Chapter IV: Introduction (3)

_Intelligence and Maps._--In this connection again, nothing but the want of funds rendered it impossible to employ officers and other agents to collect necessary and readily-accessible information before the Rebellion began. Practically all the Magistrates, however, Police, farmers, planters, etc., were emissaries of the Government, though not placed directly or indirectly in touch with the Militia department as they might have been. Many of these employed Native servants, who, in their turn, were in intimate and constant touch with their own countrymen.

"Immediately previous to the outbreak of the Rebellion," says the Commandant, "I received a great deal of information from people in outlying districts, but, as there was no intelligence department to classify, sift and deal with this, it was very difficult to place much reliance on the information thus obtained. Ultimately, the acting Chief Commissioner of Police (Lieut.-Col. W.J. Clarke) gave orders to the police in the rural districts to collect information from farmers and others and to send everything direct to him."[61] This Police officer, owing to his excellent knowledge of the country, and the various informants, was able to condense and appreciate all that came to hand and thereafter place classified summaries at the Commandant's disposal, and very valuable these proved to be. "Subsequently all this was stopped as, for some reason unknown to me, the Commissioner, _i.e._ the permanent officer, was either unwilling or unable to continue the system."[62]

As regards maps, not the Commandant, but the state of the treasury was to blame. "The want of maps (on military lines, normal scale) has been greatly felt in Natal and has rendered combined action practically impossible. The failure of the Langalibalele expedition was due to the want of reliable maps."[63] Surveying was habitually confined to areas set apart for European occupation, that is, the most accessible portions, whilst the great Native locations, situate for the most part in broken, bushy and untraversable regions, remained unsurveyed. Thus, when, on hostilities occurring, the rebels selected as their _terrain_ the great Tugela valley (to a distance of 10 or 12 miles on either side and some 60-80 miles along the river), the Nkandhla-Qudeni district, and the Umvoti valley, their choice was, in each instance, ground the Staff and the Surveyor General's department knew either very little, or nothing at all, about. There were, indeed, the map by Altern--of the Zululand side--and that by Middleton--of Nkandhla district, but, insufficient as these excellent maps were, they did not become available for the troops until long after the Rebellion had started, and when most of the information therein had already been ascertained by commanding officers by personal observation, inquiry of local residents, or direct reconnaissance.[64]

In so far, however, as the various columns in the field were concerned, they were singularly well-equipped with intelligence of every kind. This arose from rapidly adapting themselves to circumstances--a characteristic usually displayed by colonial volunteers of long standing. They, fortunately, experienced but little difficulty in securing capable European and Native agents in every direction.

_Transport._--The authority given by law to the Commandant to "prepare a register of all animals and vehicles suitable for transport or military purposes throughout the Colony or any part thereof" was taken advantage of in good time, with the result that, when the Rebellion broke out, full particulars as to where vehicles, drivers and animals could be obtained, had been collected.

The same law empowered the Governor, in the event of war, invasion or insurrection, to "authorise the issue of requisitions, requiring all persons to furnish such animals, vehicles and other necessary things as may be demanded from them for military use." On failure to supply, the property could be taken possession of by, or on behalf of, the Commandant. There was, however, a proviso to the effect that "not more than fifty per cent. of the animals and vehicles suitable for transport or military purposes belonging to any person" might be requisitioned. Payment, fixed by the regulations, was, of course, made to persons from whom animals, etc., were taken.

When the first mobilization at Pietermaritzburg and other centres took place early in February, there was but one officer in the department, Captain (now Major) C. Victor Hosken, with one sergeant. No plant of any description belonged to that or any other Militia department. But, so thoroughly had the preliminary preparations been made, that Hosken was able to supply the force then called out with all necessary vehicles, draught animals, drivers, leaders, etc., on the day appointed for it to take the field. The mobilizations of 5th and 19th April, 3rd May, etc., were all dealt with with similar promptitude and equally satisfactory results. On none of these occasions was there any recourse to commandeering (impressing) for the Transport department. Such action was not resorted to until the troops moved from Zululand to Mapumulo division (June 19), when, owing to the impossibility of obtaining transport in any other way, seven or eight waggons were commandeered. The otherwise invariable rule was to hire in the ordinary way. To be able, however, to do this with rapidity and success, it was necessary to ascertain beforehand exactly where, what kind and how many vehicles, animals, etc., could be obtained.

On June 11th, when the largest number of troops was in the field, the Transport staff had increased to 5 officers, 12 n.c.o.'s and 30 men. The largest number of waggons in the field at one time--11th July--(including those for supply and regimental purposes), was 440, together with 14 mule waggons, 18 ambulances and 10 water-carts, with approximately 12,000 oxen and 364 mules. In addition to the foregoing, the mounted contingent from the Transvaal (T.M.R.) had its own mule transport, though the department supplied it with ox-waggons for carrying supplies, ammunition, etc.

It fell, moreover, to the department to arrange for the movement of men, horses, equipment, etc., from point to point by rail, such arrangements, both on mobilization and demobilization--thanks to the ever prompt and unfailing co-operation of all Natal Government Railways officials, whose loyal endeavours contributed very materially to the success of the campaign--were uniformly satisfactory, although they had, as a rule, to be carried out on the shortest notice.

The Commandant, in his report for 1906, drew attention to pack transport being indispensable when mobilizing mounted forces. The mounted corps were possessed of such transport. "When, however, the regiments have taken the field, the true first line of transport must be provided, and this must consist of mule transport." The system of transport, as a whole, was deficient in so far as what is here referred to as the "true first line" was concerned.

