Chapter XXIX: Appendix: Lists of Verbs (1)

In the first list, only such verb forms are given as are indisputably correct in accordance with the best prose usage of the present day. The pupil may feel perfectly safe, therefore, in using the forms registered in this list.[52]

A few verbs (marked *) which are seldom or never used in
ordinary language are included in this list. These have various
irregularities. A few verbs are partly strong and partly weak.

Weak verbs are printed in italics.

For the modal auxiliaries, see page 299.

I

PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE

abide abode abode
am (_subjunc._, be) was been
arise arose arisen
awake awoke, _awaked_ _awaked_
bear bore borne, born[53]
beat beat beaten
beget begot begotten
begin began begun
behold beheld beheld
_bend_ _bent_ _bent_
_bereave_ _bereft_, _bereft_,
_bereaved_ _bereaved_[54]
_beseech_ _besought_ _besought_
_bet_ _bet_ _bet_
bid (command) bade bidden
bid (money) bid bid
bind bound bound
bite bit bitten
_bleed_ _bled_ _bled_
_bless_ (see p. 298)
blow blew blown
break broke broken
_breed_ _bred_ _bred_
_bring_ _brought_ _brought_
_build_ _built_ _built_
_burn_ (see p. 298)
burst burst burst
_buy_ _bought_ _bought_
_cast_ _cast_ _cast_
_catch_ _caught_ _caught_
chide chid chidden
choose chose chosen
*cleave (split)[55] _cleft_, clove _cleft_, _cleaved_
(cloven, _adj._)
cling clung clung
come came come
_cost_ _cost_ _cost_
_creep_ _crept_ _crept_
_crow_ (see p. 299)
_curse_ (see p. 298)
_cut_ _cut_ _cut_
_dare_ (see p. 299)
_deal_ _dealt_ _dealt_
dig dug dug
do did done
draw drew drawn
_dream_ (see p. 298)
_dress_ (see p. 298)
drink drank drunk
(drunken, _adj._)
drive drove driven
_dwell_ _dwelt_ _dwelt_
eat ate eaten
_engrave_ (see p. 299)
fall fell fallen
_feed_ _fed_ _fed_
_feel_ _felt_ _felt_
fight fought fought
find found found
_flee_ _fled_ _fled_
fling flung flung
fly flew flown
forbear forbore forborne
forget forgot forgotten
forsake forsook forsaken
freeze froze frozen
_freight_ (see p. 299)
get got got[56]
_gird_ (see p. 298)
give gave given
go _went_ gone
_grave_ (see p. 299)
grind ground ground
grow grew grown
hang hung, _hanged_[57] hung, _hanged_[57]
_have_ _had_ _had_
_hear_ _heard_ _heard_
heave hove, _heaved_[58] hove, _heaved_[58]
_hew_ _hewed_ hewn
hide hid hidden
_hit_ _hit_ _hit_
hold held held
_hurt_ _hurt_ _hurt_
_keep_ _kept_ _kept_
_kneel_ (see p. 298)
_knit_ (see p. 298)
know knew known
_lade_[59] _laded_ _laded_, laden
_lay_ _laid_ _laid_
_lead_ _led_ _led_
_learn_ (see p. 298)
_leave_ _left_ _left_
_lend_ _lent_ _lent_
let let let
lie (recline)[60] lay lain
_light_ _lighted_ _lighted_
or _lit_[61] or _lit_[61]
_lose_ _lost_ _lost_
_make_ _made_ _made_
_mean_ _meant_ _meant_
_meet_ _met_ _met_
_mow_ (see p. 299)
_pay_ _paid_ _paid_
_pen_(shut up) (see p. 298)
_put_ _put_ _put_
_quit_ (see p. 298)
_read_ _rĕad_ _rĕad_
*_reave_ _reft_, _reaved_ _reft_, _reaved_
reeve rove rove
_rend_ _rent_ _rent_
_rid_ _rid_ _rid_
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
*_rive_ _rived_ riven, _rived_
run ran run
_say_ _said_ _said_
see saw seen
_seek_ _sought_ _sought_
*seethe (_transitive_)[62] sod, _seethed_ _seethed_
(sodden, _adj._)
_sell_ _sold_ _sold_
_send_ _sent_ _sent_
_set_ _set_ _set_
_sew_ (see p. 299)
shake shook shaken
_shape_ (see p. 299)
_shave_ _shaved_ _shaved_
(shaven, _adj._)
_shear_ (see p. 299)
_shed_ _shed_ _shed_
shine shone shone
_shoe_ _shod_ _shod_
shoot shot shot
_show_ _showed_ shown
_shred_ (see p. 298)
shrink shrank shrunk
(shrunken, _adj._)
*shrive shrove, _shrived_ shriven, _shrived_
_shut_ _shut_ _shut_
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
sit sat sat
slay slew slain
_sleep_ _slept_ _slept_
slide slid slid, slidden
sling slung slung
slink slunk slunk
_slit_ _slit_ _slit_
_smell_ (see p. 298)
smite smote smitten
_sow_ _sowed_ _sowed_, sown
speak spoke spoken
_speed_ (see p. 298)
_spell_ (see p. 299)
_spend_ _spent_ _spent_
_spill_ (see p. 299)
spin spun spun
spit spit spit
_split_ _split_ _split_
_spoil_ (see p. 299)
_spread_ _spread_ _spread_
spring sprang sprung
stand stood stood
stave stove, _staved_ stove, _staved_
_stay_ (see p. 299)
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stung stung
stink stunk stunk
_strew_ _strewed_ strewn
stride strode stridden
strike struck struck
(stricken, _adj._)[63]
string strung strung
strive strove striven
swear swore sworn
_sweat_ (see p. 299)
_sweep_ _swept_ _swept_
_swell_ _swelled_ _swelled_, swollen
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
_teach_ _taught_ _taught_
tear tore torn
_tell_ _told_ _told_
_think_ _thought_ _thought_
thrive throve, _thrived_ thriven, _thrived_
throw threw thrown
_thrust_ _thrust_ _thrust_
tread trod trodden
wake woke, _waked_ woke, _waked_
_wax_ (grow) (see p. 299)
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
_wed_ (see p. 299)
_weep_ _wept_ _wept_
_wet_ _wet_ _wet_
win won won
wind wound wound
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written

