Chapter V: ANIMALCULES Are destitute of tentacula or feelers, and are generally (4)

91. Those called LEICESTER SHEEP are chiefly bred in that and the adjacent counties, and are much esteemed for their property of readily fattening. Their _mutton_, when in perfection, has a fineness of grain and a superiority of flavour beyond that of almost every other kind of sheep. These animals are capable of being rendered so fat, that, in some instances they have measured more than six inches deep in solid fat on the ribs. But, in this case, the mutton is scarcely eatable.

92. A coarse _wool_, but so long as to measure from ten to more than eighteen inches, is obtained from the breed called LINCOLNSHIRE SHEEP.

93. For united excellence of _wool_ and _mutton_ the SOUTH DOWN SHEEP are in great demand. This breed, which particularly abounds on the dry and chalky downs of Sussex and other southern parts of England, has of late been dispersed over nearly the whole kingdom. The animals are distinguishable by their grey or speckled face and legs, and being destitute of horns.

94. From the RYELAND and or HEREFORDSHIRE SHEEP is obtained a peculiarly short, soft, and fine _wool_, which, if the filaments were of equal thickness and quality throughout, would be as valuable as the best wool that we import from Spain. The _mutton_ of these sheep is also fine-grained and of excellent flavour.

95. A breed of sheep, which is well known in Northumberland by the name of CHEVIOT SHEEP, produces very admirable _mutton_ and _wool_ of fine texture. Of the _milk_ of these sheep great quantities of cheese are made, which is sold at a low price. This, when three or four days old, becomes very pungent, and is in considerable esteem for the table.

96. The SHETLAND islands produce a kind of sheep so small as seldom to exceed the weight of thirty or forty pounds. Their _wool_ is sufficiently soft to be adapted even to clothing of the most delicate texture. A pair of stockings that were made of it were so fine as to be sold for six guineas. The _skins_ of these sheep with the fleece on are capable of being converted into a fur of great value; and, when the wool is stripped from them, they are, as leather, peculiarly estimable for aprons, and are purchased by mechanics for this purpose at double the price of other skins of the same size.

97. It is to the breed called DORSETSHIRE SHEEP that the London markets are principally indebted for the _house-lamb_, which, at an early part of the season, bears so high a price. After the lambs are produced they are confined in small dark places, and never see the light, except when brought out to be fed by the ewes; and, at the times when thus brought out, their cabins are cleansed, and littered with fresh straw, as a great part of their value depends upon the cleanliness in which they are kept.

98. The _mutton_ of the HEATH SHEEP, a breed which is found in most of the north-western parts of England, and even as far as the western Highlands of Scotland, is accounted peculiarly excellent; and immense numbers of these sheep are annually sold at the north country fairs. The animals themselves are hardy and active, and well adapted to subsist in healthy and mountainous districts.

99. _MERINO SHEEP are a celebrated Spanish breed of sheep, with small
horns, white face and legs, small bones, a loose skin hanging from the
neck, the wool fine, the external part of the fleece dark brown in
consequence of the dust adhering to it, the interior delicate white, and
the skin of rosy hue._

The celebrity of this breed, for the production of a remarkably fine _wool_, has been such, that all the highest priced cloths manufactured in this country, until of late years, were made of Spanish wool. In the year 1787 some of these sheep were first introduced into England. And, although it was formerly a prevailing opinion that the excellence of their fleece depended, in a great degree, upon the temperature of the Spanish climate, it has been satisfactorily ascertained that the fineness of Spanish wool is not in the slightest degree impaired by breeding the sheep in this country. Even in Hungary sheep of this kind have, for many years, been so successfully reared, that much of the fine wool used in our clothing countries has been imported from thence. The average weight of the Merino fleece is about three pounds and half. It has lately been a great object of attention in England to improve our own breeds, particularly the Ryeland, by a mixture with merinos, and this cross breed is stated to retain all the principal characteristics of the Spanish race. The _mutton_ of these sheep, for size and flavour, is much in demand, and sells in the market at a higher price than that of most other kinds of sheep.

100. _The BROAD-TAILED SHEEP are a very remarkable kind of sheep,
distinguished by their tails being extremely large, and so long as
sometimes to drag upon the ground._

_They are found in several parts of Persia, Syria, Egypt, and other
eastern countries._

The _tails_ of these animals are almost wholly composed of a substance resembling marrow, and sometimes they are equal in weight to one-third of the whole carcase. To prevent them from chafing against the ground, the shepherds not unfrequently put boards, with small wheels, under them, attached to the hinder parts of the animal. The substance of these tails is in great demand, instead of butter, for culinary purposes; and it forms an ingredient in several kinds of dishes. The _fleece_ of the broad-tailed sheep is peculiarly long and fine, and, in Thibet, is manufactured into shawls and other articles of peculiarly delicate texture, which form a considerable source of wealth to the inhabitants.

Of these, and of another kind of sheep called _Tartarian_ or _fat-rumped sheep_, the hinder parts of which are so excessively fat as entirely to enclose the tail, there are great numbers bred in Tartary. It is even stated that, on an average, 150,000 of them are annually sold at the fairs of Orenburgh, and a much greater number in some other places.

