Chapter VI: Verbs (2)

(1) You _may_ borrow my pencil. I told him that he _might_ join our
party.

(2) He _may_ accept my offer. You _might_ not like it.

(3) _May_ good fortune attend you!

+291.+ In asking permission, the proper form is “_May_ I?” not “_Can_ I?” With negatives, however, _can_ is more common than _may_, except in questions. Thus,--

QUESTION. _May_ I (or _mayn’t_ I) play ball this morning?
ANSWER. No, you _cannot_; but you _may_ play this afternoon.

+292.+ _Must_ expresses +necessity+ or +obligation+.

We _must_ all die sometime.

You _must_ wait for the train.

You _must_ not be discouraged by failure.

NOTE. _Must_, though originally a past tense, is in modern English
almost always used as a present. Past necessity may be expressed by
_had to_ with the infinitive: as,--“I _had to wait_ for the train.”

+293.+ _Ought_ with the +present infinitive+, expresses a present duty or moral obligation; with the +perfect infinitive+, a past duty or obligation. _Should_ is often used in the same sense.

I _ought to write_ that letter. [Present.]

You _ought_ not _to object_. [Present.]

This roof _ought to be mended_. [Present.]

I _ought to have known_ better. [Past.]

Your dog _ought_ not _to have been unleashed_. [Past.]

You _should be_ careful. [Present.]

The garden _should have been weeded_ yesterday. [Past.]

NOTE. _Ought_ is really an old past tense of the verb _owe_, but
is now +always+ a present. Its former meaning may be seen in Dame
Quickly’s “You _ought_ him a thousand pound” (SHAKSPERE, _1 Henry
IV_, iii. 3. 152).

_Had_ should never be prefixed to _ought_.

CORRECT INCORRECT

You _ought_ to stay at home. You had ought to stay at home.

We _ought_n’t to make so much noise. We hadn’t ought to make
so much noise.

John ought to begin, _ought_n’t he? John ought to begin, hadn’t he?

+294.+ _Should_ and _ought_ sometimes express what would certainly be expected in the case supposed.

Three weeks {_should_ | _ought to_} suffice.

If the train is on time, he {_should_ | _ought to_} arrive at six.

+295.+ _Would_ in all three persons sometimes indicates +habitual action+ in the past.

_I would_ gaze at the sea for hours at a time.

Whenever we asked Edward about his adventures, _he would begin_ to
talk of something else.

SPECIAL RULES FOR _SHOULD_ AND _WOULD_

+296.+ _Should_ is the past tense of _shall_, and _would_ is the past tense of _will_. Hence the rules for _should_ and _would_ are similar to those for _shall_ and _will_ (§§ 233–239). But there is much variation, especially in subordinate clauses.

I. IN SIMPLE SENTENCES AND INDEPENDENT CLAUSES

+297.+ Except in certain kinds of subordinate clauses, the distinction between _should_ and _would_ is practically the same as that between _shall_ and _will_.

When the auxiliary verb expresses +futurity+ without any idea of +wishing+, +consenting+, or the like, the forms are as follows:--

ASSERTIONS (DECLARATIVE)

SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I should fall. 1. We should fall.
2. Thou wouldst fall. 2. You would fall.
3. He would fall. 3. They would fall.

QUESTIONS (INTERROGATIVE)

SINGULAR PLURAL
1. Should I fall? 1. Should we fall?
2. Shouldst thou fall? 2. Should you fall?
3. Would he fall? 3. Would they fall?

+298.+ Common errors are the use of _I would_ for _I should_ in assertions, and that of _Would I?_ and _Would you?_ for _Should I?_ and _Should you?_ in questions.

The correct forms are shown in the following sentences.

I. _I should_ (_we should_) and _I would_ (_we would_) in +assertions+:--

1. _I should_ break my neck if I fell.

2. _I should_ hesitate to try this experiment.

3. _I should_n’t wonder if he escaped.

4. _We should_ regret any misunderstanding.

5. _I should_ wish to examine the plans again before deciding.

6. _I should_ be glad to accept any fair offer.

7. _I would_ give five dollars for a ticket.

8. _I would_ help you if I could.

9. _I would_ never agree to such a proposition.

10. _We would_ rather die than surrender.

11. _We would_ pay our bill to-day if we had the money.

12. _I would_ gladly accept any fair offer.

In the first six examples, _I_ (or _we_) _should_ is correct, because the auxiliary gives no suggestion of the speaker’s will (or volition). In the last six, on the contrary, the speaker’s willingness or desire is plainly expressed by the auxiliary, and _I_ (or _we_) _would_ is therefore used.

NOTE. In such sentences as the fifth,--“I should wish to examine the
plans again before deciding,”--_wish_ expresses volition. Hence “I
_would_ wish” is incorrect, for it expresses volition twice and can
mean only “I desire to wish.” On the same principle we say “I should
prefer,” “I should be glad,” etc. (see § 236).