_Medical._--The Natal Medical Corps was in a position to provide officers and men to all the forces, including detachments, as soon as they took the field. The ordinary medical equipment, similar to that in use in the Imperial service, was adequate and up-to-date. Lieut.-Col. J. Hyslop, D.S.O., Principal Medical Officer, points out that "there was, however, a shortage of ambulance waggons, which had to be made up by the most suitable vehicles we could find. These latter ... were not nearly so useful as the 'Natal ambulance,' which is specially constructed to meet the conditions of the country. Arrangements had been made some time prior to the Rebellion whereby, in case of necessity, civilian hospitals were to be available as base hospitals, and several were so used." Among these was the Victoria Hospital at Eshowe. Authority was given for the Principal Medical Officer to call on District Surgeons "to attend troops stationed in their respective districts, by way of relieving the Militia Medical staff," thereby enabling them to devote more attention to field duties. With the enrolment of irregular troops, it became necessary to increase the personnel of the corps; later in the campaign, the stretcher-bearers, supplied by the Natal Indian community, were a further welcome addition.

General medical assistance was rendered, not only to Europeans, but to various Native contingents and levies, and to a number of the rebels as well.

_Veterinary and Remounts._--The Veterinary Corps was insufficiently organized, with the result that, generally speaking, officers were called on to treat more animals than they were able to cope with.

The supply of remounts became a serious matter. "It is much easier," says the Commandant, "to get men than to get horses on which to mount them. During the late operations, the horse supply of the Colony was exhausted practically within the first month, and, within a few months, it was a very difficult matter to purchase a fairly good horse, either in the Transvaal, Orange River Colony, or Cape Colony, and we had to import a shipment of horses from South America. Fortunately, the campaign ended about the time these horses arrived, so that they were not required for the field. But, had the campaign been prolonged, as it easily might have been, shipment after shipment of horses would have had to be imported, and these would necessarily have been unbroken horses, as the contractor was unable to complete his contract to supply the requisite number of broken horses for the first shipment."[65]

_Ordnance and Equipment._--The withdrawal of the Imperial troops carried with it the closing down of the Imperial Ordnance stores in Pietermaritzburg. This necessitated stocking by the local Ordnance department of material considerably in excess of what it had been the rule to keep. Instead of limiting the stock to peace requirements, it had to be expanded to those of war.

When mobilization took place, the whole of the Militia forces were duly equipped, whilst demands from the field were promptly and satisfactorily met.

"In dealing with the equipping of irregular corps and Militia Reserves," says the Ordnance Officer, Major F. Choles,[66] "for which no provision was made, the success ... attained ... was due to the foresight of this department in having placed to 'reserve stocks,' from time to time, such stores as were necessary for contingencies, such as the late Rebellion. These stores were a portion of stocks obtained under the ordinary annual votes during the last few years." Owing to recommendations in respect of reserve clothing not having been given effect to, uniforms had to be obtained from such local sources as were available, with the result that inferior materials at high prices were the only goods to be had.

At various troop headquarters, armouries had been provided. These proved most useful and time-saving, especially as the system mobilization of the mounted forces was always "forward" to the scene of disturbance.

In so far as arms, ammunition and equipment were concerned, the Colony, on the outbreak of hostilities, was fully prepared to meet all reasonable demands likely to be made. The rifles and ammunition were, moreover, of the best and latest types. This satisfactory state of affairs was owing chiefly to continued representation by the Commandant to his Minister to the effect that, although the country was evidently on the eve of a rising, there was an insufficiency of both arms and ammunition, particularly the latter. There was, for instance, little or no Mark V ammunition in stock. During November, 1905, authority was given to indent for 1,000 stand of arms and 5,000,000 rounds of ammunition. The first lot arrived in Durban late in January, and the first outbreak of rebellion occurred on the 8th of the following month.

_Service Corps (Supplies)._--This department, when the first mobilization occurred, had a staff of 2 officers and 24 men. This strength was increased as necessity arose, until it stood at 2 officers, 38 clerks, 9 bakers, 7 butchers, 55 grocers and issuers; total, 135. Some 30 Natives were also employed.

The officer in charge, Captain Ambrose Prior, found it necessary to establish no less than twenty depôts in different parts of Natal and Zululand, whilst, in addition, a supply detachment accompanied each of five operating columns.

The want of properly-trained men at the outset was severely felt, involving, as it did, considerable risk in handling large quantities of supplies. It was fortunate that intelligent out-of-work men were readily procurable. These were trained and distributed among the depôts as soon as they became efficient.

Field bakeries were formed at Nkandhla, Thring's Post, and Mapumulo, and proved very successful. At one time, those at Nkandhla and Thring's Post turned out as much as 4,000-5,000 lbs. of bread daily. Owing to lack of system in the management of loot stock, field butcheries proved a failure, the Government, in consequence, being put to needless expense in procuring meat.

Co-operation between this and the Transport department was everything that could have been desired.

_Telegraph Corps._--This corps, under Captain F. Fraser, was most efficient and well-equipped. It was, however, handicapped owing to its small establishment, so much so that it was necessary to apply to the Cape Colony for signallers. Some of the corps members had gone through an army class of instruction at Pretoria. The good effects of that training were very noticeable.

