Chapter I: Front Matter

A SHORT HISTORY
OF
FREETHOUGHT

ANCIENT AND MODERN

BY
JOHN M. ROBERTSON

THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND EXPANDED
IN TWO VOLUMES
Vol. II

(ISSUED FOR THE RATIONALIST PRESS ASSOCIATION, LIMITED)

London:
WATTS & CO.,
JOHNSON'S COURT, FLEET STREET, E.C.

1915

CONTENTS

VOLUME II

PAGE

Chap. XIII--The Rise of Modern Freethought (continued)

§ 4. England. Persecution and executions under Henry VIII,
Edward VI, Mary, and Elizabeth. Charges of atheism. Lilly's
polemic. Reginald Scot on witchcraft. The Family of
Love. Hamond, Lewes, Kett. Apologetic literature. Influence
of Machiavelli. Nashe's polemic. Marlowe, Raleigh, Harriott,
Kyd. Protests of Pilkington and Hooker. Polemic of Bishop
Morton. Shakespeare. The drama generally. Executions under
James. Bacon. Suckling 1
§ 5. Popular Thought in Europe. Callidius. Flade. Wier. Coornhert.
Grotius. Gorlæus. Zwicker. Koerbagh. Beverland. Socinianism.
The case of Spain. Cervantes 32
§ 6. Scientific Thought. Copernicus. Giordano Bruno. Vanini.
Galileo. The Aristotelian strife. Vives. Ramus. Descartes.
Gassendi 41

Chap. XIV--British Freethought in the Seventeenth Century

§ 1. Lord Herbert of Cherbury. Hobbes. Selden 69
§ 2. The popular ferment: attempted suppression of heresy by
Parliament. Lawrence Clarkson. The Levellers and Toleration.
Forms of unbelief. The term "rationalist." Propaganda against
atheism. Culverwel. The Polemic of Henry More. Freethought at
the Restoration. The case of Biddle. The protests of Howe,
Stillingfleet, and Baxter. Freethought in Scotland. The
argument of Mackenzie. English Apologetics of Casaubon,
Ingelo, Temple, Wilkins, Tillotson, Cudworth, Boyle, and
others. Martin Clifford. Emergence of Deism. Avowals of
Archdeacon Parker, Sherlock, and South. Dryden. Discussion on
miracles. Charles Blount. Leslie's polemic. Growth of
apologetic literature. Toland. The Licensing Act 75
§ 3. Literary, scientific, and academic developments. Sir
Thomas Browne. Jeremy Taylor. John Spencer. Joseph Glanvill.
Cartesianism. Glisson. Influence of Gassendi.
Resistance to Copernican theory. Lord Falkland. Colonel
Fry. Locke. Bury. Temple. The Marquis of Halifax. Newton.
Unitarianism. Penn. Firmin. Latitudinarianism. Tillotson.
Dr. T. Burnet. Dr. B. Connor. John Craig. The
"rationalists" 100

Chap. XV--French and Dutch Freethought in the Seventeenth Century

1. Influence of Montaigne and Charron. Gui Patin. Naudé. La
Mothe le Vayer 117
2. Catholic Pyrrhonism 120
3. Descartes's influence. Boileau. Jesuit and royal hostility 121
4. Vogue of freethinking. Malherbe. Joan Fontanier. Théophile
de Viau. Claude Petit. Corneille. Molière 122
5. Cyrano de Bergerac 123
6. Pascal's skepticism. Religious quarrels 124
7. Huet's skepticism 126
8. Cartesianism. Malebranche 128
9. Buffier. Scientific movements 130
10. Richard Simon. La Peyrère 131
11. Dutch thought. Louis Meyer. Cartesian heresy 132
12. Spinoza 133
13. Biblical criticism. Spinozism. Deurhoff. B. Bekker 137
14. Bayle 139
15. Developments in France. The polemic of Abbadie. Persecution
of Protestants. Fontenelle 141
16. St. Evremond. Regnard. La Bruyère. Spread of
skepticism. Fanaticism at court 143