101. _The COMMON OX_ (Bos taurus domesticus, Fig. 29) _is characterised
by having rounded horns which curve outward, and a loose skin or dewlap
beneath the throat._

_The male is called_ bull, _the female_ cow, _and the young one_ calf.

_This animal, in a wild state, is the_ bison (Fig. 15) _which is found in
the marshy forests of Poland and Lithuania._

It is almost impossible to enumerate all the benefits that mankind derive from these admirable animals. In many countries nearly the whole labour of agriculture is performed by oxen, and, after this service is over, they are fatted and slaughtered for food. It is well known in what estimation they were formerly held in Egypt; they furnished even deities to the superstitious inhabitants of that country. From their supplying the Gentoos with milk, butter, and cheese, their favourite food, those people bear for them a veneration so great that nothing on earth would induce them to slay one of them.

In nearly all eastern countries oxen are employed in treading out corn. By the Caffres of the Cape of Good Hope they are used as beasts of draught and burden. When Mr. Barrow and his suite went into the country of the Caffres, the king, who was at a distance from his usual residence, was sent to; and he is stated to have arrived riding upon an ox full gallop, attended by five or six of his people.

To the _milk_ of the cow we are indebted for several important articles of human subsistence. It is adapted to every state and age of the body, but particularly to the feeding of infants after they have been weaned. Skimmed milk, or that which remains after the cream has been taken off, is employed, in considerable quantity, by wine and spirit merchants, for clarifying or fining down turbid white wine, arrack, and weak spirits.

Nearly all the _cheese_ that is consumed in the British islands is made of cow's milk. For this purpose the milk is curdled by mixture with a substance called rennet, which is prepared from the inner membrane of a calf's stomach; and the curd, thus formed, after being cleared of the whey or watery part contained in the milk, is collected together, pressed, and dried for use.

The richest of all the English kinds of cheese is that called _Stilton cheese_. This, however, is not, as its name would import, made in the town of Stilton, but in various parts of Huntingdonshire, and in Leicestershire, Rutland, and Northamptonshire. Stilton cheese is indebted, for its excellence, both to the rich pastures on which the cows are fed, and to the peculiar process by which it is made. It is not sufficiently mellowed for use until two years old, and is not in a state to be eaten till it is decayed, blue, and moist. To hasten the ripening of Stilton cheeses, it is not unusual to place them in buckets, and to cover these with horse-dung. _Cheshire_ is famous for its cheese, which is generally much salter and more smart upon the palate than any other English kind. In _Wiltshire_ and _Gloucestershire_ much cheese of rich and excellent quality is made.

The neighbourhood of _Chedder_, in the county of Somerset, produces a very admirable kind, which is little inferior in taste to Parmesan, and is supposed to owe its peculiar quality to the cows feeding in rich pastures, and particularly on the flote fescue grass (_Festuca fluitans_), with which many of those pastures abound. _Cottenham cheese_ is a soft white cheese, for which we are chiefly indebted to a small village of that name situated a few miles from Cambridge. In the neighbourhood of _Bath_ and _York_, and also in _Lincolnshire_, a rich and excellent kind of cream cheese is made. In Scotland a species of cheese is produced which has long been known and celebrated under the name of _Dunlop cheese_, from a parish of that name in Ayrshire, in the neighbourhood of which it is principally made.

Of foreign kinds of cheese the most celebrated is _Parmesan_. This is made of ewes' milk, or of a mixture of ewes' or goats' milk with that of the cow. We receive it from various parts of Italy, and also from other countries, although the name would import it to be made exclusively in the neighbourhood of Parma. In the district of _Gruyere_, a small town in the canton of Friburg in Switzerland, a well-known kind of cheese of large size is made, which goes by that name. _Gouda_ cheese is famous in Holland. The common _Dutch cheeses_ are of globular shape, and each three or four pounds in weight. They are prepared in the same manner as Cheshire cheese, with the exception that, instead of rennet, the Dutch use spirit of vitriol (sulphuric acid). Hence this kind of cheese has a sharp and saline taste, which is said to exempt it from the depredations of mites. _Green Swiss cheese_ has a strong and peculiar flavour derived from the fragrant powder of melliot (_Trifolium melilotus officinalis_). This cheese is, however, to many persons, very disagreeable.

When milk has been suffered to stand a few hours, a substance called _cream_ rises to the surface. This is skimmed off for several uses, but principally for the purpose of being made into _butter_, which is done by beating it in a vessel called a churn. In Cheshire it is customary to churn the butter from the whole milk, without its being skimmed, but this is contrary to the practice in most other parts of England. The consumption of butter is so great that not less than 50,000 tons' weight of it are stated to be annually used in London only. That, which is principally in esteem there is produced in Essex, and known by the name of _Epping butter_.

To make butter keep for a greater length of time than it would otherwise do, it is salted and packed in small tubs or barrels; and, in this state, it is a very considerable article of commerce. In the salting and packing of butter many abuses are practised, to increase its bulk and weight, against which there is an express act of parliament. Lumps of good butter are sometimes laid, for a little depth, at the top of a barrel, with butter of inferior quality beneath it. Sometimes the butter is packed hollow; and sometimes the exterior part of the butter is good whilst the whole interior is bad.