_Bear_, _break_, _drive_, _get_ (_beget_, _forget_), _speak_, _spin_,
_stink_, _swear_, _tear_, have an archaic past tense in _a_: _bare_,
_brake_, _drave_, _gat_, _spake_, etc.

_Beat_, _beget_ (_forget_), _bite_, _break_, _forsake_, _hide_,
_ride_, _shake_, _speak_, _weave_, _write_, and some other verbs have
archaic forms of the past participle like those of the past tense.
The participles in _en_, however, are now the accepted forms. _Chid_
and _trod_ are common participial forms.

_Begin_, _drink_, _ring_, _shrink_, _sing_, _sink_, _spring_, _swim_,
often have in poetry a _u_-form (_begun_, _sung_, etc.) in the past
tense as well as in the past participle. This form (though good _old_
English)[64] should be avoided in modern speech.

_Bend_, _beseech_, _bet_, _build_, _burst_, _catch_, _dwell_, _rend_,
_split_, _wet_, have archaic or less usual forms in _ed_: _bended_,
_beseeched_, _betted_, etc. _Builded_ is common in the proverbial “He
_builded_ better than he knew.” _Bursted_ is common as an adjective:
“a _bursted_ bubble.”

_Bid_, “to command,” has sometimes _bid_ in both the past tense
and the past participle; _bid_, “to offer money,” has these forms
regularly.

_Blend_, _leap_, _lean_, have usually _blended_, _leaped_, _leaned_;
but _blent_, _leapt_, _leant_ are not uncommon.

_Clothe_ has commonly _clothed_; but _clad_ is common in literary
use, and is regular in the adjectives _well-clad_, _ill-clad_ (for
which ordinary speech has substituted _well-dressed_, _badly_ or
_poorly dressed_).

_Dive_ has _dived_; but _dove_ (an old form) is common in America.