Sometimes either _I would_ or _I should_ may be used, but with a
difference in meaning. Thus, in the eighth example, “I should help
you” might be substituted for “I would help you.” This change,
however, makes the remark sound less cordial and sympathetic; for _I
should_ (unlike _I would_) gives no hint of the speaker’s desire to
be of service.

II. _Should I_ (or _we_)? in +questions+:--

1. _Should I_ break my neck if I fell?

2. _Should I_ be poisoned if I ate those berries?

3. _Should I_ take cold without my overcoat?

4. _Should I_ disturb you if I were to practise my music lesson?

5. _Should we_ run aground if we missed the channel?

NOTE. _Would I?_ is confined, for the most part, to questions in
which one repeats the words or thought of another. Thus,--“_You
would_ give five dollars for a ticket.” “_Would I?_ No, I wouldn’t!”
In this use it is chiefly colloquial.

III. _Should you?_ and _Would you?_ in questions:--

1. _Should you_ drown if the boat were to capsize? [Yes, _I should_
drown, for I do not know how to swim.]

2. _Should you_ despair if this plan were a failure? [No, _I should_
not, for I have other resources.]

3. _Should you_ think that ten yards of velvet would be enough? [Yes,
_I should_ think so.]

4. _Should you_ be offended if I were to speak frankly? [No, _I
should_ not be offended.]

5. _Should you_ wish to examine the plans again before deciding?
[Yes, _I should_ (see note under I, above).]

6. _Would you_ wear a hat or a cap? [_I would_ wear a cap if I were
you.]

7. _Would you_ study Greek if you were in my place? [Yes, _I would_.]

8. _Would you_ accept my apology if it were offered? [Certainly, _I
would_ accept it gladly.]

9. _Would you_ be so kind as to lend me your compasses? [Certainly _I
would_ lend them, if I had not lost them.]

10. _Would you_ allow me to use your name as a reference? [_I would._]

The choice between _should_ and _would_ in these sentences corresponds to the form expected in the answer (§ 238).

+299.+ The chief occasions on which _Would you?_ is correct are:--(1) in +asking advice+ in a matter of doubt, and (2) in +asking consent+ or +permission+.

In examples 6 and 7 in § 298, III, the speaker asks advice; in 8, 9,
and 10, he asks consent or permission.

+300.+ Note that the proper forms are _I should like_, _Should I like?_ and _Should you like?_

_I should_ like to read that book.

_Should I_ like to go to Rome? Indeed, _I should_.

_Should you_ like to receive a copy of our catalogue? [_I should_
like to receive one.]

NOTE. _Would_ is very common in these phrases, even among writers of
repute, but it is still contrary to the best usage. The reason for
_should_ is the same as in _I should wish_ (§ 298, I, note).

+301.+ _I’d_ and _we’d_ are contractions of _I would_ and _we would_. Hence they can never stand for _I should_ and _we should_ (§ 235).

+302.+ _Should_ in the +second+ and +third persons+ may be used in simple declarative sentences and independent clauses to express the will of the speaker (§ 239).

If I had my way, _you should_ be prosecuted. [That is: I would take
care that you were prosecuted.]

If I had the money, _you should_ be paid immediately. [Compare: _You
shall_ be paid.]

If I were you, _she should_ not regret her generosity. [Compare: _She
shall_ not regret it.]

II. _SHOULD_ AND _WOULD_ IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

+303.+ In some kinds of +subordinate clauses+, the use of _should_ and _would_ differs considerably from that in simple sentences and principal clauses.

The following classes require attention:--(1) clauses of purpose or expectation (§ 304), (2) conditional and concessive clauses (§ 305), (3) clauses expressing volition not that of the subject (§ 306), (4) clauses stating something as an idea (§ 307), (5) indirect discourse (§ 308).

+304.+ In subordinate clauses expressing the +purpose+ or +expectation+ with which anything is done, _shall_ and _should_ are used in all three persons.

Charleton took great pains that {_I_ | _you_ | _they_} _should_
understand the details of the treaty.

Scott {_is_ | _was_} very careful that _nothing_ {_shall_ | _should_}
interfere with his plans.

They took every precaution lest {_I_ | _you_ | _he_} _should_ suspect
the plot.

Anderson waited patiently until {_I_ | _you_ | _they_} _should_
arrive with the horses.

We strained every nerve to reach the cave before the _storm should_
break.

+305.+ In +conditional+ or +concessive+ clauses expressing a +future supposed case+ doubtfully, _shall_ and _should_ are used in +all three persons+; but _will_ and _would_ are proper when the subject is thought of as +wishing+ or +consenting+.

1. What would happen if {_I_ | _you_ | _he_} _should_ not carry out
the commander’s instructions?

2. If {_I_ | _you_ | _he_} _should_ miss the steamer, our friends
would be alarmed.

3. _Whoever_ {_shall_ | _should_} violate this law {shall | should}
pay the penalty. [That is: If anybody shall violate, etc.]

4. Whenever {_I_ | _you_ | _he_} _shall_ find an opportunity, let us
try the experiment. [That is: If ever I shall find, etc.]