_Engineer Corps._--Owing to the peace establishment of the Active Militia having been reduced to 2,500, the formation of an Engineer Corps was impossible. As, however, searchlights are very desirable accessories in Native warfare for defensive purposes, arrangements were made, with the assistance of Captain Mills, of the Natal Government Railways, to secure a couple of instruments and appurtenances, together with the necessary trained men for working them. Another of these instruments (under Major W.H. Pickburn) was lent by the Transvaal Government and proved especially useful at Nkandhla.

THE NATAL POLICE.

Although forming no part of the Militia, the Natal Police, a smart, well-equipped and efficient force, under the command of Lieut.-Col. G. Mansel, C.M.G., took a prominent part throughout the operations. Its personnel consisted of Europeans and Natives; the latter, however, were not called out for service. The European section numbered 40 officers and 1,126 of other ranks. Over two-thirds were mounted, but it was found impracticable, owing to there being 143 police stations to look after, to put more than 210 into the field.

RIFLE ASSOCIATIONS.

There were no fewer than 117 of these Associations in 1906 in various parts of the Colony, with an aggregate membership of about 7,000.

On the passing of the Militia Act, the Associations, which were invaluable agencies for training men to shoot, ceased to form part of the defence of the Colony, as practically all members were liable to serve in the different classes of the Reserves.

TROOPS TEMPORARILY RECRUITED BY THE NATAL GOVERNMENT.

These corps and their strengths were: Royston's Horse, 550; Natal Rangers, 800; Zululand Police, 90; Natal Native Horse, 300; the first two were European, the others Native (with European officers). There were, in addition, various Native infantry contingents or levies, whose aggregate strength amounted to about 6,000. The assistance given by the Cape and Transvaal Colonies and Sir Abe Bailey is referred to further on under "Offers of Assistance."

_Royston's Horse._--When, in the middle of April, matters became serious and it appeared necessary to dispatch a large force to Nkandhla, the Government decided to deal with the position as far as possible from Natal resources. The required force might, indeed, have been obtained from such Active Militia corps as had not up till then taken the field, but, owing to the Militia Reserves not being sufficiently organized, it was found necessary to retain portions of the Active Militia in Natal to deal with any rising that might occur during the absence of the troops in Zululand, hence the decision to recruit this special contingent of mounted men. Recruiting took place in Durban, Pietermaritzburg, and Johannesburg. The corps was placed under the command of Lieut.-Col. J.R. Royston, C.M.G., D.S.O., and formed part of the "Zululand Field Force" that left for Nkandhla at the beginning of May. Towards the end of the campaign the corps was enlarged, notably by men recruited in the Cape Colony.

_Natal Rangers._--This infantry regiment was raised because Ministers considered it against the interests of the Colony to keep the Militia Reserves in the field for any length of time. A considerable saving was effected through raising the corps, owing to the pay of the men being at lower rates. Recruiting took place chiefly in Johannesburg and Durban. As regards that done in Johannesburg, the Colony was most fortunate in securing the assistance of the Transvaal Commandant of Volunteers.

_Zululand Police_ (Natives).--This particularly useful and efficient infantry corps, originally formed in 1883 by Lieut.-Col. G. Mansel, C.M.G., was disbanded on Zululand being annexed to Natal (December, 1897). Its strength then was about 200. When temporarily re-established, on the outbreak of rebellion, under Inspector Fairlie of the Natal Police, its numbers were between 80 and 90. For further information see Appendix XI.

The _Natal Native Horse_, commanded by Major G. Moe, were enrolled at Edendale, Nyanyadu, and other parts of the Colony in February, 1906. Some difficulty was at first met with in providing horses, owing to many having been sold by the Natives as remounts to agents of the German Government in connection with the South-West Africa campaign. Further particulars regarding this corps will be found in Appendix XI.

_Native levies._--These were called out as necessity arose, but only in such areas as fell within the theatre of operations, and, except about 120 Basutos (Nqutu district), were unmounted; for the most part, they were armed only with their large ox-hide shields and assegais.[67] As the great majority were under "tribal" rule, the several contingents were commanded by their own Chiefs, without regard either to age or military fitness. Among the most capable Chiefs were Sibindi, Sitshitshili, Mfungelwa, and Mveli.[68]

OFFERS OF ASSISTANCE.

(_a_) _The Imperial Government._--When, consequent upon the assumption by Natal of responsible government, the Imperial Government proceeded gradually to withdraw the regular troops, it so happened that, on the outbreak of rebellion, a mere handful of men remained at Pietermaritzburg. The withdrawal, however unobtrusively it had occurred, did not escape the notice of sundry nervous Europeans, or the Natives. The latter, when their resentment had been aroused by the poll tax (to be referred to later), were not slow in making one another believe that the withdrawal had its origin in dissension that had arisen between Natal and Great Britain. Disgusted with the manner in which Natal was governing her Native population, England, it was said, had turned her back on, and would no longer help, her Colony. This absurd rumour succeeded in obtaining considerable credence, and threatened to undermine the public sense of security, especially of loyally disposed Natives. It was, therefore, with something of avidity that the offer of the Imperial Government of 10th February (the day following the proclamation of martial law), that a regiment should proceed to Pietermaritzburg, was accepted by Natal. In accepting, however, the Government said it did not anticipate that the troops would be required for active service. The General Officer Commanding-in-Chief in South Africa had wired that he held in readiness a battalion at Pretoria, as well as the Standerton Mobile Column. It was arranged that the former should proceed to Natal. The Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders accordingly received orders without delay, and reached Pietermaritzburg three days later (13th). The General, at the same time, offered to increase the number to 4,300 if required. The occasion to apply for the increase fortunately did not arise. The presence of the troops (they were present until the conclusion of hostilities) had a most reassuring and salutary effect, and gave exactly that touch of moral support the situation required. It was as successful in giving the lie to the false rumour referred to as if a whole army corps had been mobilized for the purpose.

