Continent the _skins_ are made into a kind of ropes, which have great strength and durability. The inhabitants of several of the districts of Tartary use them, in place of glass, for windows; and, in the Orkney Islands, they are worn as a remedy for the cramp. Bits of eel-skin are not unfrequently put into coffee to clarify it. In many parts of the North of Europe the _scales_, which are extremely minute, are mixed with cement to give a silvery lustre to the houses.

202. _The CONGER, or SEA EEL_ (Muræna conger), _is chiefly distinguished
from the common eel by the lower jaw being shorter than the upper, and
the lateral or side line being white._

_It is found in all the European seas; and, when at its full growth,
measures from six to twelve feet in length, and from twelve to twenty
inches in circumference._

So numerous are congers on some of the British shores, that, from Mount's Bay, in Cornwall, there have, in some years, been more than ten tons' weight of dried congers exported to different parts of Spain and Portugal. These fish are also peculiarly abundant in the neighbourhood of the Orkneys and Hebrides. They are chiefly caught with strong lines, each about 500 feet in length, and having sixty hooks placed about eight feet asunder. The lines are sunk in the sea, and sometimes so many of them are fastened together that they extend nearly a mile in length.

The _flesh_ of the conger is white, but coarse and greasy; and, though frequently eaten, is to some persons extremely disgusting. In the salting and drying of these fish they shrink to less than one-fourth part of their original weight, and the process is attended by the most nauseous stench. By the Spaniards and Portuguese dried congers are ground or beaten into powder, to thicken and give a relish to soups.

203. _SAND-LAUNCE, SAND EEL, or WRECKLE_ (Ammodytes tobianus), _is a
small fish, distinguished by its eel-shape, its head being narrower than
the body, the lower jaw much longer than the upper, and the upper lip
being doubled._

_There is only one ascertained species of launce: this is found on sandy
sea-shores in the Northern Ocean, and seldom exceeds the length of six or
eight inches._

From about the end of June to the middle of October these brilliant little fish are caught in great numbers on the southern coasts of England. They are sometimes fished for with seine nets, which have small meshes, and sometimes are dug out of the sand, at low water, with a kind of fork that has three or four short and flat prongs.

When eaten perfectly fresh, these are among the richest and most delicious fish that are known. But, to have them in perfection, they should be cooked almost immediately after they are caught. They so soon become putrid that it would be impossible to convey them to any distant market. The inhabitants of some parts of the Continent salt and dry them, and, in this state, they are considered a great delicacy.

204. _The EUROPEAN SWORD-FISH_ (Xiphias gladius, Fig. 57) _is known by
having its upper jaw lengthened into a hard and sword-shaped blade; and
its dorsal fin long, and lowest in the middle._

_These fish are of steel-blue colour, and measure from fifteen to twenty
feet in length._

_They are found in most parts of the European seas._

By the ancient Romans sword-fish were highly esteemed as food; and were killed, with harpoons, by persons stationed in boats for that purpose. They were not only eaten fresh, but were also cut into pieces and salted. The inhabitants of Sicily are, at this day, extremely partial to them, and purchase them, particularly the smaller ones, at very high prices. The parts chiefly in request are those about the belly and tail. In several places, near the Mediterranean, the fins are salted and sold under the name of _callo_.

ORDER II.--JUGULAR FISH.

205. _The COMMON COD_ (Gadus morhua, Fig. 58) _is distinguished by having
three fins upon its back, a small fleshy beard on the under jaw, the tail
fin nearly even at the extremity, and the first ray of the anal fin
spinous._

_The average weight of these fish is from ten to twenty, or thirty
pounds._

To the inhabitants of many countries, but more especially to those of our own, the cod fishery is a very essential source of wealth. It affords occupation to many thousand persons, and employment for several hundred sail of shipping. The fishery on the great bank near the island of Newfoundland is by far the most important of any that has hitherto been discovered in the world, and the resort of fish to this spot is beyond all imagination numerous. In the year 1791 there were caught more than 750,000,000 pounds weight.

This immense bank is a vast mountain in the sea, more than 400 miles long, 150 miles broad, and, in depth of water, from twenty to sixty fathoms. It was first discovered in the reign of Henry the Seventh; and in 1548 an act of parliament was passed, by which all Englishmen were permitted to traffic and fish on the coasts of Newfoundland and the adjacent banks, without payment of any duty. In 1583 Sir Humphrey Gilbert took possession of the island of Newfoundland in the name of Queen Elizabeth; and the first English company that associated to settle a colony there was incorporated by a patent of King James the First, in 1609.