After the butter has been separated there remains in the churn a kind of whey which is called _butter-milk_, and the quality of which greatly depends on the manner of churning. Before it turns sour, butter-milk is a favourite beverage in the families of some farmers. It is also occasionally used as a wash for the face, being considered a remedy against freckles; but it is principally applied for the feeding of pigs.

The flesh of oxen constitutes the kind of food which we call _beef_. This is usually eaten in a recent state, but is sometimes, particularly in the northern parts of England, in Ireland, and Holland, salted in the manner of bacon, and in this state, it is a considerable article of trade. It affords a strong and invigorating nutriment, superior to any that we are acquainted with. _Beef-tea_ is a preparation commonly made for invalids and convalescents, and consists of an infusion of the lean parts of beef in boiling water. _Veal_, or the flesh of calves, is an highly esteemed and delicate food.

The _skins_ of cattle, after they have undergone the processes of tanning and currying, are employed for making harness, saddles, bridles, the soles of shoes, and for various other purposes. _Calves' skins_ are used for the upper leathers of shoes, and by saddlers, book-binders, &c. The skins of sucking calves are manufactured into _vellum_, a thin substance which is employed by book-binders; also for writing and drawing upon, and for other uses. From the parings and other offals of the hides of oxen, and the parings and scraps of the legs, by boiling them in water to the consistence of a jelly, straining them through a wicket basket, suffering the impurities to subside, and then boiling them a second time, is made _glue_. This, in a state of jelly, is poured into flat frames or moulds; when congealed, it is cut into square pieces, and afterwards dried, by being suspended in a coarse kind of netting.

The leg-_bones_ of oxen, after having been whitened by boiling them with quick-lime, are used in the manufacture of the handles of knives and forks, and for innumerable other purposes. This substance, when good, is nearly allied to ivory: but is easily distinguished by its porous nature, its coarse grain, and its wanting the beautiful white veins which are so conspicuous in ivory. Bones, after having been burnt or calcined, are used by the refiners of gold and silver.

The _horns_ of oxen are used for many of the same purposes as bone. After having been softened by heat they are capable of being moulded into almost any shape. They are sometimes stained in such manner as to imitate tortoise-shell, and they are then used for the making of combs. By a peculiar process they are rendered semi-transparent, and, when formed into thin plates, are employed instead of glass for lanthorns. Horn was the first transparent substance that was ever used for lanthorns and windows.

_Tallow_ is the fat of sheep and oxen, cleared of its fibrous parts by straining and other management. It is further improved and clarified by the addition of alum, and, in this state, is used for the making of candles. Tallow is also a chief ingredient in soap. From the feet of oxen is procured a kind of oil, called _Neats'-foot oil_, which is of great use in the preparing and softening of leather. The _blood_ is employed in the clarifying of sugar, and great quantities of it, during the late war, were exported from London to Sweden for this purpose. The skins of the intestines are used for beating gold leaf betwixt; and these, under the name of _gold-beaters' skin_, are afterwards considered efficacious as an adhesive plaster for healing small wounds. Of gold-beaters' skin the French manufacturers of toys sometimes construct little balloons for the amusement of children. A few years ago there was, in London, an exhibition of animals formed of this substance and inflated with air.

102. British cattle are considered preferable to the cattle of any other country in the world. Those called DEVONSHIRE CATTLE, which are distinguished by their mahogany colour and light yellow horns, are adjudged to be the best of any. They are much used in agricultural labours, being peculiarly fitted for draught both by their hardiness and activity. The _beef_ of this breed is peculiarly excellent. Their _skins_ are thin, but improve much in tanning; and the _tallow_ is of peculiarly good quality.

103. In the northern parts of England there is a very useful kind, called HOLDERNESS or DUTCH CATTLE. These, in size and weight exceed all the British cattle. The cows have great celebrity for yielding a very extraordinary quantity of _milk_; instances have been mentioned of their yielding thirty-six quarts in a day. This stock is well known in the neighbourhood of the metropolis, being that which is generally kept by the London cow-keepers. The animal exhibited in London in the beginning of 1802, under the name of the "wonderful ox," was a variety produced from this breed, and weighed more than 200 stone.

104. The LANCASHIRE or LONG-HORNED CATTLE, are much esteemed for the dairy. The cows yield from sixteen to twenty-four quarts of _milk_ per day; and, on an average, about 300 weight of cheese per annum. They are hardy animals, readily become fat, and produce remarkably well-flavoured _beef_. But they are chiefly celebrated for the thickness and substance of their hides, which are very valuable, and sell at high prices. In many instances the _hides_ have been known to produce a greater price per pound than the beef.

105. ALDERNEY CATTLE are a favourite breed, that have long been known and esteemed, in the southern counties of England, for their _milk_, which is richer than that of any other breed. These animals are of small size, the cows seldom exceeding the height of four feet; yet they are known to produce so much milk as to yield from 200 to more than 300 pounds' weight of butter per annum. In the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, and Alderney, where these cattle are chiefly bred, they are sometimes employed in ploughing; but their greatest use is in carting, and, in this respect, they are found to answer peculiarly well in bad roads and hilly countries. Their _beef_ is generally yellow or very high coloured; but it is peculiarly fine in the grain, and of excellent flavour.