Chap. XVI--British Freethought in the Eighteenth Century

§ 1. Toland. Blasphemy Law. Strifes among believers. Cudworth.
Bishops Browne and Berkeley. Heresy in the Church. The
Schools of Newton, Leibnitz, and Clarke. Hutchinson.
Halley. Provincial deism. Saunderson. Simson. Literary
orthodoxy. Addison. Steele. Berkeley. Swift. New deism.
Shaftesbury. Trenchard. Unitarianism. Asgill. Coward.
Dodwell. Whiston 147
§ 2. Anthony Collins. Bentley's attack. Mandeville. Woolston.
Middleton. Deism at Oxford. Tindal. Middleton and
Waterland 154
§ 3. Unitarianism: its spread among Presbyterians. Chubb.
Hall. Elwall 159
§ 4. Berkeley's polemic. Lady Mary Montagu. Pope. Deism and
Atheism. Coward. Strutt 162
§ 5. Parvish. Influence of Spinoza 167
§ 6. William Pitt. Morgan. Annet. Dodwell the Younger 169
§ 7. The work achieved by deism. The social situation. Recent
disparagements and German testimony 170
§ 8. Arrest of English science. Hale. Burnet. Whiston.
Woodward. Effects of Imperialism. Contrast with France.
The mathematicians 176
§ 9. Supposed "decay" of deism. Butler. William Law. Hume 179
§ 10. Freethought in Scotland. Execution of Thomas Aikenhead.
Confiscation of innovating books. Legislation against
deism. Anstruther's and Halyburton's polemic. Strife
over creeds. John Johnstone. William Dudgeon. Hutcheson.
Leechman. Forbes. Miller. Kames. Smith. Ferguson.
Church riots 181
§ 11. Freethought in Ireland. Lord Molesworth. Archbishop Synge.
Bishop Clayton 188
§ 12. Situation in England in 1750. Richardson's lament.
Middleton. Deism among the clergy. Sykes. The deistic
evolution 190
§ 13. Materialism. La Mettrie. Shifting of the social centre:
socio-political forces. Gray's avowal. Hume's estimate.
Goldsmith's. The later deism. Bolingbroke 194
§ 14. Diderot's diagnosis. Influence of Voltaire. Chatterton.
Low state of popular culture. Prosecutions of poor
freethinkers. Jacob Ilive. Peter Annet. Later deistic
literature. Unitarianism. Evanson. Tomkyns. Watts.
Lardner. Priestley. Toulmin. D. Williams 198
§ 15. Gibbon. Spread of unbelief. The creed of the younger
Pitt. Fox. Geology. Hutton. Cowper's and Paley's
complaints. Erasmus Darwin. Mary Wollstonecraft 203
§ 16. Burns and Scotland 208
§ 17. Panic and reaction after the French Revolution. New
aristocratic orthodoxy. Thomas Paine. New democratic
freethought 209

Chap. XVII--French Freethought in the Eighteenth Century

1. Boulainvilliers. Strifes in the Church. Fénelon and Ramsay.
Fanaticism at court. New freethinking. Gilbert. Tyssot de
Patot. Deslandes. Persecution of Protestants 213
2. Output of apologetics 214
3. The political situation 216
4. Huard and Huet 216
5. Montesquieu 217
6. Jean Meslier 219
7. Freethinking priests. Pleas for toleration. Boindin 221
8. Voltaire 222
9. Errors as to the course of development 224
10. Voltaire's character and influence 229
11. Progress of tolerance. Marie Huber. Resistance of bigotry.
De Prades. The Encyclopédie. Fontenelle as censor 233
12. Chronological outline of the literary movement 236
13. New politics. The less famous freethinkers: Burigny;
Fontenelle; De Brosses; Meister; Vauvenargues; Mirabaud;
Fréret 244
14. N.-A. Boulanger. Dumarsais. Prémontval. Solidity of much
of the French product 246
15. General anonymity of the freethinkers. The orthodox defence 250
16. The prominent freethinkers. Rousseau 253
17. Astruc 256
18. Freethought in the Académie. Beginnings in classical
research. Emergence of anti-clericalism. D'Argenson's
notes 257
19. The affair of Pompignan 258
20. Marmontel's Bélisaire 259
21. The scientific movement: La Mettrie 260
22. Study of Nature. Fontenelle. Lenglet du Fresnoy. De
Maillet's Telliamed. Mirabaud. Resistance of Voltaire to
the new ideas. Switzerland. Buffon and the Church 262
23. Maupertuis. Diderot. Condillac. Robinet. Helvétius 264
24. Diderot's doctrines and influence 267
25. D'Alembert and d'Holbach 271
26. Freethought and the Revolution 273
27. The conventional myth and the facts. Necker. Abbé Grégoire.
The argument of Michelet. The legend of the Goddess of
Reason. Sacrilege in the English and French Revolutions.
Hébert. Danton. Chaumette. Clootz. The atheist Salaville 274
28. Religious and political forces of revolt. The polemic
of Rivarol 280
29. The political causation. Rebellion in the ages of faith 281
30. The polemic of Mallet du Pan. Saner views of Barante.
Freethinkers and orthodox in each political camp. Mably.
Voltaire. D'Holbach. Rousseau. Diderot. Orthodoxy of the
mass. The thesis of Chamfort 284
31. The reign of persecution 289
32. Orthodox lovers of tolerance 291
33. Napoleon 292