The hand of the Imperial Government was seen in yet another direction. When, prior to the first outbreak (February 8th), the Governor ascertained that H.M.S. _Terpsichore_ would arrive at Durban on the 21st February, in connection with the visit of the Duke and Duchess of Connaught, he requested Admiral Durnford to expedite the ship's movements, as the presence of a man-of-war at Durban at that time would tend to allay the prevailing excitement. The request was promptly acceded to, and the _Terpsichore_ steamed into Durban a week sooner than had been previously arranged. Later, whilst proposing the vessel should accompany the Duke on his departure from Durban, on the 27th February, the Admiral offered to cancel his orders in the event of the political situation being such that her continued presence would be desirable. There being, by that time, no immediate cause for anxiety, the arrangements which had already been made for departure were not interfered with.

(_b_) _Other Offers._--A few days after the second and more serious stage of the Rebellion had begun, the _Cape_ and _Transvaal Governments_ wired intimating a readiness to assist in any way. This was followed, a few days later, by an offer from the latter Government of 500 Volunteers, armed, equipped, and maintained whilst in the field at its own expense, whilst the Cape Government offered six maxims, armed by Cape Mounted Riflemen, as well as a Signalling Corps. These and two further generous offers--one by Mr. (now Sir) Abe Bailey of Johannesburg, to raise, equip, and maintain at his own expense a contingent of 150 men (25 being mounted) of the Lancaster and York Association, and the other by the _Natal Indian Congress_, of a corps of 25 stretcher-bearers,--were gratefully accepted.

The first three offers will be more fully dealt with in subsequent chapters.

A large number of other opportune and generous offers were received from various sources in England, South Africa, etc., but as the Government had decided that, unless a serious development of hostilities took place, no efforts would be made to recruit outside South Africa, and in South Africa only in case of absolute necessity, they were not accepted. They were, however, gratefully acknowledged and borne in mind.

Among the Colony's staunchest supporters was a small knot of Natalians living in London, headed by Major Gen. Sir John Dartnell, K.C.B., the Right Hon. Sir Albert Hime, P.C., K.C.M.G., and Sir Walter Peace, K.C.M.G. These lost no time in convening a meeting, cabling an assurance of unqualified support of the Ministry, and thereafter dispatching, at the earliest opportunity, 27 Rexer guns, a most valuable arm, especially in Native warfare, that had only just come into the market.[69]

THE CADETS.

The Cadet system, one of the principal institutions of the Colony, and one that at once attracts the attention of a visitor, be he soldier or civilian, has been in existence for many years. The first corps was formed at a private school in Hermannsburg in the year 1869. Hilton College and other schools were not long in following the example. The principles governing the system in its later developments and in vogue in 1906 will be found in the Militia Act, 1903. The Cadets were under the general supervision of the Commandant of Militia and the special control of an officer of the permanent Militia staff, under the style of "Commandant of Cadets." For many years, the latter officer was Lieut.-Col. W.H.A. Molyneux, V.D., owing to whose energy and devotion, assisted to the utmost by the Superintendent of Education (C.J. Mudie, Esq.), the efficiency of the various corps rose to a standard previously unapproached. No opportunity was lost of promoting the interests of his charges and rendering their course of training so popular and successful as to become the envy of other states, not excluding the Mother Country.

The Cadets began their training at the age of ten; they were not enrolled for military service, although steps were taken to induce lads of eighteen, in the senior corps, to join the Active Militia. They were taught to march, go through the physical, manual, and firing exercises, as well as simple parade and field movements, as laid down in the manual of drill for the mounted forces.

Boys between ten and fourteen were drilled without arms and instructed in musketry, for both of which an efficiency standard was laid down.

In 1896 the total number of Cadets on the muster roll was 1,931 (25 corps). In 1906 they had increased to about 3,500, with nearly 50 separate corps, 3 being those of senior Cadets. The senior corps, on account of lads being required by their parents to enter business at early ages, were much more difficult to control, and therefore did not prove nearly as successful as the junior ones.

With the system so long in vogue, it followed that the majority of the Natal troops (including Reserves) which took part in the Rebellion had, at one time or another, been trained as Cadets in the rudiments of soldiery. It was largely due to having had such experience that the men were as generally efficient as they were.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 47: It is, moreover, not unreasonable to suppose that the Union Government found the example of Natal of considerable assistance when passing its already well-known Defence Act of 1911.]

[Footnote 48: Commandant of Militia (Brig. Gen. Leader), _Annual Report_. See note, p. 45, where it is shown that a much larger number _volunteered_ for service.]

[Footnote 49: Regulations, No. 110.]

[Footnote 50: The Act did not, however, come into force until March, 1904.]

[Footnote 51: Act No. 30, 1905, sec. 1 substituted "Colonel" for "Major-General."]