The Newfoundland fishery at present gives freight to about 300 vessels, from 100 to 200 tons' burden each. These are chiefly fitted out from the islands of Guernsey and Jersey, from Ireland, and some ports of the English Channel, as Pool, Dartmouth, &c. When these vessels arrive at the fishery, a kind of gallery is formed, which reaches from the main-mast to the poop, and sometimes even from one end of the ship to the other. This is furnished with tuns stove in at one end, into which the fishermen get, to be sheltered from the weather, their heads being covered with a kind of roof fixed to the top of the tun. The mode of fishing is by hook and line only; and the baits are herrings, a small fish called capelins (209), shell fish, or pieces of sea fowl. Each man can catch only one fish at a time; yet an expert fisherman has sometimes been known to take 400 in a day. As soon as the fish are caught the tongues are cut out, the heads cut off, and the liver, entrails, and spine, are all taken out. After this they are salted and piled, for some time, in the holds of the vessels, and then packed in barrels for sale, under the name of _green_ or _wet cod_. When the fish are to be dried, they are conveyed in boats to the shore, where they are headed, cleansed, and salted, upon stages or scaffolds erected for that purpose. They are subsequently spread on the shore to dry; these are called _dry cod_, and constitute the principal object of the Newfoundland trade. The chief markets to which the fish are conveyed are those of Spain, Portugal, Italy, and the Levant.

The most important fishing banks of Europe are in the neighbourhood of Iceland, Norway, and the Orkney Islands; and the Dogger-bank, and Well-bank, betwixt this country and Holland.

As the air-bladders of cod are thick and of a gelatinous nature, the Icelanders frequently make _isinglass_ of them, similar to that which we usually import from Russia. By the Newfoundland fishermen the air-bladders are generally salted and packed in barrels under the name of _sounds_; and these, when good, are considered a great delicacy for the table. The _tongues_ are prepared in the same manner and for the same purpose. From the _livers_, after they have become in a certain degree putrid, a kind of oil is obtained which is considered superior to whale oil (118), because it preserves leather longer flexible, and, when clarified, yields less vapour in burning than that. The _roes_ are collected by the Icelanders, salted, packed in barrels, and sold to the Dutch, French, and Spaniards, as bait for anchovies and other fish. Before the commencement of the French revolution from 20,000 to 30,000 barrels of these roes were annually exported from Bergen. The inhabitants of some parts of Norway, when forage is scarce, dry the _heads_ of cod, and, mixing them with some species of sea-weeds, give them as food to their cattle.

The London markets are abundantly supplied with fresh cod from the fishing banks adjacent to our own country. These fish are in season from the beginning of December till about the end of April; and are brought alive to the Thames in well-boats, the air-bladders being previously perforated with a pointed instrument, to prevent the fish from rising in the water. Cod should be chosen for the table of middling size, plump about the shoulder and near the tail, the hollow behind the head deep, and with a regular undulated appearance on the sides, as if they were ribbed. The gills should be very red, the eyes fresh, and the flesh white and firm.

It is generally considered that the shoals of cod confine themselves between the latitudes 66° and 50° north. Those which are caught to the north or south of these degrees are both few in quantity and bad in quality.

206. _The HADDOCK_ (Gadus aglefinus) _is a fish of the cod tribe, which
has three fins tip on its back, a small fleshy beard on the under jaw,
the upper jaw the longer, and the tail somewhat forked. There is a dark
oval spot on each side of the body a little below the gills._

_These fish seldom exceed the weight of seven or eight pounds._

Our markets are principally supplied with haddocks from the coast of Yorkshire and other eastern parts of England. They are best in season betwixt the months of July and January, after which they deposit their eggs or roe, and, for many weeks, are scarcely eatable; but those which have not begun to breed may be admitted to the table after this period. Their flesh, which in a degree resembles that of the common cod, is white, firm, well-tasted, and easy of digestion. Those that are best for the table do not usually exceed the weight of two or three pounds.

Though haddocks are sometimes caught with nets, they are much more frequently taken by lines. Each of these has a great number of hooks, and is placed in the sea at the ebb of the tide, and taken up at the ensuing tide. The numbers thus caught have, in some instances, been almost beyond belief. Some idea may however be formed respecting them, when it is stated that shoals of haddocks have not unfrequently been known to extend four or five miles in length and nearly a mile in width.

These fish are sometimes salted and packed in barrels like cod. And, if this be skilfully done, they are excellent eating, and may be kept good for a great length of time.

207. _The TORSK_ (Gadus callarias, Fig. 59) _is a species of cod which
has three fins upon its back, a small fleshy beard on the under jaw, the
upper jaw longer than the lower, and the tail fin nearly even at the
extremity._

_Its usual weight is from two to seven or eight pounds._

As an article of food the torsk is said to be superior to every fish of its tribe. It is principally found in the Baltic Sea and the Northern Ocean, and has not hitherto been known to frequent the English shores. The most favourable seasons for catching these fish, in Greenland, are the spring and autumn; and the general mode is by lines made of pieces of whalebone, or thongs of seal-skin, the hooks being baited with fish.

The Icelanders frequently salt and dry them, as one of their articles of subsistence for the winter.

208. _The WHITING POUT_ (Gadus barbatus) _is a small fish of the cod
kind, distinguishable by the great depth of its body, which is usually
about one-third of its length; by having three dorsal fins, a small
fleshy beard on the chin, and seven punctures on each side of the lower
jaw._

_Its weight seldom exceeds a pound and half or two pounds._