_Plead_ has past tense and past participle _pleaded_. _Plead_
(pronounced _plĕd_) is avoided by careful writers and speakers.

_Prove_ has past tense and past participle _proved_. The past
participle _proven_ should be avoided.

_Work_ has past tense and past participle _worked_. _Wrought_ in the
past tense and the past participle is archaic, but is also modern as
an adjective (as in _wrought iron_).

Some verbs have rare or archaic weak forms alongside of the strong
forms; thus _digged,_ _shined_, past tense and past participle of
_dig_, _shine_; _showed_, past participle of _show_.

_Ate_ and _eaten_ are preferred to _eat_ (pronounced _ĕt_).

_Quoth_, “said,” is an old strong past tense. The compound _bequeath_
has _bequeathed_ only.

Miscellaneous archaisms are the past tenses _sate_ for _sat_, _trode_
for _trod_, _spat_ for _spit_; also _writ_ for _wrote_ and _written_,
_rid_ for _rode_ and _ridden_, _strewed_ and _strown_ for _strewn_.

II

The following verbs vary between _ed_ and _t_ (_d_) in the past tense and the past participle. In some of them, this variation is a mere difference of spelling. In writing, the _ed_ forms are preferred in most cases; in speaking, the _t_ forms are very common.

bless blessed, blest[65]
burn burned, burnt[66]
curse cursed, curst[65]
dare dared (_less commonly_, durst)
dream dreamed, dreamt
dress dressed, drest
gird girded, girt[66]
kneel kneeled, knelt[66]
knit knit, knitted[66]
learn learned, learnt[67]
pen (shut up) penned, pent[66]
quit quitted, quit[66]
shred shredded, shred[66]
smell smelled, smelt[66]
speed sped, speeded[66]
spell spelled, spelt
spill spilled, spilt[66]
spoil spoiled, spoilt[66]
stay stayed, staid
sweat sweated, sweat[66]
wed wedded (_p.p. also_ wed)[66]

III

The following verbs have regular _ed_ forms in modern prose, but in poetry and the high style sometimes show archaic forms.

PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE

crow crowed, crew crowed, crown
freight freighted freighted, fraught (_figurative_)
grave graved graved, graven
engrave engraved engraved, engraven
mow mowed mowed, mown
sew sewed sewed, sewn
shape shaped shaped, shapen
shear sheared, shore sheared, shorn
wax (grow) waxed waxed, waxen

IV

The present tense of _may_, _can_, _shall_, is an old strong past.
Hence the first and third persons singular are alike:--_I may_, _he
may_. The actual past tenses of these verbs are weak forms:--_might_,
_could_, _should_. _Must_ is the weak past tense of an obsolete
_mōt_, and is almost always used as a present tense (§ 292).

_Dare_ and _owe_ originally belonged to this class. _Owe_ has become
a regular weak verb, except for the peculiar past tense _ought_,
which is used in a present sense (see § 293); _dare_ has in the
third person _dare_ or _dares_, and in the past _dared_, more rarely
_durst_. The archaic _wot_ “know,” past _wist_, also belongs to this
class. _Will_ is inflected like _shall_, having _will_ in the first
and third singular, _wilt_ in the second singular, and _would_ in the
past.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB _TO BE_

INDICATIVE MOOD

PRESENT TENSE

SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I am. We are.
2. Thou art. You are.
3. He is. They are.

PAST TENSE

1. I was. We were.
2. Thou wast (wert). You were.
3. He was. They were.

FUTURE TENSE

1. I shall be. We shall be.
2. Thou wilt be. You will be.
3. He will be. They will be.

PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE

1. I have been. We have been.
2. Thou hast been. You have been.
3. He has been. They have been.

PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE

1. I had been. We had been.
2. Thou hadst been. You had been.
3. He had been. They had been.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

1. I shall have been. We shall have been.
2. Thou wilt have been. You will have been.
3. He will have been. They will have been.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