[Footnote 52: The members of the Cabinet were: C.J. Smythe, _Prime Minister and Colonial Secretary_; J.G. Maydon, _Railways and Harbours_; T. Hyslop, _Treasurer_; T. Watt, _Justice_ (including _Defence_) _and Education_; H.D. Winter, _Native Affairs and Public Works_; and W.F. Clayton, _Agriculture_.]

[Footnote 53: Up to June, 1900, however, the approximate number of officers and men raised in Natal (inclusive of local Volunteer corps) was 9,500. Of those who did not belong to local corps, many, besides Natalians, were men from England, Transvaal, Orange Free State, etc., temporarily resident within the Colony.]

[Footnote 54: Col. Bru-de-Wold first entered the Natal Volunteer forces as a trooper in 1873. He served throughout the Zulu War of 1879 (medal with clasp) and the Boer War, 1899-1902 (twice mentioned in dispatches, Queen's and King's medals with three clasps). By the end of the latter war he had risen to the rank of Major. He was awarded C.M.G. in 1900, in recognition of special services rendered by him during the Boer War.]

[Footnote 55: Major T.H. Blew, Chief Staff Officer, Natal, May, 1912.]

[Footnote 56: He assumed in August, but acted until October, the holder of the appointment being technically on leave.]

[Footnote 57: Commandant of Militia (Col. Bru-de-Wold), _Annual Report_, 1906. With an establishment of 2,500, the figures at 31st December, 1905, of the different arms were approximately: Naval corps, 100; Mounted Rifles, 1,330; Artillery, 350; Infantry, 580; Departmental corps, 140. Total, 2,500.]

[Footnote 58: Commandant of Militia (Col. Bru-de-Wold), _Annual Report_, 1906.]

[Footnote 59: Sec. 32, Militia Act, 1903.]

[Footnote 60: The same weakness appears to exist in the present South African Defence scheme.]

[Footnote 61: Commandant of Militia (Col. Bru-de-Wold), _Annual Report_, 1906.]

[Footnote 62: _Ibid._]

[Footnote 63: The Langalibalele Rebellion occurred between Estcourt and the Drakensberg Mountains. The words quoted are from the Commandant's _Annual Report_, 1906.]

[Footnote 64: Several sections of maps (Major Jackson's series), Field Intelligence Department, Pretoria, were issued at the outset and proved very useful.]

[Footnote 65: Commandant of Militia (Col. Bru-de-Wold), _Annual Report_, 1906.]

[Footnote 66: _Departmental Report_ for 1905 and 1906.]

[Footnote 67: _i.e._ spears. Some of these are used for throwing--the average distance thrown being 50-60 yards--whilst hold is retained of the larger-bladed ones for stabbing on coming to close quarters.]

[Footnote 68: On the cessation of hostilities all the foregoing irregular corps were gradually disbanded, the services of Royston's Horse and the Natal Rangers being the last to be dispensed with.]

[Footnote 69: The guns were taken to Natal by Sir John Dartnell, and arrived in time to be of the greatest assistance.]

IV.

ZULU MILITARY SYSTEM AND CONNECTED CUSTOMS.[70]

(_With a Note on the Rebel Organization_, 1906.)

As a result of the precarious conditions of living anterior to Tshaka's accession (about 1814), each of the then more or less independent Chiefs of Zululand was obliged to establish a kind of militia force for employment in defensive or aggressive operations as circumstances demanded. Owing to this prevalence of all-round isolation, it was impossible for any Chief to do otherwise than send into the field heterogeneously formed groups of warriors--old and young fighting side by side. The character of warfare of those days was, in consequence, of a very mild description. When, however, Tshaka became Chief of the Zulu tribe, and, by a policy of vigorous aggression, succeeded in obtaining the allegiance of other tribes, it became possible for him greatly to extend and perfect the system, learnt from his friend and protector Dingiswayo, of recruiting regiments on an age basis.[71] And, once he had acquired a force more efficient and powerful than that of other tribes, only time was wanted to enable him to extend his operations and add still further to the strength and efficiency of his army.

With the various tribes knit together into one nation, the establishment and development of what is known as the Zulu Military System, _i.e._ Tshaka's system, became for the first time possible. Thus, this engine of war, as we now know it, was simply the outcome of a successful application of principles superior in themselves to those of surrounding tribes, and its pre-eminence and dominion were won by intrinsic merit and genius rather than by accident or sheer force of numbers. We proceed, then, to describe what came into being about one hundred years ago and continued to exist until 1879.

* * * * *

The whole manhood of the country was liable for service. In practice, however, a few exceptions were allowed--among them diviners and those physically or mentally unfit. The total strength averaged from 40,000 to 50,000, though, on special occasions, it rose to 60,000 or even higher.

Each man was armed with a stabbing assegai and one or more throwing ones, also an ox or cow-hide shield. About fifteen to twenty royal kraals were established in various well-inhabited parts of the country. Some of these were used as military barracks, and were known as _amakanda_ (heads). Large numbers of warriors were, moreover, usually stationed at the principal royal kraal. All these kraals, being composed of wood and wattles, and the huts covered with grass, were occasionally moved to fresh sites in their respective localities whilst retaining their names.

