Chapter X: Clauses as Parts of Speech

+376.+ +A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate.+

+A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause (§ 46).+

+377.+ A subordinate clause may be introduced by (1) a relative or an interrogative pronoun, (2) a relative or an interrogative adverb, (3) a subordinate conjunction.

The +relative pronouns+ are: _who_, _which_, _what_, _that_ (=
_who_ or _which_), _as_ (after _such_ or _same_), and the compound
relatives _whoever_, _whichever_, _whatever_. Their uses have already
been studied (pp. 66–73).

The chief +relative adverbs+ are: _where_, _whence_, _whither_,
_wherever_, _when_, _whenever_, _while_, _before_, _after_, _till_,
_until_, _since_, _as_, _how_, _why_ (p. 86).

The +interrogative pronouns+ are: _who_, _which_, _what_ (§§ 163–165).

The +interrogative adverbs+ are: _where_, _when_, _whence_,
_whither_, _how_, _why_.

The most important +subordinate conjunctions+ are: _because_, _since_
(= _because_), _though_, _although_, _if_, _unless_, _that_ (_in
order that_, _so that_), _lest_, _as_, _as if_, _as though_, _than_,
_whether_ (_whether ... or_).

+378.+ According to their use as parts of speech, subordinate clauses are +adjective+, +adverbial+, or +noun clauses+.

I. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

+379.+ +A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause+ (§ 47).

{_Able_ men | Men _of ability_ | Men _who show ability_} can always
find employment.

{_Treeless_ spots | Spots _without trees_ | Spots _where no trees
grew_} were plainly visible.

In each of these groups, a noun (_men_, _spots_) is modified (1) by an adjective, (2) by an adjective phrase, (3) by an adjective clause. The sense remains unchanged.

+380.+ Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by +relative pronouns+, (2) by +relative adverbs+ of place (_where_, _whence_, _whither_, etc.) or time (_when_, _while_, etc.).

II. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

+381.+ +A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial clause (§ 47).+

Jack spoke {_thoughtlessly_. | _without thinking_. | _before he
thought_.}

The schoolhouse stands {_there_. | _at the crossroads_. | _where the
roads meet_.}

We pay our rent {_monthly_. | _on the first of every month_. | _when
the first of the month comes_.}

In each of these groups, the verb (_spoke_, _stands_, _pay_) is modified (1) by an adverb, (2) by an adverbial phrase, (3) by an adverbial clause.

+382.+ Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by relative adverbs (_when_, _where_, _before_, etc.); (2) by subordinate conjunctions (_if_, _though_, _because_, etc.); (3) by relative or interrogative pronouns.

+383.+ Adverbial clauses oftenest modify verbs, but they are also common as modifiers of adjectives and adverbs.

Angry _because he had failed_, he abandoned the undertaking. [The
clause modifies _angry_.]

I am uncertain _which road I should take_. [The clause modifies
_uncertain_.]

Farther _than eye could see_ extended the waste of tossing waters.
[The clause modifies _farther_.]

Here, _where the cliff was steepest_, a low wall protected the path.
[The clause modifies _here_.]

+384.+ An adverbial clause with _that_ may be used to modify verbs and adjectives.

He rejoiced _that the victory was won_.

I am glad _that you are coming_.

He was positive _that no harm had been done_.

They were unwilling _that the case should be brought to trial_.

NOTE. In this use _that_ is equivalent either to “because” or to “as
to the fact that.” The clause may be explained as a noun clause in
the adverbial objective construction (§ 109).

For the classification of adverbial clauses according to their meaning (place, time, cause, concession, etc.), see pp. 163–182.

III. NOUN (OR SUBSTANTIVE) CLAUSES

+385.+ +A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or substantive) clause (§ 47).+

{_Agreement_ | _To agree_ | _That we should agree_} seemed impossible.

{_Victory_ | _To win_ | _That we should win_} was out of the question.

The merchant feared {_loss_. | _to lose_. | _that he might lose
money_.}

I expect {_success_. | _to succeed_. | _that I shall succeed_.}

In each of these groups a noun (_agreement_, _victory_, etc.) is replaced (1) by an infinitive, (2) by a noun clause. In the first two examples, the noun clause is the subject; in the last two, it is the object of a verb (_feared_, _expect_).

+386.+ Noun clauses may be used in any of the more important constructions of nouns:--(1) as +subject+, (2) as +direct object+ of a transitive verb, (3) +in apposition+ with a substantive, (4) as a +predicate nominative+.

_That Milton was spared_ has often caused surprise. [Subject.]

Brutus said _that Cæsar was a tyrant_. [Object of _said_.]

Cæsar commanded _that the prisoners should be spared_. [Object.]

I wish _that you would work harder_. [Object.]

The traveller inquired _where he could find the inn_. [Object.]

He asked me _what my name was_. [Second object of _asked_.]

My fear _that the bridge might fall proved groundless_. [Apposition
with _fear_.]

One fact is undoubted,--_that the state of America has been kept in
continual agitation_.--BURKE. [Apposition with _fact_.]

The old saying is _that misery loves company_. [Predicate nominative.]