106. Scotland is famous for a small kind of black cattle, with fine white upright horns tipped with black, called HIGHLAND STOTS, or KYLOE CATTLE. Having great celebrity for the fineness and sweetness of their _beef_, as well as the facility with which they are fattened, these cattle are in such esteem as to be driven into the southern counties of England, and occasionally to supply even the London markets. The cows, in proportion to their size, yield a great quantity of rich milk.

107. _The YAK, or GRUNTING OX_ (Bos grunniens), _is an animal of large
size, with round, upright, and slender horns, a lump on the shoulders,
long and pendant hair, white on the back and tail; and the tail somewhat
resembling that of a horse._

_In a wild state this animal is an inhabitant of the mountains of
Thibet._

With the oriental princes the white _tails_ of the yak are of great value for military standards; and the use of them is very ancient. These tails are also employed, in many parts of the East, to ornament the trappings both of elephants and horses; and, when mounted on a silver handle, they are used by the principal men of India as a brush to chase away flies. The Chinese dye the hair of a red colour, and form tufts for their caps of it. Many beautiful kinds of stuffs are woven of a fine wool which these animals have next to their skin.

108. _The MUSK OX_ (Bos moschatus) _is a North American animal of small
size, with horns broad, and approaching each other at the base, bent
downward, and the tips upward and pointed; a protuberance on the
shoulder, and the body covered with long silky hair of a dusky red
tinge._

To the North American Indians the musk ox is an animal of considerable importance. Its _flesh_ furnishes them with an useful food, which, though it has a musky flavour, is not on that account the less esteemed. This flesh, in a frozen state, is also an article of traffic, with the British and American forts, during winter.

At the roots of the long hair of the musk ox there is a peculiarly beautiful ash-coloured _fleece_, which is finer and softer than silk, and may be wrought into very elegant articles of dress. It is of the long hair of these animals that the Esquimaux Indians make those caps which give them their very extraordinary appearance, by the ends being contrived so to fall down over their face, as to protect them from the bites of musquetoes. The _skins_ are convertible into leather, and are also frequently used, by Indians, with the hair on, as coverings of various kinds.

109. _The AMERICAN BISON_ (Bos Americanus) _is a large species of ox,
with round and distant horns which point outward, a long and woolly mane,
and a large fleshy protuberance on the shoulders._

_These animals inhabit, in immense herds, the savannahs and marshes of
the interior of North America._

As they are capable of being domesticated, and, in this state, are sufficiently tractable for the purpose, they are sometimes rendered useful for agricultural labours. The hunting of the wild bison is a common and very arduous employment of the natives of the interior of America, particularly those living adjacent to the rivers Mississippi and Ohio. The _flesh_ of these animals is used as food, and the fatty protuberance on the shoulders is esteemed a great delicacy. The _tongues_, which are reckoned superior to those of oxen, are frequently transported to New Orleans, where they always have a ready sale. When the animals are quite fat they are said to yield sometimes as much as 150 pounds weight of _tallow_ each. The latter is so important an article of commerce, that, in many instances, the hunters cut out only the tongue and tallow, leaving the remainder of the carcase to be devoured by wild beasts. Powder-flasks are made of the _horns_. The _skins_ are capable of being converted into an excellent buff leather; and, when dressed with the hair on, the lighter skins serve the Indians as beds, and for clothes, gloves, and shoes. Some persons use them as blankets, and find them a very warm and pleasant covering. The _hair_ is spun and woven into various articles of clothing, which are both durable and useful, and are peculiarly soft and pleasant to the wearer.

110. _The BUFFALO_ (Bos bubalus) _is a species of ox, which has large
horns of compressed form, with the outer edge sharp, growing straight for
a considerable length from their base, and then bent slightly upward: on
the shoulders there is a bony protuberance; and the general colour of the
hair is black or dusky._

_In a wild state these animals are natives of Asia and Africa; and they
are domesticated in India, and in some of the warmer parts of Europe._

Although the buffalo is naturally a savage and ferocious beast, yet, when properly trained, it is very serviceable to mankind. These animals are used both for draught and burthen, and are sometimes even trained for the saddle. They are guided by a cord attached to a ring, which is made to pass through the cartilage of their nose. Two buffaloes, harnessed to a carriage, are considered able to draw as much as four horses.

The _milk_ of the buffalo, though not so good as that of the cow, is in greater quantity, and in much esteem. _Ghee_ is a kind of butter made from the milk of these animals, and clarified. This is an article of commerce in various parts of India, and is generally conveyed in bags or bottles made of the hide, each of which holds from ten to forty gallons. The _flesh_ is said somewhat to resemble beef, but to be of a darker colour: that of the calves is considered peculiarly delicate. Of the skin is made a strong and durable leather, which, under the name of _buff_ leather, is applicable to a great variety of uses. The _horns_ have a fine grain, are strong, and bear a good polish; and are, therefore, much used by cutlers and other artificers. They are occasionally imported into this country from Bengal.

These animals usually associate in large herds, in marshy and woody plains. So great is their ferocity that the hunters are at all times fearful of attempting to kill them, unless they are perfectly sure of their aim. They swim over even the widest rivers with a facility which can be equalled by few quadrupeds.