PRESENT TENSE

1. If I be. If we be.
2. If thou be. If you be.
3. If he be. If they be.

PAST TENSE

1. If I were. If we were.
2. If thou wert. If you were.
3. If he were. If they were.

PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE

1. If I have been. If we have been.
2. If thou have been. If you have been.
3. If he have been. If they have been.

PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE

1. If I had been. If we had been.
2. If thou hadst been. If you had been.
3. If he had been. If they had been.

IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Present. Sing. and Pl._ Be [thou _or_ you].
INFINITIVE. _Present_, to be; _Perfect_, to have been.
PARTICIPLES. _Present_, being; _Past_, been; _Perfect_, having been.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB _TO STRIKE_

_ACTIVE VOICE_

INDICATIVE MOOD

PRESENT TENSE

1. I strike. We strike.
2. Thou strikest. You strike.
3. He strikes. They strike.

PAST TENSE

1. I struck. We struck.
2. Thou struckest. You struck.
3. He struck. They struck.

FUTURE TENSE

1. I shall strike. We shall strike.
2. Thou wilt strike. You will strike.
3. He will strike. They will strike.

PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE

1. I have struck. We have struck.
2. Thou hast struck. You have struck.
3. He has struck. They have struck.

PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE

1. I had struck. We had struck.
2. Thou hadst struck. You had struck.
3. He had struck. They had struck.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

1. I shall have struck. We shall have struck.
2. Thou wilt have struck. You will have struck.
3. He will have struck. They will have struck.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

PRESENT TENSE

1. If I strike. If we strike.
2. If thou strike. If you strike.
3. If he strike. If they strike.

PAST TENSE

1. If I struck. If we struck.
2. If thou struck. If you struck.
3. If he struck. If they struck.

PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE

1. If I have struck. If we have struck.
2. If thou have struck. If you have struck.
3. If he have struck. If they have struck.

PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE

1. If I had struck. If we had struck.
2. If thou hadst struck. If you had struck.
3. If he had struck. If they had struck.

IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Present._ _Sing. and Pl._ Strike [thou _or_ you].
INFINITIVE. _Present_, to strike; _Perfect_, to have struck.
PARTICIPLE. _Present_, striking; _Past_, struck;
_Perfect_, having struck.

_PASSIVE VOICE_

INDICATIVE MOOD

PRESENT TENSE

1. I am struck. We are struck.
2. Thou art struck. You are struck.
3. He is struck. They are struck.

PAST TENSE

1. I was struck. We were struck.
2. Thou wast (_or_ wert) struck. You were struck.
3. He was struck. They were struck.

FUTURE TENSE

1. I shall be struck. We shall be struck.
2. Thou wilt be struck. You will be struck.
3. He will be struck. They will be struck.

PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE

1. I have been struck. We have been struck.
2. Thou hast been struck. You have been struck.
3. He has been struck. They have been struck.

PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE

1. I had been struck. We had been struck.
2. Thou hadst been struck. You had been struck.
3. He had been struck. They had been struck.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

1. I shall have been struck. We shall have been struck.
2. Thou wilt have been struck. You will have been struck.
3. He will have been struck. They will have been struck.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

PRESENT TENSE

1. If I be struck. If we be struck.
2. If thou be struck. If you be struck.
3. If he be struck. If they be struck.

PAST TENSE

1. If I were struck. If we were struck.
2. If thou wert struck. If you were struck.
3. If he were struck. If they were struck.

PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE

1. If I have been struck. If we have been struck.
2. If thou have been struck. If you have been struck.
3. If he have been struck. If they have been struck.

PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE

1. If I had been struck. If we had been struck.
2. If thou hadst been struck. If you had been struck.
3. If he had been struck. If they had been struck.

IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Present._ _Sing. and Pl._ Be [thou _or_ you] struck.
INFINITIVE. _Present_, to be struck;
_Perfect_, to have been struck.
PARTICIPLES. _Present_, being struck; _Past_, struck;
_Perfect_, having been struck.

USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS

1. Every sentence begins with a capital letter.

2. Every line of poetry begins with a capital letter.

3. The first word of every direct quotation begins with a capital letter.

NOTE. This rule does not apply to quoted fragments of sentences.