+387.+ Noun clauses may be introduced (1) by the subordinate conjunctions _that_, _whether_ (_whether ... or_), and _if_ (in the sense of _whether_); (2) by the interrogative pronouns _who_, _which_, _what_; (3) by the interrogative adverbs _where_, _whence_, _whither_, _how_, _why_, _when_ (§ 196).

+388.+ Noun clauses are common as objects of verbs (1) of _commanding_, _desiring_, etc.; (2) of _telling_, _thinking_, etc.; (3) of _asking_, _doubting_, etc.

See (1) clauses of purpose (§ 406); (2) indirect discourse (§§
431–437); (3) indirect questions (§ 443).

Object clauses frequently omit _that_ (§ 367).

Charles said [that] _he was sorry_.

I hope _you will come_.

I wish _he would help me_.

For the infinitive clause replacing a _that_-clause as object, see §§ 324–325.

+389.+ A noun clause may be used as the +retained object+ of a passive verb (§ 253).

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
(CLAUSE AS OBJECT) (RETAINED OBJECT)

They informed me I was informed
_that the train was late_. _that the train was late_.

Charles told us We were told
_that the ice was thin_. _that the ice was thin_.

They asked me _whether_ I was asked _whether I liked tennis_.
(or _if_) I _liked tennis_.

+390.+ A noun clause may be the object of a preposition.

I see no reason for a lawsuit except _that both parties are
stubborn_. [Compare: except the _stubbornness_ of both.]

She never studies, except _when she can find nothing else to do_.

I could say nothing but [=except] _that I was sorry_.

Justice was well administered in his time, save _where the king was
party_.--BACON.

She could see me from _where she stood_.

There is a dispute as to _which of the miners first staked out the
claim_.

For a noun clause used as an adverbial objective, see § 384.

+391.+ Noun clauses with _that_ are common in the predicate when the expletive _it_ is the grammatical subject (§ 120, 2).

It was plain _that war was at hand_.

It was clear _that this administration would last but a very short
time_.

It must be admitted _that there were many extenuating circumstances_.

It was by slow degrees _that Fox became a brilliant and powerful
debater_.

It was under the command of a foreign general _that the British had
triumphed at Minden_.

In such sentences the real subject of the thought is the clause. This, however, may be regarded as grammatically in apposition with _it_, as if one said “_It_ (that war was at hand) was plain.”

NOTE. This useful idiom enables us to adopt a kind of inverted order
(§ 5), and thus to shift the emphasis. Contrast “_That war was at
hand_ was plain” with “_It was plain_ that war was at hand.” In the
former sentence, the noun clause is made prominent; in the latter,
the adjective _plain_.

+392.+ The following sentences, taken from distinguished authors of different periods, illustrate the usefulness of the noun clause in its various constructions.

1. That the king would ever again have received Becket into favor is
not to be believed.--SOUTHEY.

2. That in education we should proceed from the simple to the complex
is a truth which has always been to some extent acted on.--SPENCER.

3. How great his reputation was, is proved by the embassies sent to
him.--COLERIDGE.

4. It vexed old Hawkins that his counsel was not followed.--FULLER.

5. It became necessary, at last, that I should arouse both master and
valet to the expediency of removing the treasure.--POE.

6. There is no doubt that breeds may be made as different as species
in many physiological characteristics.--HUXLEY.

7. The main definition you could give of old Marquis Mirabeau is,
that he was of the pedant species.--CARLYLE.

8. The fact seems to be that we have survived the tremendous
explosion.--BROUGHAM.

9. The question is, whether the feigned image of poesy, or
the regular instruction of philosophy, have the more force in
teaching.--SIDNEY.

10. I feared that some serious disaster had befallen my friend.--POE.

11. I think with you that the most magnificent object under heaven is
the great deep.--COWPER.

12. Aureolus soon discovered that the success of his artifices had
only raised up a more determined adversary.--GIBBON.

13. Harold alleged that he was appointed by Edward.--TEMPLE.

14. That we shall die, we know.--SHAKSPERE.

15. Her Majesty has promised that the treaty shall be laid before her
Parliament.--SWIFT.

16. Deerslayer proposed that they should circle the point in the
canoe.--COOPER.

17. I remembered how soft was the hand of Sleep.--LANDOR.

18. I cannot see what objection can justly be made to the
practice.--REYNOLDS.

19. No man knew what was to be expected from this strange
tribunal.--MACAULAY.

20. We may imagine with what sensations the stupefied Spaniards must
have gazed on this horrid spectacle.--PRESCOTT.

21. Observe how graciously Nature instructs her human
children.--COLERIDGE.

22. My friend asked me if there would not be some danger in coming
home late.--ADDISON.

23. A message came that the committee was sitting at Kensington
Palace.--THACKERAY.

24. Jeffreys had obtained of the king a promise that he would not
pardon her.--BURNET.

25. The present age seems pretty well agreed in an opinion that the
utmost scope and end of reading is amusement only.--FIELDING.

26. He suddenly alarmed me by a startling question--whether I had
seen the show of prize cattle that morning in Smithfield.--LAMB.

27. I am told that the Lancashire system is perfect.--KINGSLEY.