5. He promised to assist you whenever _you should_ need help.
[Whenever = if ever.]

6. Though {_we_ | _you_ | _they_} _should_ fail, others would make
the attempt. [Concession.]

7. Though _Evans should_ disappoint me, I should not lose confidence
in him.

8. Vernon will do his part if {_I_ | _you_ | _they_} _will_ coöperate
with him.

9. If {_I_ | _you_ | _he_} _will_ only make the effort, success is
certain.

10. Edmund would reveal the secret if {_I_ | _you_ | _they_} _would_
assist him in his search for the treasure.

11. If _we would_ take pains, our parents would be satisfied.

12. _Whoever will_ join us may be sure of a pleasant and profitable
journey. [That is: If any one will join us, he may be sure, etc.]

When a +future supposed case+ is admitted or conceded as +certain+, _will_ may be used in the second and third persons to denote mere futurity.

Though {_you_ | _he_} _will_ certainly fail, {you | he} may make the
attempt.

Though the _ship will_ not sink for some hours, let us take to the
boats.

+306.+ _Shall_ and _should_ are often used in the second and third persons in subordinate clauses to express volition which is not that of the subject.

Templeton insists that _you shall_ accompany him.

This letter directs where _you shall_ station yourself.

We gave orders that the _gates should_ be closed.

My wish is that {_you_ | _he_} _should_ remain at home.

The law prescribed when and to whom the _tax should_ be paid.

+307.+ When a clause with _that_ states something, not as a +fact+ but as an +idea+ to be considered, _should_ is the proper auxiliary in all three persons.

I am not surprised that you _should_ find your lesson rather
difficult. [That is: “When I consider the matter, I do not find the
idea surprising.” In “I am not surprised _that you find_,” etc., the
subordinate clause makes the statement +as a fact+.]

It is strange that Tom _should_ neglect his swimming lessons.
[Contrast: It is strange that Tom _neglects_.]

That Napoleon _should_ have chafed at captivity is only natural.
[Contrast: That Napoleon _chafed_.]

+308.+ For _shall_ and _will_, _should_ and _would_, in +indirect discourse+, see §§ 438–439.

THE INFINITIVE

+309.+ The +infinitive+ is a +verb-form+ that has some of the properties of a +noun+ (§ 28). Its two-sided character comes out clearly when it is used as the subject of a sentence.

1. _To hope_ is our only resource.

2. _To flatter_ is not my custom.

3. _To sleep_ was an impossibility.

4. _To surrender_ seemed disgraceful.

5. _To choose_ wisely was my greatest difficulty.

6. _To scale_ the wall was the work of a moment.

Each of these infinitives (_to hope_, _to flatter_, etc.) is a +noun+, for each is the simple subject of a sentence. Besides, an ordinary noun may be substituted for each infinitive with no change in meaning; as,--“_Hope_ is our only resource”; “_Flattery_ is not my custom”; “_Sleep_ was an impossibility.”

But each of these infinitives is also a +verb+,--for (1) it expresses action; (2) it may be modified by an adverb, as in No. 5; (3) it takes an object if it is transitive, as in No. 6.

An infinitive (as the examples show) has regularly no subject and therefore lacks both number and person. Hence it is not bound by the general rule for the agreement of a verb with its subject (§ 222). From this fact it derives its name, +infinitive+, which means “unrestricted” or “free from limitations.”[38]

+310.+ +The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It expresses action or state in the simplest possible way, without person or number.+

+It is commonly preceded by the preposition _to_, which is called the sign of the infinitive.+

_To_ is not, in strictness, a part of the infinitive, but it may be so regarded for convenience, since the infinitive, in most of its uses, is preceded by _to_.

NOTE. _To_ sometimes stands for an infinitive in careless speech:
as,--“You may go if you wish _to_” (that is, “if you wish _to go_”).
Such expressions are to be avoided. It is better to say, “You may go
if you wish.”

+311.+ The infinitive often lacks _to_, especially in verb-phrases with the auxiliaries _will_, _shall_, _may_, _can_, _must_, _might_, _could_, _would_, _should_, _do_, _did_. For examples, see pp. 102, 114, 124.

+312.+ The infinitive has two tenses,--the +present+ and the +perfect+.

1. The +present infinitive+ is the verb in its simplest form, usually preceded by _to_: as,--_to live_, _to teach_, _to bind_, _to strike_.

2. The +perfect infinitive+ is made by prefixing the infinitive of the auxiliary verb _have_ to the past participle (§ 243): as,--_to have lived_, _to have taught_, _to have bound_, _to have struck_.

+313.+ An infinitive may be modified by an +adverb+, an +adverbial phrase+, or an +adverbial clause+.

To write _legibly_ is a valuable accomplishment.

It would be useless to search _longer_.

They allowed him to go _in peace_. [Adverbial phrase.]

To dive _among those weeds_ would be folly.

Theodore promises to come _when I send for him_. [Adverbial clause.]