4. Every proper noun or abbreviation of a proper noun begins with a capital letter.

5. Most adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with capital letters; as,--_American_, _Indian_, _Swedish_, _Spenserian_.

NOTE. Some adjectives derived from proper nouns have ceased to be
closely associated in thought with the nouns from which they come,
and therefore begin with small letters. Thus,--voltaic, galvanic,
mesmeric, maudlin, stentorian.

6. Every title attached to the name of a person begins with a capital letter.

_Mr._ Thomas Smith
John Wilson, _Esq._
_Miss_ Allerton
_Dr._ F. E. Wilson
C. J. Adams, _M.D._
_President_ Grant
_Professor_ Whitney
_Sir_ Walter Raleigh

7. In titles of books, etc., the first word, as well as every important word that follows, begins with a capital letter.

8. The interjection _O_ and the pronoun _I_ are always written in capital letters.

9. Personal pronouns referring to the Deity are often capitalized.

NOTE. Usage varies: the personal pronouns are commonly capitalized
when they refer to the Deity, the relatives less frequently. The rule
is often disregarded altogether when its observance would result in
a multitude of capitals, as in the Bible and in many hymn books and
works of theology.

10. Common nouns and adjectives often begin with capital letters when they designate the topics or main points of definitions or similar statements. Such capitals are called _emphatic_ (or _topical_) _capitals_.

NOTE. Emphatic (or topical) capitals are analogous to capitals in the
titles of books (see Rule 7), but their use is not obligatory. They
are especially common in text-books and other elementary manuals.

RULES OF PUNCTUATION[68]

The common marks of punctuation are the period, the interrogation point, the exclamation point, the comma, the semicolon, the colon, the dash, marks of parenthesis, and quotation marks. The hyphen and the apostrophe may be conveniently treated along with marks of punctuation.

I

1. The period, the interrogation point, and the exclamation point are used at the end of sentences. Every complete sentence must be followed by one of these three marks.

The end of a declarative or an imperative sentence is marked by a period. But a declarative or an imperative sentence that is likewise exclamatory may be followed by an exclamation point instead of a period.

The end of a direct question is marked by an interrogation point.

An exclamatory sentence in the form of an indirect question is followed by an exclamation point; as,--“How absolute the knave is!”

2. A period is used after an abbreviation.

3. An exclamation point is used after an exclamatory word or phrase.

NOTE. This rule is not absolute. Most interjections take the
exclamation point. With other words and with phrases, usage differs;
if strong feeling is expressed, the exclamation point is commonly
used, but too many such marks deface the page.

II

The comma is used--

1. After a noun (or a phrase) of direct address (a _vocative nominative_). Thus,--

John, tell me the truth.

Little boy, what is your name?

NOTE. If the noun is exclamatory, an exclamation point may be used
instead of a comma.

2. Before a direct quotation in a sentence. Thus,--

The cry ran through the ranks, “Are we never to move forward?”

NOTE. When the quotation is long or formal, a colon, or a colon and a
dash, may be used instead of a comma, especially with the words _as
follows_.

3. After a direct quotation when this is the subject or the object of a following verb. Thus,--

“They are coming; the attack will be made on the center,” said Lord
Fitzroy Somerset.

“I see it,” was the cool reply of the duke.

NOTE. If the quotation ends with an interrogation point or an
exclamation point, no comma is used.

4. To separate words, or groups of words, arranged in a coördinate series, when these are not connected by _and_, _or_, or _nor_.

If the conjunction is used to connect the last two members of the series but omitted with the others, the comma may be used before the conjunction.

I found two saws, an axe, and a hammer.

They were so shy, so subtle, and so swift of foot, that it was
difficult to come at them.

It would make the reader pity me to tell what odd, misshapen, ugly
things I made.

They groaned, they stirred, they all uprose.

NOTE 1. Commas may be used even when conjunctions are expressed, if
the members of the series consist of several words, or if the writer
wishes to emphasize their distinctness.

NOTE 2. Clauses in a series are commonly separated by semicolons
unless they are short and simple (see pp. 309–310).