111. _The CAPE BUFFALO_ (Bos cafer) _is an excessively strong and
ferocious beast of the ox tribe, which has thick horns that are rugged at
the base, and lie so flat as to cover almost all the top of the head._

_These animals are found in herds of a hundred and fifty or two hundred
together, in the plains of Caffraria, and other parts of the south of
Africa._

There are no animals of the ox tribe so savage, so much dreaded, nor so wantonly mischievous as these: they attack and destroy mankind without being themselves previously assailed, and commit devastations of the most alarming kind in the neighbourhood of the places where they are found. They are killed on account of their _flesh_, which is lean, but juicy and of high flavour; and also on account of their _hides_, which are so thick and tough that even musket-proof targets are formed of them. Of these hides also the strongest and best thongs for harness are made. The Hottentots, who are never inclined to take much trouble in dressing their victuals, cut the _flesh_ off into slices, and then smoke, and at the same time half broil, it over a few coals. They also frequently eat it in a state of absolute putrefaction.

ORDER VI.--BELLUÆ.

112. _The HORSE_ (Equus caballus, Fig. 30) _is distinguished from every
other quadruped by having his hoofs single, and his tail covered with
long hair._

_The male has the name of_ horse, _the female of_ mare, _and the young
one of_ foal.

_Wild horses are found, in large herds, in Siberia, and several other
parts of Asia, as well as in some parts of Africa._

Endowed with the most useful qualifications, the horse is an animal of the greatest importance to the inhabitants of all temperate climates. Though naturally spirited, active, and intrepid, he submits with patience to carry burthens, and to toil, for days together, along roads and in agricultural labours. And, if treated with care and attention, he perseveringly adapts himself to our wants and conveniences. In some parts of Tartary these animals have even been made objects of divine worship, originating, no doubt, in a principle of gratitude for the services they perform. By the Arabians they are nearly as much attended to and beloved as human beings: they live in the same tents with their owners, and participate in all the kindnesses which this people bestow upon their own families. In Arabia, indeed, they may be deemed the chief support of the families which possess them; and (surrounded with foes) the very existence of the owner not unfrequently depends upon the powers of his horse.

In no country of Europe is so much attention paid to the breeding and training of horses as in England. The consequence has been that the British horses are superior, both in swiftness of foot, and in strength and perseverance in the course, to any others in this quarter of the world.

The fleetest of all the _British horses_ is, of course, the _race-horse_: and, for short distances, none of the Arabians, which have been tried in England, have proved in any degree equal to him. The celebrated horse called Childers, in the year 1721, ran four miles in six minutes and forty-eight seconds, carrying a weight of nine stone two pounds. Had the different racing meetings at Newmarket, York, and other places, no other view than to call together great concourses of people for amusement, their tendency would be injurious rather than beneficial to society; but when it is considered that such meetings are the cause of great emulation in the breeding of a race of animals so valuable as the horse, their utility will be sufficiently apparent.

The English _hunters_ are allowed to be among the noblest, most elegant, and most useful animals that are known; and the value of our _hackneys_, or road horses, may be imagined when it is stated that many of them are able to trot at the rate of more than fifteen miles per hour.

So great is the strength of these animals, that instances have been mentioned of a single horse drawing, for a short space, the weight of three tons; and of others carrying a load which weighed more than 900 pounds. The immense _dray-horses_ that are employed by brewers, and are so frequently seen in the streets of London, though in some measure they are useful as being able better to sustain the shock of loading and unloading than slighter animals, are chiefly kept from a principle of ostentation. The British _draught-horses_ are extremely valuable animals, but particularly a chesnut-coloured race called Suffolk-horses.

In _Scotland_ there is a breed of small horses, or ponies, which are known by the name of _galloways_. The best of these seldom exceed the height of fourteen hands and a half,[2] and are uncommonly active, hardy, and spirited animals. The Shetland Islands produce a race called _shelties_, which, though exceedingly diminutive in size, are, in other respects, highly excellent.

In _Ireland_ the cart-horses, though of sufficient size, are ill-shaped and bad. The saddle-horses appear naturally as good as ours; but, in general, they are ill kept, worse groomed, and still worse shod.

The _French horses_ are extremely various in their kind; but few of them can be called fine. The best saddle-horses of France are produced in the vicinity of Limosin, and in Normandy. The latter, though not so valuable as hunters, are preferable to all the rest for war. Lower Normandy is famous for fine carriage horses. A prevailing fault in the horses of France is too great a width across the shoulders.

The _Dutch horses_ are said to be very good for carriages; and great numbers of them are annually sent into France. The _Flemish horses_ are far inferior to those of Holland. They have generally large heads and broad feet; and their legs are subject to dropsical swellings.

_Germany_ affords some fine horses, but the generality of them are heavy and thick-winded. Those of _Hungary_ and _Transylvania_, however, are very light and fleet. The Hussars and Hungarians, it is said, adopt the cruel practice of slitting the nostrils of their horses, with a view to improve their wind, and prevent them from neighing in the field.

The _Danish horses_ are so large in size, and so well set, that they were formerly preferred, as carriage-horses, to all others. They are extremely various in colour; and many of them are pyed and spotted, which is not the case with the horses of other countries.

In _Spain_ the horses are very beautiful and excellent. They have a long thick neck, with a flowing mane. The head is large; the ears are long, but well placed; the eyes full of fire; the air noble and spirited; the shoulders thick, and the chest broad. They have great agility and stateliness. Their prevailing colours are black and light chesnut.