+No modifier should be inserted between _to_ and the infinitive.+

I beg you to inquire carefully into this matter. [NOT: to carefully
inquire.]

Mr. Harris moved to postpone the question indefinitely. [NOT: to
indefinitely postpone.]

I expect always to be poor. [NOT: to always be poor.]

NOTE. Careless writers pay slight attention to this rule, and some
good writers and speakers defy it, hoping to break it down. But it is
unquestionably still in accord with the best usage.

+314.+ +The infinitive may take an object if its meaning allows.+

I long to visit _Italy_.

My mother feared to enter the _house_.

To launch a _boat_ was impossible.

To grant your _request_ is a pleasure.

To give _him money_ is useless. [_Money_ is the direct object of _to
give_, and _him_ the indirect object.]

+315.+ The infinitive is used in a variety of constructions,--(1) as a +noun+, (2) as an +adjective modifier+ or +adverbial modifier+, (3) in the so-called +infinitive clause+.

I. THE INFINITIVE AS NOUN

+316.+ The infinitive is used in various +noun constructions+,--as subject, as predicate nominative, as nominative of exclamation, as appositive, as object of certain prepositions, as modifier.

+317.+ +An infinitive with or without a complement or modifiers, may be used as the subject of a sentence, as a predicate nominative, or as an appositive.+

_To descend_ was extremely difficult. [Subject.]

_To secure_ a seat was impossible.

_To sing_ well requires practice.

His delight was _to travel_. [Predicate nominative.]

The governor’s policy is _to wait_.

My wish is _to see_ you immediately.

_To decide_ was _to act_. [The first infinitive is the subject, and
the second is a predicate nominative.]

Both alternatives, _to advance_ and _to retreat_, seemed equally
hazardous. [Apposition with the subject.]

My first plan, _to tunnel_ under the wall, proved a failure.

He has but one aim in life, _to succeed_. [Apposition with the
object.]

I have written with a definite purpose, _to dissuade_ you.

I give you three choices,--_to buy_, _to lease_, or _to build_.

+318.+ An infinitive in the predicate is often in apposition with the expletive subject _it_.

It was a pleasure _to see_ him. [Instead of: To see him was a
pleasure.]

It is easy _to understand_ you.

It will be impossible _to forget_.

It proved very difficult _to find_ evidence against him.

In this use the infinitive, though grammatically in apposition with
_it_, is really the subject of the thought (see § 120, 2).

+319.+ The infinitive may be used as the +object+ of the prepositions _but_, _except_, _about_.

There was nothing to do but _walk_ (or _to walk_).

He will do anything except _resign_ (or except _to resign_).

We are about _to object_. [An idiom expressing futurity.]

The train is about _to start_.

NOTE. _Can but_ and _cannot but_ are distinct idioms. (1) In “I _can
but_ thank you,” _but_ is an adverb (= _only_). The sentence means:
“I can _only_ thank you--simply that and nothing more!” (2) In “I
_cannot but_ thank you,” _but_ is a preposition (= _except_). The
idiom is shortened from “I cannot _choose but_ thank you,”--that is,
“I have _no choice except_ to do so,” or, in other words, “I cannot
help it.”

The infinitive after _for_ (now a gross error) was once in good use:
as,--

What sweeter music can we bring
Than a carol _for to sing_.--HERRICK.

+320.+ The infinitive may be used as a +nominative of exclamation+ (§ 88, 4).

_To sleep!_ perchance _to dream_!

_To suffer_ and _be_ silent!

O _to be_ a boy again! [A wish.]

O _to have lived_ in the brave days of old!

II. THE INFINITIVE AS A MODIFIER

+321.+ +An infinitive may be used as an adjective modifier of a noun or as an adverbial modifier of an adjective.+

+In this use the infinitive is said to depend on the word which it modifies.+

WITH NOUNS WITH ADJECTIVES
(ADJECTIVE MODIFIER) (ADVERBIAL MODIFIER)

An opportunity _to advance_ The men are _ready to advance_.
came.

Determination _to win_ John is eager _to win_.
brings success.

Willingness _to oblige_ I shall be glad _to oblige_ you.
makes friends.

I wish I had the ability We are all able _to swim_.
_to swim_.

His anxiety _to please_ us He is anxious _to please_ everybody.
was laughable.

NOTE. This use is due to the fact that the infinitive with _to_ is
really a prepositional phrase (§ 42). Thus, “determination _to win_”
is equivalent to “determination for victory,” and “eager _to win_” to
“eager _for victory_.” The adjective force of the infinitive comes
out clearly in “nothing _to eat_,” where _to eat_ is practically
synonymous with _eatable_.

In its adjective use, the present infinitive sometimes shows no
distinction in voice, so that the active and the passive are
interchangeable: as,--“a house _to let_” or “_to be let_”; “an axe
_to grind_” or “_to be ground_.” In such expressions the active form
is usually preferable.

+322.+ The infinitive without _to_ may be used as an adjective modifier after the direct object of _see_, _hear_, _feel_, and some other verbs of like meaning.