Regiments were constantly being formed, more by automatic than independent process. This is seen from the fact that every boy of about sixteen was required to serve as a cadet at the _kanda_ within whose jurisdiction his father's kraal happened to fall. Every two years or so, when the lads were old enough to be formed into a regiment, they were "collected" from the various _amakanda_, and marched off to the King for inspection, when the latter gave them their new or regimental title. The destination of the new regiment depended on circumstances. It might, if numerous, be directed to go to some district and build and live in a _kanda_ of its own, or it might be ordered, wholly or in part, to serve at one or more of the already existing _amakanda_, where, of course, they would profit by the older men's experience. Thus, at these barracks one frequently found men of various ages, notwithstanding that recruitment had invariably taken place on the basis of age. It was from the fact of cadets being "collected" that the word _ibuto_ (regiment) was probably derived.

The _amakanda_ were designed and built in accordance with a plan common to all. For instance, the barracks of a regiment, according as they were on the right or left side as one entered the principal gate below, were technically described, so with various other sections of such right or left side, down to the gate referred to or up to the King's harem at the top. Thus, it was possible for any soldier to define exactly where he belonged, even though the rows of huts were three or more deep. In the case of the largest regiments, _e.g._ Tulwana, the men, according to the portions occupied, would be given distinguishing names. Thus, in Tulwana, one found the Zisongo, Mkingoma, etc., divisions on the right, whilst Amabunsumana, Ingoye, etc., were on the left--each of them, by the way, nearly as large as an ordinary regiment.

The principal motive for keeping up this huge organization, once the safety of the State was assured, was for attacking neighbouring tribes, generally on the slightest pretext, and making them subject to the State by looting as many of their cattle as possible. This, in fact, was but another expression of the mercenary ideal which even civilized nations of to-day seem to keep before them.

Until an age between thirty-five and forty had been reached, the warriors were not permitted to marry or even to associate with girls. Nor might girls marry men of any age until special authority had been given. Girls, too, were "collected" into classes, though not required to serve at any _kanda_.

It was on some such occasion as the great Feast of the First Fruits, held annually about the first week in January, that the King himself gave permission to a regiment or a class of girls to marry. This was granted, not to individuals, but to a particular regiment or class _en bloc_. Special directions were also given as to what regiment or regiments any particular class of girls should marry into.

Before, however, receiving permission to marry, a regiment required royal approval to conform to the ancient practice of assuming the _isicoco_ or headring. As this ring, made of wax and strips of sedge bound round with cord, was sewn into the hair by means of ox-sinew, it sometimes happened that an aggressive military expedition was arranged to take place beyond the borders of the State "for the purpose of fetching the necessary sinew"--a metonymic expression, where "sinew" stands for "cattle." The head was shaved on the crown and sides when the ring was put on.

Owing to this wearing of the headring--once on never removed[72]--the warriors became roughly divided into two great sections, (_a_) the headringed, (_b_) those without the ring. The former were known as the "white" Zulus, the latter as the "black"--the colour of the first being probably derived from the glittering of the highly polished ebony-like rings or the preponderatingly white colour of the shields they carried, whilst that of the latter was from their heads all being jet black from the uniform colour of their hair, or from the amount of black in their shields.

In charge of each _kanda_ was an officer as well as others of subordinate rank. Upon these devolved the responsibility of seeing that all within the military district rendered a reasonable amount of service in each year. Owing to a wonderfully efficient system of control, evasions rarely occurred.

With the lapse of time, and on account of the perpetually recurring warfare, it followed members of any given regiment became greatly diminished. Thus, although the names of perhaps forty to forty-five regiments could be furnished as having been enrolled since Tshaka became King, all but eighteen to twenty would, at any given period, have been of little real use. This is best appreciated by recalling the fact that "collection" began at eighteen or nineteen, that a regiment was, as a rule, formed after every two years, and that, after a man reaches the age of fifty-five or sixty, he is unfit to undertake the exertion of long and rapid marches on foot. The power to mobilize for war lay with the King, though for some years it became customary for him to seek permission of Mnkabayi (grand-aunt of Cetshwayo), who lived in the north-west of Zululand. For all occurrences of a sudden and local kind, _e.g._ raid, insurrection, or breach of the peace, the resident officer or induna had authority to call out men under his command. Indeed, it was his duty to do so, and one which he dared not neglect.

At the head of each regiment was an induna or commanding officer, generally a good deal older than the men of his corps. There was also a second in command, together with junior officers. The strength of regiments varied greatly; the maximum of one might be 700, of another 4,000. There was also subdivision into companies, known as _amaviyo_, with 50 to 60 or more men apiece. Each _viyo_ had two junior officers. These companies originated at the _amakanda_ during the days of cadetship. Members associated early with one another, grew up and kept together. If, however, any such group was too small, batches of others, from other _amakanda_, were "thrown into" them on arrival at headquarters to make up a _viyo_. As cadets, there was no appointed induna to a company. _Amaviyo_ diminished in size as time went on,--from death, desertion (to Natal), or by being put to death by the King. For instance, shortly before the Zulu War, Cetshwayo sent a force on purpose to put so-called invalids (but really malingerers) to death. Many, again, to evade military service, became diviners, who, as has been remarked, obtained exemption as a matter of course. These were, with notable and necessary exceptions, collected by Mpande into a regiment of their own, and ordered to live in a single kraal. This device had the effect of checking the prevailing craze.

When reduced, _amaviyo_ were often combined with others of their own age, though younger men were often added. The reason for so keeping up the strength of regiments was to cause the enemy to respect them and not treat them with contempt. Certain corps, again, were made abnormally large so that notwithstanding wastage through sickness, etc., when on the march, their size, on reaching the enemy, would still appear formidable.