The _Italian horses_ were formerly much finer than they are at present, the breeding of them having long been neglected. The kingdom of Naples, however, still affords fine horses, especially for carriages; but they have, in general, large heads and thick necks. They are also untractable, and consequently are difficult to be trained; but these defects are, in some degree, compensated by the largeness of their size, their spirit, and the beauty of their motions.

There is a prevalent and erroneous notion that the _flesh_ of the horse is bitter and unpalatable. In several parts of Asia wild horses are killed almost exclusively for food; and the Calmuc Tartars, in particular, are so partial to this kind of flesh, that they seldom eat any other. Horses' flesh is constantly exposed for sale in the markets of Tonquin. A celebrated British writer (Dr. Anderson) has strongly recommended the fattening of horses as food in this country, and urges his recommendation by declaring that horse-flesh is superior in delicacy of flavour to beef!

The Tartars drink the _milk_ of the mare, and also convert it into butter and cheese. One of their most favourite kinds of beverage is called _koumiss_: it is a sort of wine made of fermented mares' milk; and is carried, by them, from place to place, in bags made of horses' hides. When in perfection, the taste of koumiss is said to be a pleasant mixture of sweet and sour; but it is necessary to agitate it before it is drunk. This preparation is also considered of great utility in a medicinal view.

The _skin_ of the horse, after it is tanned, is made into collars, traces, and other parts of harness; and, under the name of _cordovan_, is also used for shoes. The _hair_ forms a considerable branch of trade. That of the tail is employed for weaving the covers or seats of chairs and sofas; for making sieves, fishing-lines, and the bows of musical instruments. The inferior hair of the tail and mane is employed for the stuffing of bolsters and mattresses. For this purpose it is baked, by which it is rendered one of the most elastic substances, for couches, that are known. The short hair of the horse is used for stuffing saddles and horse-collars.

If horses be well treated, and properly attended to, they will sometimes live to the age of fifty years; but, during great part of this time, they are generally so decrepid as to be unable to perform any services whatever for their owners. To ascertain the age of a horse, reference is generally had to the teeth. Deeply sunk eye-pits are usually considered a criterion, though not an infallible one, of an old horse; and, for colts or young horses, attention must be paid to the appearance of their coat, and of the hairs of the mane and tail, as it is not until they have changed their first teeth that any correct judgment of their age can be formed from the mouth. The deceptions of horse-dealers in changing the appearance of the teeth, and in various other particulars relative to the horse, render great caution necessary in the purchase of these animals.

113. _The ASS_ (Equus asinus) _is characterized by his tail having long
hairs only towards the extremity, and the male having a blackish cross
over the shoulders._

_Wild asses associate in herds in the mountainous deserts of Tartary,
Persia, and India; and also in some parts of Africa._

This animal, which by care and attention, is rendered, in Spain and some other countries, an elegant, tractable, and valuable servant of man, is entirely neglected by us; and, in England, has consequently degenerated into a stupid and inactive beast. The Sacred Writings speak of asses being in general use throughout the Eastern countries, both for the saddle, and as animals of draught and burthen. With the Romans they were in such estimation that Pliny speaks of a male ass having been sold at a price which exceeded 3000l. of our money. In Spain the best asses are sold at very high prices, sometimes as much as 100 guineas and upwards each.

Doomed as it is with us to slavery and ill treatment, we cannot be surprised that the ass, in many instances, should appear a stubborn and intractable animal. But whenever it is well treated, it is remarkable for meekness, patience, and docility; it submits quietly to chastisement, is temperate in its food, and is contented to feed on such vegetables as most other animals would refuse. In proportion to its size, the ass is capable of supporting great fatigue, and of dragging and carrying heavy burthens. Asses are chiefly employed for drawing hucksters' carts, and similar burthens; and, if properly trained, there can be no doubt but they would constitute the cheapest team that could be used. Being more hardy than horses, these animals are preferred to them for journeys across the deserts of Asia. Most of the Musselmen pilgrims use them in their long and laborious journeys to Mecca. In the principal streets of Cairo, asses stand ready saddled for hire, and answer the same purposes as hackney coaches in London. The person who lets an ass accompanies him, running behind to goad him on.

Asses' _milk_ is light, easy of digestion, and so nutritious as to be recommended in many disorders. It is particularly agreeable to the tender stomachs of consumptive persons, is wholesome for young children, and is chiefly drunk whilst warm from the animals; there is a mode of preparing artificial asses' milk with eryngo root, pearl-barley, and liquorice root, boiled in water, and mixed with new cows' milk. In some parts of the Continent asses' milk is occasionally used as a cosmetic.

The _flesh_ of the wild ass is so much esteemed in Persia that it is admitted even to the imperial table. The Persians have an adage expressive of their high opinion of it. Notwithstanding this, the flesh of the domestic ass is so bad as food, that it is said few persons would be able to eat of it. From their hardness and elasticity, the _skins_ of these animals are capable of being used for various purposes. They are manufactured into shoes, heads for drums, and, when varnished over in a peculiar manner, are cut into leaves for pocket-books. The inhabitants of some of the Eastern countries make of asses' skin the substance called _sagri_ or _shagreen_. At Astracan, and throughout Persia, there are great manufactories of this article. It is not naturally granulated; this roughness being altogether effected by art. Of the bones of the ass the ancients are said to have made their best sounding flutes.