I saw the policeman _arrest_ him.

Hear the sea _roar_!

Can you feel the ground _tremble_?

Ruth watched the tide _come_ in.

In this use the infinitive is practically equivalent to a participle.
Compare “I heard him _shout_” with “I heard him _shouting_.” Hence
the substantive may be regarded as an object, and the infinitive as
its modifier. But the construction closely approaches that of an
infinitive clause (§§ 324–325).

+323.+ +An infinitive may modify a verb (1) by completing its meaning, or (2) by expressing the purpose of the action.+

I. COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE

The ship began _to roll_.

The rain continued _to fall_ heavily.

Every boy desires _to succeed_.

The officer neglected _to watch_ his men.

The prisoners attempted _to escape_.

You promised _to come_ to-night.

After _dare_, the complementary infinitive may or may not have _to_.
Thus,--“I dare not _do_ it”; “Who will dare _to speak_?”

II. INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE

He went to New York _to study_ medicine.

He opened his lips _to speak_.

She closed her eyes _to shut_ out the sight.

Elsa lifted the cover _to see_ what was inside.

The conductor signalled _to stop_ the train.

Harold waited _to assist_ his teacher.

Both the +complementary infinitive+ and the +infinitive of purpose+ may be regarded as +adverbial phrases+ modifying the verb.

NOTE. After some verbs the infinitive approaches the construction
of a pure noun and is often regarded as an object. Thus,--“I desire
_to see_ you” (compare “I desire a _sight_ of you”). It is simpler,
however, to regard all such infinitives as complementary and to treat
them as adverbial modifiers. For it is impossible to distinguish the
construction of the infinitive after certain adjectives (as in “I am
eager _to see_ you”) from its construction after such verbs as _wish_
and _desire_.

III. THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE

+324.+ A peculiar infinitive construction often replaces a _that_-clause as the object of a verb. Thus,--

I wished {_that he should go_. | _him to go_.}

In the first sentence, the noun clause _that he should go_ is the object of _wished_; in the second, this clause is replaced by _him to go_, but without any change in meaning. This expression consists of two parts:--(1) _him_, a pronoun in the objective case, which replaces the subject _he_; and (2) an infinitive _to go_, which replaces the predicate _should go_. Thus it is plain that _him to go_ is also a noun clause, of which _him_ is the subject, and _to go_ the predicate. Such an expression is called an +infinitive clause+.

+325.+ +A kind of clause, consisting of a substantive in the objective case followed by an infinitive, may be used as the object of certain verbs.+

+Such clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.+

+The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.+

+Infinitive clauses+ are used (1) after verbs of _wishing_, _commanding_, _advising_, and the like, and (2) after some verbs of _believing_, _declaring_, and _perceiving_.[39] Thus,--

The colonel commanded _them to charge_ [= that they should charge].

I believe _him to be trustworthy_ [= that he is trustworthy].

The judge declared _him to be a dangerous man_ [= that he was, etc.].

After a few verbs the infinitive without _to_ is used in infinitive clauses.

Mr. Esmond bade his servant _pack_ a portmanteau and _get_ horses.
[Compare: ordered his servant _to pack_, etc.]

What makes him _cry_? [Compare: What causes him _to cry_?]

I let him _sleep_. [Compare: I allowed him _to sleep_.]

NOTE. Ordinarily the infinitive cannot assert and hence has no
subject (§ 309). The infinitive clause is, therefore, a peculiar
exception, for _him to go_ makes an assertion as clearly as _that
he should go_ does. That _him_ is really the subject of _to go_ and
not the object of _wished_ is manifest, for _I wished him_ makes no
sense. The object of _wished_ is the whole clause (_him to go_).

Originally, to be sure, the noun or pronoun in the objective was
felt to be the object of the main verb, and this relation may still
be felt in “I ordered him to go”; but even here the real object of
_ordered_ is the clause (as may be seen in “I ordered the castle to
be blown up”). The substantive has come to be the real subject of the
infinitive, and should be so treated in parsing.

+326.+ A +predicate pronoun+ after _to be_ in an infinitive clause is in the +objective case+, agreeing with the subject of the infinitive.

Care should be taken not to confuse this construction with the +predicate nominative+ (§ 88, 2).

PREDICATE PRONOUN AFTER _TO BE_ PREDICATE NOMINATIVE

I believed it to be _her_. I believed that it was _she_.

We know the author to be _him_. We know that the author is _he_.
The author is known to be _he_.

He thought Richard to be _me_. He thought that Richard was _I_.
Richard was thought to be _I_.

We suspected the intruders We suspected that the intruders
to be _them_. were _they_.

Note the case of the +relatives+ and of the +predicate pronouns+ in the following sentences:--

A boy _whom_ I thought to be honest deceived me. [_Whom_ is the
subject of the infinitive _to be_ and is therefore in the objective
case.]

A boy _who_, I thought, was honest deceived me. [_Who_ is the subject
of _was_ and is therefore nominative. _I thought_ is parenthetical (§
502).]