From what has been said, it can be seen there was no such thing as retirement from service. When Tshaka dispatched his army to Sotshangana, a Chief living on the coast beyond Delagoa Bay, he insisted on every available person going, even old men who no longer left their homes.

During the period of cadetship, known as _uku-xeza_, from commonly milking the royal cows they herded into their mouths, boys learnt the use of the national weapon, the assegai or _umkonto_. The proficiency then attained remained with them through life, hence there was practically no special training necessary in after years. There were no special exercises in throwing or stabbing, in guarding with their 5-ft. oval shields, or in marching, running, manœuvring, etc. The fact that the people were a pastoral race and spent the greater portion of their lives in the open under exacting conditions stood them in good stead.

There was nothing in the shape of remuneration for service, either in time of war or of peace. Nor was compensation given for any injuries received in war. Offences were punished by the indunas, but punishment never took the form of imprisonment for obvious reasons. In regard to the younger warriors, it was invariably severe beating about the body administered by the indunas.

Although no oath of allegiance was prescribed, not a soul ever dared question the right of the King to call him out, or failed to render instant and loyal service of the most arduous description.

The Zulu army took on the character more of a permanent militia than of a standing army. Although required to serve at the various _amakanda_, service was not obligatory for more than a reasonable period, say two or three months per annum. And, as with Europeans, men of a given regiment were under the orders of only their own officers.

Just as the whole nation was compelled to render military service, so, in time of need, all aliens who owed or pretended to owe allegiance to the King were called upon to assist. Tshaka, on more than one occasion, insisted on Fynn, Isaacs and others taking part in his operations.

Zulus erected defences, but only to the extent of what is known as the outer fence of the kraal. The cattle enclosure was frequently made much higher and stronger than was necessary to keep the cattle from getting out on their own accord. But the latter provision was a protection more against wild beasts than human foes. Where it was necessary to obtain protection against a too powerful enemy, the people fled, with their property, to caves, precipices, forests or other places in their immediate neighbourhood.

The uniforms, a most striking characteristic of the army, varied with the different regiments. They were lavishly ornamental, and composed almost entirely of feathers, cow-tails and hides. The birds chiefly favoured were the ostrich, lorie, crane and sakabuli (jet-black finch, with especially long and beautiful tail feathers); the animals were: blue monkey, civet cat or genet, otter, leopard and the ordinary cow. All wore the bushy portion of cow-tails (generally white) tied round at the elbows, wrists, below the knees, and the neck (falling over the chest). Some had kilts; the majority, loose coverings of various hides. Many, again, wore ear-flaps of different hides and designs, also bands tied round the head across the forehead, of otter or leopard skin. The feathers were worn about the head singly, also in large rounded or otherwise artistically-shaped tufts and plumes. Every man carried one or more assegais and a large war-shield of ox or cow-hide capable of completely covering him. It sometimes happened the principal distinguishing feature of a regiment was the colour of its shield; for instance, all might have black and white, or red and white, red only, black only, white with small black patches, or a single regiment might have two or more types of shields. The shield Tshaka himself carried was a great snow-white one, with a small black patch slightly to the left of the centre, and there stood planted erect in his hair a solitary crane-feather fully two feet long.

No portion of the uniform, arms or equipment belonged to the King or government. All was privately owned. It, however, often happened that iron-smiths,--many of whom flourished in the neighbourhood of Nkandhla forest and on the Imfolozi River--were required by the King to manufacture assegais for the troops. Once presented--but only to men known to be brave and daring--they became the property of the warriors. The cutting of shields was the work of experts.

In all affairs of State, civil and military, the King was assisted by a small privy council as well as a national non-elective assembly. There was a recognized commander-general of the forces properly equipped with an efficient staff.

One of the leading features, especially in Tshaka's day, was the system of espionage. Skilled and intrepid observers were frequently sent out, before the beginning of a campaign, to collect all the intelligence they could of the enemy's strength, property (especially cattle), strongholds, grain, etc. To find their way about, they were obliged to resort to much ingenious cunning and daring.

Orders were transmitted from kraal to kraal, as also in the field, by messengers, _i.e._ verbally. There was, indeed, no other form of communication, except _tête-a-tête_. The messages were almost invariably correctly delivered, due to constant training in childhood when, of course, the same mode was observed.

The officers did not wear any badges of rank, though, as only men of high status were permitted to wear such ornaments as leopard-skin and lorie feathers, there was no difficulty in inferring their rank.[73]

Decorations were of several forms. A man who had killed another in war wore about his shoulders and chest a long rope made of pieces of willow about half an inch long and of equal thickness, the ends being charred and stripped of bark; or a necklace of horns, with charred blocks of willow intervening.

Although there was no remuneration for service, the King was liberal in his rewards for valour in battle. A hero had doled out to him as many as ten fine cattle at a time, but only one who had been the first to rush into and among the enemy would be so treated.

Attached to every army were carriers, known as the _udibi_. These were usually numerous and marched two or three miles off on the right or left flank of the main body. This was the only means of transport, for Zulus had no horses or vehicles. The sleeping-mats and karosses or blankets of indunas and junior officers were borne by the carriers, as also provisions and equipment belonging to different members of the army. Another of their duties was to drive along a herd of cattle for purposes of consumption whilst the troops were on the march.

The interior economy of every regiment was regulated by a few plain unwritten rules, common to the whole army.