114. The MULE, or mixed produce betwixt the ass and the mare, is a very hardy and useful animal. Its size is larger, its head and ears smaller, and its coat smoother than those of the ass. In countries where the breed of asses is sufficiently large for obtaining mules of considerable size, these are preferred to nearly all animals for cheapness, durability, and general convenience, as beasts of burthen. In England they have never been propagated to any extent; and the few that have been reared in this country have, in general, been the produce of such diminutive parents, as to exhibit only a puny race, by no means calculated for the services of which a well-managed breed would be capable. Yet even these, where they have been used, have been found to possess many very estimable qualities. In the brewhouse of Messrs. Truman, Harford, and Co. of Limehouse, mules were for a little while used in place of the dray-horses which are employed by other brewers. Each dray was drawn by three mules, and carried three butts of beer, a weight precisely the same which the London drays carry with three large horses.

115. _The HIPPOPOTAMUS, or RIVER-HORSE_ (Hippopotamus amphibius), _is an
African quadruped of immense bulk, with large head, extremely wide mouth,
strong teeth, and thick and short legs, each terminated by four hoofs._

_The body is of brownish colour, and covered with short and thinly set
hair. One of these animals, which M. le Vaillant killed in the South of
Africa, measured nearly eleven feet in length, and about nine in
circumference._

In the immediate vicinity of rivers, in several parts of Africa, even as far south as the Cape of Good Hope, the hippopotamus is occasionally seen. Notwithstanding his bulk and strength, he is an animal of considerable timidity; and whenever he is surprised, he plunges into the water, and walks about at the bottom with great ease, rising to the surface about once every ten minutes to breathe. He feeds on plants of various kinds, and sometimes proves very destructive in the plantations, not only by the quantity of food which he devours, but also by treading down and crushing with his feet much more than he eats.

The hippopotamus is one of those animals whose _tusks_ are used as ivory; and, from their always preserving their original whiteness and purity, they are considered superior to the tusks of the elephant. They are each from twelve to fourteen inches in length, and weigh from six to ten pounds. Dentists sometimes manufacture them into artificial teeth, for which they are well adapted. Of the _hide_, which in some parts is nearly two inches thick, the inhabitants of Africa make excellent whips, which, after a little use, become very pliable.

The _flesh_, when the animals are in good condition, is said to be tender and well flavoured, particularly that of the parts near the breast. It is even sometimes admitted to the tables of the colonists at the Cape of Good Hope. The Hottentots consider it so great a delicacy that they eat it even in an half putrid state. Professor Thunberg states, that he one day passed a Hottentot's tent, which had been pitched for the purpose of consuming the body of an hippopotamus that had been killed sometime before; and says, that the inhabitants of the tent were in the midst of such stench, that the travellers could hardly pass them without being suffocated. The _feet_ are considered peculiarly fine eating; and the _tongue_, when salted and dried, is in great esteem at the Cape.

116. _The HOG_ (Sus scrofa, Fig. 16) _is distinguishable by its prominent
tusks, the flat termination of its snout, its feet being cloven, the fore
part of its back being bristly, and the tail hairy._

_The male is called_ boar, _and the female_ sow. _The appellations of_
swine _and_ pig _are given to the whole breed, though the latter is more
peculiarly applicable to the young animals._

_The parent stock of our domestic swine is the wild boar, which inhabits
the forests of France, Germany, and other parts of Europe, as well as
those of Persia and India._

Wild boars usually live in families, and are hunted, as an amusement, in all the parts of the world where they are found. The _flesh_ of the wild animals, if they are not old, is said to be much superior to that of our domestic swine. That of the young ones is peculiarly delicate. Of an old wild boar the head only is eatable.

The advantages derived from the breeding of swine are very great. Their flesh, which has the appellation of _pork_, is in universal request; and is of peculiar importance in a commercial view, as it takes salt better, and is capable of being kept longer, than any other kind of meat that we are acquainted with. Pork, after having been salted, is sometimes hung up to dry in the open air; but, generally, it is smoked by being hung in a chimney. In this state it has the general name of _bacon_. What are called _hams_, are the thighs preserved in a similar manner. _Westphalia hams_ are generally made from such animals as have been well fed, and allowed to range at pleasure in the extensive moorlands of that province; and they have a singular flavour, not so much from any great difference that there is in the salting of them, as from their being smoked in chimneys where only wood fires are burnt. The time of fumigation is from three to six months, according to their size. Pork, though a wholesome food, requires a strong stomach to digest it properly; and ham and bacon are highly improper for persons of weak and languid habits. _Brawn_ is the flesh of the boar pickled in a peculiar manner, and is always better tasted according to the greater age of the animal of which it is made. After the boar is killed, the head and legs are cut off, and the bones are carefully taken from the remaining part. This, after having been properly salted, is rolled together as hard as possible. It is then boiled till it becomes so tender as to be pierced with a straw. It is afterwards set by till quite cold, and lastly is immersed in a pickle formed of salt and bran boiled together. The usual mode of curing pork is with common salt, or bay salt; but some persons add saltpetre or nitre, juniper berries, pepper, and other antiseptic substances.