A boy _whom_ I believe to be _him_ just passed me.

A boy _who_, I believe, was _he_, just passed me.

+327.+ An infinitive clause may be the object of the preposition _for_. Thus,--

I wrote for _him to come_. [The clause _him to come_ is the object of
_for_; _him_ is the subject of _to come_.]

They are waiting on the shore
For _the bark to take them home_.--NOEL.

I long for _him to come back_.

+328.+ An infinitive clause with _for_ may be used as a subject, as a predicate nominative, or as the object of a preposition.

_For us to delay_ would be fatal to your enterprise. [Compare: _Our
delay_ would be fatal.]

Our best plan is _for the boat to shoot the rapids_. [Predicate
nominative agreeing with the subject _plan_.]

I see no way out of the difficulty except _for them to offer an
apology_. [Compare: except the _offer_ of an apology on their part.]

PARTICIPLES

+329.+ Certain words unite in themselves some of the properties of +adjectives+ with some of the properties of +verbs+. Such words are called +participles+ (§ 31). Thus,--

_Shattered_ and _sinking_, but gallantly _returning_ the enemy’s
fire, the frigate drifted out to sea.

_Shattered_, _sinking_, and _returning_ are verb-forms which are in some respects similar to infinitives: for (1) they express action; (2) they have no subject to agree with, and hence have neither person nor number; and (3) one of them takes a direct object. They differ from infinitives, however, in that they resemble, not nouns, but adjectives, for they describe the substantive _frigate_ to which they belong.

Such verb-forms are called +participles+, because they share (or participate in) the nature of adjectives.

+330.+ +The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.+

Who _thundering_ comes on blackest steed?--BYRON.

_Clinging_ to the horns of the altar, voiceless she stood.--DE
QUINCEY.

_Deserted_, _surrounded_, _outnumbered_, and with everything at
stake, he did not even deign to stand on the defensive.--MACAULAY.

_Shrouded_ in such baleful vapors, the genius of Burns was never seen
in clear azure splendor, _enlightening_ the world.--CARLYLE.

FORMS OF PARTICIPLES

+331.+ Verbs have three participles,--the +present+, the +past+, and the +perfect+.

+332.+ The +present participle+ ends in _-ing_. It usually describes an action as taking place at the same time with some other action.

Tom came _sauntering_ up the path.

The beggar shambled down the steps, _grumbling_.

_Reaching_ for the flower, I lost my balance.

+333.+ The present participle often refers to time preceding that denoted by the predicate verb.

_Rising_ from his chair, he bowed. [That is, when he had risen.]

_Learning_ that your brother was in trouble, I hastened to his aid.

+334.+ +The past participle is always associated with the idea of past time or completed action.+

1. +The past participle of a weak verb has the same form as the past tense.+[40]

PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE

I _mend_ chairs. I _mended_ the chairs. The chairs are _mended_.
I _sweep_ the rooms. I _swept_ the rooms. The rooms are _swept_.
I _seek_ treasure. I _sought_ treasure. Treasure is _sought_.
I _lose_ money. I _lost_ money. The money is _lost_.

2. +The past participle of strong verbs shows a change from the vowel of the present tense.+

+All strong verbs had originally the ending _en_ (_n_) in the past participle, but this ending has been lost in many verbs.+

PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE

He _speaks_. He _spoke_. (He has) _spoken_.
He _draws_. He _drew_. (He has) _drawn_.
He _sings_. He _sang_. (He has) _sung_.
He _wins_. He _won_. (He has) _won_.

The forms show great variety and must be learned by practice. (See pp. 291–297 for a list.)

+335.+ The +perfect participle+ is made by prefixing _having_ to the past participle.

_Having mended_ the watch, I sent it to the owner.

_Having lost_ his money, James was forced to walk home.

+336.+ The present participle is used in forming the progressive verb-phrases (§§ 255–259).

The past participle is used in forming the complete tenses (§§ 242–244) and the passive voice (§ 247).

CONSTRUCTIONS OF PARTICIPLES

+337.+ Since the participle has adjective properties, its constructions are in the main like those of adjectives.

+338.+ +A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.+

Rupert, _missing_ his companion, stepped to the door. [The present
participle _missing_ belongs to the subject _Rupert_.]

_Rising_, she opened the window. [_Rising_ belongs to _she_.]

I heard the rain _falling_. [_Falling_ belongs to the object _rain_.]

Tom’s arm, _broken_ by the blow, hung useless. [The past participle
_broken_ belongs to the subject _arm_.]

_Having climbed_ the hill with great difficulty, I stopped to rest.
[The perfect participle _having climbed_ belongs to the subject _I_.]

+339.+ +A participle should not be used without some substantive to which it may belong.+

RIGHT: _Entering_ the room, we saw a strange sight. [The participle
_entering_ belongs to the pronoun _we_.]

WRONG: _Entering_ the room, a strange sight was seen. [Since
there is no substantive to which _entering_ can belong, it has no
construction.]