During peace-time, such soldiers as were serving either at headquarters or at any of the country barracks, were kept occupied in such ways as constructing or repairing kraals, cattle enclosures, fences or other work of a public character, the necessary poles, wattles, branches, reeds, fibrous plants, etc., being cut and carried by themselves; they also hoed, sowed, weeded and harvested the royal crops. Small groups and individuals were constantly engaged in smaller matters, such as carrying grain to or from a distance, or conveying messages to or from men of high position in all parts of the country, etc. Occasionally great hunts were organized for killing such game as buffalo, gnu, wild pigs, waterbuck, koodoo and other antelopes, or such wild animals as lions, elephants, rhinoceros or leopards.

Among the amusements were: dancing in large numbers, the men being arranged in semi-circular formation,--after one group had danced it was succeeded by another, women and even cattle, also fantastically dressed men, taking part in each pageant; dancing _pas seuls_ (_giya_) in the presence of many assembled and applauding comrades; singing national and regimental war-songs; chanting national anthems; and last, but not least, shouting out some portion of the King's interminable praises, including the equally lengthy ones of his ancestors, or listening to one or other of the professional heralds doing so for hours at a time, until he got so hoarse as to be barely audible.

In addition to all this, there were religious observances, as also gatherings at which actual or supposed malefactors of all kinds were "smelt out" by diviners, only to be subsequently either put to death or heavily punished by order of the King. The execution of such orders, like everything else, was left to one or other of the regiments, for the whole nation lived perpetually under a state of martial law. And such state (can it be surprised at?) bore fruits of physical soundness, alertness and morality in the people, every man noble and energetic, every woman modest and comely. Those were the days when, as the lowing herds came home to be milked, one heard these fine fellows proudly shouting in reply: _Kala, 'nkomo ya kwa Zulu, wen'o nga soze waya ndawo_, _i.e._ Low on, oh cow of Zululand! whose hoof shall tread no alien soil.

Mobilization took place in this way: The King sent an order to the officers in charge at the various _amakanda_ requiring all men to collect at their respective barracks. The order was instantly re-transmitted by the officers to those in their respective commands, the utmost pains being taken to mobilize with rapidity, for fear the King might direct seizure of stock for dilatoriness. Those within fifteen miles of the royal kraal assembled there within twenty-four hours. There might be thirty to forty _amaviyo_ of them, a number of different regiments being represented. The King then reviewed the force and directed those present to separate themselves into regiments and companies, in order that he could see what proportion of each corps was present. He would then discuss with them his war affairs, and afterwards issue instructions as to where they were to bivouac.[74] Those whose barracks were near by might put up there, others had to camp in neighbouring specified valleys. Cattle were given for slaughter. Thus, the troops began at once to establish their camps, so that warriors from more distant parts were able, as they came up, to ascertain where the regiments they belonged to were, and fall in without loss of time. In the meantime, further messengers had reached each outlying post to enquire urgently when the men of that part would be ready. A report of the position was sent back, and redoubled efforts put forth to ensure the earliest possible attendance. In two to five days, according to the circumstances, the whole of the regiments were called to headquarters. They then, of course, went forward in regimental order divided into companies. If the King found an insufficiently strong force assembled, further messengers were dispatched post-haste by the several officers, who had already been threatened by the King with heavy punishment in the event of further delay. And so, in half-a-dozen days, anything between 30,000-50,000 men mobilized and were actually at headquarters in regimental order, every man in his proper place and ready to march. The manner in which the army could come up under the Kings in time of emergency was nothing short of a revelation.

After the troops had massed in sufficient numbers, various ceremonies were held, notably the famous eating of _umbengo_. As this involved certain preliminaries, one of which was the catching and killing of a bull, usually a black one, it will be best to consider them in proper sequence. A beginning was made by the King deputing one of the regiments to catch and kill the bull. The selected regiment forthwith devoted a day to collecting firewood for roasting the flesh. Cadets were, at the same time, directed to gather green branches of the _umtolo_ tree (a species of mimosa) to be used as a charm by being burnt along with the roasting flesh.

The "eating of _umbengo_" ceremony took place the day following. Early that morning, the regiment in question went to the spot appointed for the troops to _hlanza_ at (vomit), and there, under the superintendence of war-doctors, proceeded to do so. These war-doctors were specially appointed by the King. A hole some 18 inches in diameter and 6 to 7 feet deep had already been dug, with its soil heaped alongside. It was into this that every warrior, after swallowing a mouthful or two of the decoctions placed ready in three or four great pots or baskets, proceeded to vomit. Knowing what was coming, he had taken care to abstain from food. Two, three or four might go to the hole at one time. There was a desire on the part of everyone to finish quickly, but the doctors, two of whom stood on either side to see that instructions were conformed to, would not allow crowding. Here and there the stick they each carried was used on those who had merely pretended to drink the medicated water, and were therefore uninfluenced by its emetic properties. This process was gone through so as to "bring together the hearts of the people." The pots referred to stood, not on the ground, but on special articles, not unlike diminutive life-belts, made of straw bound round with plaited fibre--each doctor having one of his own. It was on such things the King stood when he washed himself of a morning.

As soon as the selected regiment had finished, it moved off to deal with the bull. After it had departed, the emetic continued to be used, none of the other regiments being permitted to leave off until the last men had "come into line." After the process was over, say by 3 or 4 p.m., the hole was carefully filled up by the doctors, to prevent possible visitors from hostile tribes obtaining any part of the substances that had been used. It was for this reason that the hole was dug deep.