5. To set off words and phrases out of their regular order. Thus,--

Seated on her accustomed chair, with her usual air of apathy and
want of interest in what surrounded her, she seemed now and then
mechanically to resume the motion of twirling her spindle.--SCOTT.

6. To separate a long subject from the verb of the predicate. Thus,--

To have passed them over in an historical sketch of my literary
life and opinions, would have seemed to me like the denial of a
debt.--COLERIDGE.

7. To set off an appositive noun or an appositive adjective, with its modifiers. Thus,--

I have had the most amusing letter from Hogg, the Ettrick minstrel.

There was an impression upon the public mind, natural enough from the
continually augmenting velocity of the mail, but quite erroneous,
that an outside seat on this class of carriages was a post of
danger.--DE QUINCEY.

NOTE 1. Many participial and other adjective phrases come under this
head. Thus,--

The genius, seeing me indulge myself on this melancholy prospect,
told me I had dwelt long enough upon it.--ADDISON.

NOTE 2. If a noun and its appositive are so closely connected as to
form one idea, no comma is used. Thus,--

My friend Jackson lives in San Francisco.

NOTE 3. An intensive pronoun (_myself_, etc.) is not separated by a
comma from the substantive which it emphasizes.

NOTE 4. A series of words or phrases in apposition with a single
substantive is sometimes set off, as a whole, by a comma and a dash.

8. To set off a subordinate clause, especially one introduced by a descriptive relative. Thus,--

I am going to take a last dinner with a most agreeable family,
who have been my only neighbors ever since I have lived at
Weston.--COWPER.

NOTE. No comma is used before a restrictive relative. Thus,--

I want to know many things which only you can tell me.

Perhaps I am the only man in England who can boast of such good
fortune.

9. To set off a phrase containing a nominative absolute. Thus,--

They had some difficulty in passing the ferry at the riverside, the
ferryman being afraid of them.--DEFOE.

10. To set off _however_, _nevertheless_, _moreover_, etc., and introductory phrases like _in the first place_, _on the one hand_, etc.

11. To set off a parenthetical expression. For this purpose commas, dashes, or marks of parenthesis may be used.

When the parenthetical matter is brief or closely related to the rest of the sentence, it is generally set off by commas. Thus,--

I exercised a piece of hypocrisy for which, I hope, you will hold me
excused.--THACKERAY.

When it is longer and more independent, it is generally marked off by dashes, or enclosed in marks of parenthesis. The latter are less frequently used at present than formerly.

The connection of the mail with the state and the executive
government--a connection obvious, but yet not strictly defined--gave
to the whole mail establishment an official grandeur.--DE QUINCEY.

NOTE. Brackets are used to indicate insertions that are not part of
the text.

III

The clauses of a compound sentence may be separated by colons, semicolons, or commas.

1. The colon is used--

_a._ To show that the second of two clauses repeats the substance of
the first in another form, or defines the first as an appositive
defines a noun. Thus,--

This was the practice of the Grecian stage. But Terence made an
innovation in the Roman: all his plays have double actions.--DRYDEN.

_b._ To separate two groups of clauses one or both of which contain a
semicolon. Thus,--

At that time, news such as we had heard might have been long in
penetrating so far into the recesses of the mountains; but now, as
you know, the approach is easy, and the communication, in summer
time, almost hourly: nor is this strange, for travellers after
pleasure are become not less active, and more numerous, than those
who formerly left their homes for purposes of gain.--WORDSWORTH.

NOTE. The colon is less used now than formerly. The tendency is to
use a semicolon or to begin a new sentence.

2. The semicolon is used when the clauses are of the same general nature and contribute to the same general effect, especially if one or more of them contain commas. Thus,--

The sky was cloudless; the sun shone out bright and warm; the songs
of birds, and hum of myriads of summer insects filled the air; and
the cottage garden, crowded with every rich and beautiful tint,
sparkled in the heavy dew like beds of glittering jewels.--DICKENS.

3. The comma may be used when the clauses are short and simple (see p. 307).

NOTE. The choice between colon, semicolon, and comma is determined
in many cases by the writer’s feeling of the closer or the looser
connection of the ideas expressed by the several clauses, and is to
some extent a matter of taste.