Apparent exceptions are _concerning_, _considering_, _pending_, _generally speaking_, etc. The first three may be classed as prepositions (§ 355), the last as an independent participle.

We fought every day, and, _generally speaking_, twice every day.--DE
QUINCEY.

NOTE. The rule in § 339 does not apply to such phrases as _on
entering_, _after investigating_, etc., in which the words in _-ing_
are not participles, but verbal nouns (§ 348). Thus the following
sentences are grammatical:--“_On entering_ the room, a strange sight
appeared”; “_After investigating_ the subject, the plan was adopted.”
Such expressions, however, should be used with caution, since they
are sometimes awkward or ambiguous.

+340.+ +A participle may be modified by an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause.+

Smiling _brightly_, she extended her hand. [Adverb.]

He leaped forward, shrieking _with all his might_. [Adverbial phrase.]

Laughing _until he cried_, he sank into a chair. [Adverbial clause.]

+341.+ +A participle may take an object if its meaning allows.+

I found the old man mending his _net_.

Lifting the _box_, he moved toward the door.

Giving _me_ a friendly _nod_, he passed on. [Here _nod_ is the direct
object of _giving_, and _me_ is the indirect object.]

The participle, with its modifiers and such other words as are
attached to it, is sometimes called a +participial phrase+.

+342.+ A participle may be used as a pure adjective.

A _grinning_ boy confronted me.

A _battered_ hat hung on the peg.

Kate was playing with a _broken_ doll.

We could hear a _rushing_ stream.

_Willing_ hands make light work.

He was struck by a _spent_ ball.

+343.+ The past participle is often used as a +predicate adjective+ expressing state or condition.

This construction is easily confused with the passive of verbs. The distinction may be seen in the following examples:--

The rain began to fall heavily, and every time a gust of wind struck
us we _were drenched_ by it.

When the rain at last ceased, we were _drenched_ [that is, _very
wet_].

In the first sentence, _were drenched_ is the past passive of the verb _drench_ (compare the active “every time a gust of wind struck us, it _drenched_ us”). In the second, the participle _drenched_ expresses mere condition, and is therefore a predicate adjective. The distinction, however, is not always sharp, and in cases of doubt the phrase may be taken together as a passive verb.

NOTE. The real test is the following. Whenever a person or thing is
distinctly present to the mind as the doer of the action, we have
a passive verb-phrase. Whenever, on the other hand, the participle
merely describes condition with no thought of its being the result of
an antecedent act, the construction is that of a predicate adjective
(§ 172, 3).

NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE

+344.+ A substantive, with the participle belonging to it, is often used to make a peculiar form of adverbial modifying phrase: as,--

_The wind failing_, we lowered the sail.

Here _the wind failing_ is equivalent to an adverbial phrase (_on the failure of the wind_) or an adverbial clause (_when the wind failed_). It defines the time of the action.

{_The wind failing_, | _On the failure of the wind_, | _When the wind
failed_,} we lowered the sail.

+345.+ +A substantive, with a participle, may express the cause, time, or circumstances of an action.+

+This is called the absolute construction.+

+The substantive is in the nominative case and is called a nominative absolute.+

_My knife slipping_, I cut myself severely. [The phrase _my knife
slipping_ is equivalent to _because my knife slipped_: it expresses
+cause+.]

_Two days having elapsed_, we again set forward. [The phrase in
italics is equivalent to _when two days had elapsed_: it expresses
+time+.]

Evenings he read aloud, _his wife sewing by his side_. [The phrase
expresses one of the +circumstances+ that attended the reading.]

_This done_, proceed to business. [The phrase _this done_ is
equivalent to the clause _since_ (or _when_) _this is done_, and
indicates +cause+ or +time+.]

NOTE. This construction is called +absolute+ (that is, “free”
or “loosened”) because the substantive is not in any one of the
constructions (subject, object, apposition, etc.) which ordinarily
attach nouns grammatically to other words in the sentence.
Nevertheless, the whole phrase, though standing apart from the rest
of the sentence, is in meaning an adverbial modifier of some verb.

+346.+ The participle _being_ is sometimes omitted in the absolute construction.

Allen once mayor, my chance of advancement would be ruined. [That is:
_Allen_ once _being mayor_.]

Peter stood before me, his hands in his pockets.

His clothing in shreds, he presented a sorry sight.

VERBAL NOUNS IN _-ING_ (PARTICIPIAL NOUNS)

+347.+ English has a large and important class of +verbal nouns+ that end in _-ing_, and that serve as the +names of actions+.

These are identical in form with +present participles+, for which they are frequently mistaken. The distinction, however, is clear, for the present participle is never used as the name of an action. Hence no such word in _-ing_ that is a subject or an object, or stands in any other noun construction, can be a participle.

While I was _travelling_ in Mexico, I met with an accident.
[Participle.]

_Travelling_ broadens the mind. [Verbal noun, used as subject.]

He enjoys _travelling_. [Verbal noun, used as object of a verb.]