The Jews and Mahometans abstain from this species of food from a religious principle, and even consider themselves defiled by touching it. The inhabitants of China, on the contrary, are so excessively fond of pork, that multitudes, from this partiality alone, are said to have been prevented from conversion to Mahometanism.

The _fat_ of swine differs, in its situation, from that of almost every other quadruped, as it covers the animals all over, and forms a thick, distinct, and continued layer betwixt the flesh and the skin, somewhat like the blubber in whales (118). It is called _lard_, and is applicable to various uses, both culinary and medicinal; and particularly to the composition of ointments. The general mode of preparation is to melt it in a jar placed in a kettle of water; and in this state to boil it, and run it into bladders that have been cleansed with great care. The smaller the bladders are the better the lard will keep. The fat which adheres to the parts connected with the intestines differs from common lard, and is preferably employed for the greasing of carriage wheels. The _blood_, the _feet_, and the _tongue_, are all adopted for food.

The _skin_, when properly dressed, is used for the seats of saddles; by book-binders, and other artisans.

In China hogs' skins are much in request by shoe-makers. All the shoes that are sold to Europeans at Canton are made of hogs' leather, the hair having previously been burnt off with a hot iron. In our own country, when swine are killed for food, it is not customary to strip off the skin, but merely to rid it of the bristles, by scalding the animals, after they are dead, with hot water, or singeing them with lighted straw. Consequently the hogs' skins which we use are chiefly imported from abroad. The _bristles_ of swine are made into brushes of various kinds, and are also employed by shoe-makers in the place of needles.

Among the other uses of swine, it may not generally be known that, in the island of Minorca, they are employed as beasts of draught. They are frequently yoked to the plough with asses; and one writer speaks of having seen a cow, a sow, and two young horses, all yoked together, and of these the sow drew the best. In some parts of Italy swine are used in hunting for truffles, an eatable species of fungus which grow at the depth of some inches in the ground. A cord being tied to the hind leg of one of these animals, the beast is driven into certain pastures; and we are told that truffles are always to be found wherever he stops and begins to turn up the earth with his nose.

Most writers have asserted that swine are long-lived, but few instances are allowed to occur of their attaining a great age; as it is neither profitable nor convenient to keep them to the full extent of their time. A gentleman in Hampshire kept a sow till she was nearly seventeen years old; and, at this period, she began to exhibit some signs of old age by the decay of her teeth, and ceasing to be so fertile as she had previously been. This animal afforded an instance of the extremely prolific nature of swine. She is calculated to have been the parent of no fewer than 300 young ones. The great weight to which swine are sometimes fed would appear altogether incredible had it not been well attested. In one instance a pig was known to weigh 1410 pounds when alive; and 1215 pounds when killed and dressed.

ORDER VII.--CETE, OR CETACEOUS ANIMALS.

117. _The NARWAL, or SEA-UNICORN_ (Monodon monoceros) _is a marine animal
from twenty to thirty feet in length, with a long, tapering, twisted, and
pointed weapon of ivory in front of the head._

_It has a small fin on each side of the breast, in place of fore feet, an
horizontally flattened tail, and a spiracle or breathing hole on the
highest part of the head. The skin is white, variegated with numerous
black spots on the upper parts of the body; and the weapon is generally
from five to eight feet in length._

_These animals are found in the Greenland seas, and they occasionally
migrate southward off the British coasts. Their name of_ narh-wal
_signifies a whale that subsists on dead bodies._

The Greenlanders pursue the narwals as they do other whales, chiefly on account of the _oil_ which they obtain from them. This is considered superior, in many respects, to the oil of the great whale (118), and is used by them both with food and to burn in their lamps. These people also eat the _flesh_ of the narwal prepared by fire, dried in a half putrid state, and sometimes even raw; and they are also partial to the _intestines_ as food. The _tendons_ serve them as a strong kind of thread. The projecting _weapon_, which is not a horn but a species of tusk, in its substance not much unlike the tusk of an elephant, is sometimes cut into the heads of arrows; and, in some parts of Greenland where wood is scarce, these weapons are occasionally used in the structure of tents and sledges. As ivory, they are not of much use, since, from their twisted form, they cut to great disadvantage. The kings of Denmark have, in the castle of Rosenberg, a throne formed of the tusks of the narwal.

It has of late years been ascertained that the Japanese have a very extraordinary opinion of the medical virtues of these tusks. A Dutch merchant, on his return to Europe, happened, among other curiosities, to transmit one of them to a friend in Japan, who by the sale of it became extremely rich. From that time the Dutch wrote, to their correspondents in Europe, for as many as could be sent, and great profit was made of them; and, although by the continued importation, the price has since been considerably diminished, it still continues very high.

Narwals are quick, active, and inoffensive animals. They swim with considerable velocity. When harpooned they dive in the same manner as the whale, but not so deep. They generally descend about two hundred fathoms, after which they return to the surface, where they are dispatched, in a few minutes, with a lance.

118. _The GREAT or GREENLAND WHALE_ (Balæna mysticetus, Pl. 1, Fig. 17)
_is a marine animal of immense magnitude, measuring from fifty to eighty
feet in length, of which the head is nearly one third, and having several
horny blades in the upper jaw, and a spiracle or breathing hole on the
upper part of the head._