Chap. XVIII--German Freethought in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries

1. Moral Decline under Lutheranism. Freethought before the
Thirty Years' War. Orthodox polemic. The movement of
Matthias Knutzen 294
2. Influence of Spinoza. Stosch. Output of apologetics 297
3. Leibnitz 298
4. Pietism. Orthodox hostility. Spread of Rationalism 300
5. Thomasius 302
6. Dippel 304
7. T. L. Lau 305
8. Wolff 305
9. Freemasonry and freethinking. J. L. Schmidt. Martin Knutzen 306
10. J. C. Edelmann 307
11. Abbot Jerusalem 308
12. English and French influences. The scientific movement.
Orthodox science. Haller. Rapid spread of rationalism 309
13. Frederick the Great 312
14. Mauvillon. Nicolai. Riem. Schade. Basedow. Eberhard.
Steinbart. Spalding. Teller 315
15. Semler. Töllner. Academic rationalism 318
16. Bahrdt 320
17. Moses Mendelssohn. Lessing. Reimarus 322
18. Vogue of deism. Wieland. Cases of Isenbiehl and Steinbuhler.
A secret society. Clerical rationalism. Schulz. The edict of
Frederick William II. Persistence of skepticism. The
Marokkanische Briefe. Mauvillon. Herder 329
19. Goethe 333
20. Schiller 336
21. Kant 337
22. Influence of Kant. The sequel. Hamann. Chr. A. Crusius.
Platner. Beausobre the younger 345
23. Fichte. Philosophic strifes 349
24. Rationalism and conservatism in both camps 350
25. Austria. Jahn. Joseph II. Beethoven 351

Chap. XIX--Freethought in the Remaining European States

§ 1. Holland. Elizabeth Wolff. Leenhof. Booms. Influence of
Bayle. Passerano. Lack of native freethought literature 352
§ 2. The Scandinavian States.

1. Course of the Reformation. Subsequent wars.
Retrogression in Denmark 354
2. Holberg's Nicolas Klimius 355
3. Sweden. Queen Christina 357
4. Swedenborg 358
5. Upper-class indifference. Gustavus III. Kjellgren and
Bellman. Torild. Retrogression in Sweden 359
6. Revival of thought in Denmark. Struensee. Mary
Wollstonecraft's survey 361

§ 3. The Slavonic States.

1. Poland. Liszinski 362
2. Russia. Nikon. Peter the Great. Kantemir. Catherine 363

§ 4. Italy.

1. Decline under Spanish Rule. Naples 365
2. Vico 365
3. Subsequent scientific thought. General revival of
freethought under French influence 367
4. Beccaria. Algarotti. Filangieri. Galiani. Genovesi.
Alfieri. Bettinelli. Dandolo. Giannone. Algarotti and
the Popes. The scientific revival. Progress and reaction
in Tuscany. Effects of the French Revolution 368

§ 5. Spain and Portugal.

1. Progress under Bourbon rule in Spain. Aranda. D'Alba 372
2. Tyranny of the Inquisition. Aranda. Olavidès 373
3. Duke of Almodobar. D'Azara. Ricla 373
4. The case of Samaniego 374
5. Bails. Cagnuelo. Centeno 375
6. Faxardo. Iriarte 375
7. Ista. Salas 376
8. Reaction after Charles III 376
9. Portugal. Pombal 377

§ 6. Switzerland.

Socinianism and its sequelæ. The Turrettini. Geneva and
Rousseau. Burlamaqui. Spread of deism 378

Chap. XX--Early Freethought in the United States

1. Deism of the revolutionary statesmen 381
2. First traces of unbelief. Franklin 381
3. Jefferson. John Adams. Washington 382
4. Thomas Paine 383
5. Paine's treatment in America 384
6. Palmer. Houston. Deism and Unitarianism 385

Chap. XXI.--Freethought in the Nineteenth Century

The Reaction. Tone in England. Clericalism in Italy and
Spain. Movement in France and Germany 386
The Forces of Renascence. International movement. Summary of
critical forces. Developments of science. Lines of resistance 389