He spends his time in _travelling_. [Verbal noun, object of a
preposition.]

Tom’s favorite exercise is _swimming_. [Verbal noun, predicate
nominative.]

This sport, _fishing_, has been called the contemplative man’s
recreation. [Verbal noun, in apposition with _sport_.]

That nouns in _-ing_ are real nouns may be proved by putting ordinary nouns in their place.

_Travelling_ broadens the mind. _Travel_ broadens the mind.
_Talking_ is useless. _Talk_ is useless.
He is afraid of _falling_. He is afraid of a _fall_.

+348.+ +From nearly every English verb there may be formed a verbal noun in _-ing_.+

+Verbal nouns in _-ing_ have the form of present participles, but the construction of nouns.+

They are often called +participial nouns+.

Such nouns are freely used, either by themselves or in a series along with ordinary nouns.

_Mining_ is a dangerous occupation.

_Painting_ and _sculpture_ are sister arts.

The Indians of Massachusetts spent their time in _hunting_,
_fishing_, _agriculture_, and _warfare_.

_Reading_, _writing_, and _arithmetic_ are jocosely called “the three
r’s.”

+349.+ Verbal nouns in _-ing_ have certain properties of the +verb+.

1. +Verbal nouns in _-ing_ may take a direct or an indirect object if their meaning allows.+

Digging _gold_ seems to the uninitiated like finding buried
_treasure_.

Lending _him money_ is useless; it merely fosters his unthrifty
habits. [Here the noun _lending_, which is the simple subject of the
sentence, takes both a direct object (_money_) and an indirect object
(_him_), precisely as the verb _lend_ might do.]

2. +A verbal noun in _-ing_ may take an adverbial modifier.+

Speaking _extemporaneously_ is good practice. [Here the verbal noun
_speaking_ is the simple subject; but it is modified by the adverb
_extemporaneously_, precisely as if it were a verb.]

But verbal nouns in _-ing_, like other nouns, may be modified by +adjectives+.

_Extemporaneous_ speaking is good practice.

3. +To the verbal nouns _being_ and _having_, past participles may be attached, so as to give the effect of voice and tense.+

After _being instructed_ in my duties, I was ordered to wait on the
king.

There were grave doubts expressed as to his _having seen_ the
mastodon.

After _having been treated_ in so harsh a fashion, I had no wish to
repeat the interview.

Such expressions are +verbal noun-phrases+.

+350.+ Verbal nouns in _-ing_ are similar in some of their constructions to infinitives used as nouns (p. 135).

INFINITIVE AS NOUN VERBAL NOUN IN _-ing_

_To swim_ was difficult. _Swimming_ was difficult.
My business is _to make_ shoes. My business is _making_ shoes.
_To see_ is _to believe_. _Seeing_ is _believing_.

Nouns in _-ing_ are sometimes called +infinitives+ or +gerunds+.

+351.+ A noun in _-ing_ may be used as an +adjective+, or as the adjective element in a +compound noun+ (§ 64).

The _sleeping_ car was completely wrecked.

William has plenty of _spending_ money.

NOTE. Other examples are:--_a working day_, _an ironing board_,
_drinking water_, _smelling salts_, _marching orders_, _a walking
tour_, _a swimming race_, _a vaulting pole_. In such cases it
makes little difference whether the two nouns are taken together
as a compound, or whether the first is regarded as an adjective
modifying the second. The difference between this use and that of
the participle is perfectly clear. A “_sleeping_ dog” is a dog _that
sleeps_; a “_sleeping_ car” is a car for _sleeping_. Sometimes,
indeed, either explanation is possible. Thus, a “_hoisting_ engine”
may be understood either as an “engine _that hoists_,” or as an
“engine _for hoisting_.” But it is better to class these exceptions
with the nouns in _-ing_.

+352.+ +When a verbal noun in _-ing_ is preceded by an article or any other adjective, it cannot take an object.+

{Shooting song-birds | The shooting _of_ song-birds} is forbidden.

{Launching a ship | The launching _of_ a ship} requires care and
skill.

{Drawing maps | The drawing _of_ maps} is a useful exercise.

{Eating confectionery constantly | Constant eating _of_
confectionery} is bad for the teeth.

My business is {driving wells. | the driving _of_ wells.}

Observe that, in each instance, the +object+ (_song-birds_, _ship_, _maps_, _confectionery_, _wells_) is replaced by a +prepositional phrase+ when an article or other adjective precedes the verbal noun.

NOTE. In such expressions as “I went a-fishing,” _a_ is a shortened
form of the preposition _on_, and _fishing_ is a verbal noun used as
its object. When _a_ is omitted we have “I went fishing,” “The house
is building,” and the like, in which the word in _-ing_ seems to be a
participle, but is really the object of the omitted _a_ (= _on_).

+353.+ The possessive case of a noun or pronoun may be used to limit a verbal noun in _-ing_.

I was sure of its _being_ he. [NOT: _it_.]

I heard of Allen’s _being_ elected. [NOT: _Allen_.]