IV

1. In a complex sentence, the dependent clause is generally separated from the main clause by a comma. But when the dependent clause is short and the connection close, the comma may be omitted.

NOTE. A descriptive relative clause is preceded by a comma, a
restrictive relative clause is not (see p. 70).

2. The clauses of a series, when in the same dependent construction, are often separated by semicolons to give more emphasis to each. Thus,--

[Mrs. Battle] was none of your lukewarm gamesters, your half-and-half
players, who have no objection to take a hand if you want one to make
up a rubber; who affirm that they have no pleasure in winning; that
they like to win one game and lose another; that they can while away
an hour very agreeably at a card table, but are indifferent whether
they play or no; and will desire an adversary who has slipped a wrong
card, to take it up and play another.--LAMB.

V

1. A direct quotation is enclosed in quotation marks.

NOTE. If the quotation stands by itself and is printed in different
type, the marks may be omitted.

2. A quotation within a quotation is usually enclosed in single quotation marks.

3. In a quotation consisting of several paragraphs, quotation marks are put at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the last.

NOTE. For the punctuation before a quotation, see p. 307.

4. When a book, poem, or the like, is referred to, the title may be enclosed in quotation marks or italicized.

VI

1. Sudden changes in thought and feeling or breaks in speech are indicated by dashes. Thus,--

Eh!--what--why--upon my life, and so it is--Charley, my boy, so it’s
you, is it?--LEVER.

2. Parenthetical expressions may be set off by dashes (see p. 308).

3. A colon, or colon and dash, may precede an enumeration, a direct quotation, or a statement formally introduced,--especially with _as follows_, _namely_, and the like. Before an enumeration a comma and a dash may be used. Thus,--

There are eight parts of speech:--nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs,
adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. OR--

There are eight parts of speech,--nouns, pronouns, etc.

4. The dash is sometimes used to strengthen a comma (as in the last paragraph but one).

VII

1. The apostrophe is used--

_a._ To mark the omission of a letter or letters in contractions.

_b._ As a sign of the possessive or genitive.

_c._ To indicate the plural of letters, signs, etc.

2. The hyphen is used--

_a._ When the parts of a word are separated in writing.

_b._ Between the parts of some compound words. (See the dictionary in
each case.)

RULES OF SYNTAX

1. The +subject+ of a verb is in the +nominative case+ (p. 41).

2. A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defining the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a +predicate nominative+ (p. 41).

3. A substantive used for the purpose of +addressing+ a person directly, and not connected with any verb, is called a +vocative+.

A vocative is in the +nominative case+, and is often called a +nominative by direct address+ or a +vocative nominative+ (p. 42).

4. A substantive used as an +exclamation+ is called an +exclamatory nominative+ or a +nominative of exclamation+ (p. 42).

5. A substantive, with a participle, may express the cause, time, or circumstances of an action.

This is called the +absolute construction+.

The substantive is in the +nominative case+ and is called a +nominative absolute+ (p. 144).

6. The +possessive case+ denotes ownership or possession (p. 43).

7. The +object+ of a verb or preposition is in the +objective case+ (p. 47).

8. A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its +direct object+, and is said to be in the +objective case+ (p. 48).

9. A verb of _asking_ sometimes takes +two direct objects+, one denoting the +person+ and the other the +thing+ (p. 50).

10. Verbs of _choosing_, _calling_, _naming_, _making_, and _thinking_ may take +two objects+ referring to the same person or thing.

The first of these is the +direct object+, and the second, which completes the sense of the predicate, is called a +predicate objective+ (pp. 50, 111).

11. Some verbs of _giving_, _telling_, _refusing_, and the like, may take +two objects+, a +direct object+ and an +indirect object+.

The indirect object denotes the person or thing toward whom or toward which is directed the action expressed by the rest of the predicate (p. 50).

12. A verb that is regularly intransitive sometimes takes as object a noun whose meaning closely resembles its own.

A noun in this construction is called the +cognate object+ of the verb and is in the +objective case+ (p. 52).

13. A noun, or a group of words consisting of a noun and its modifiers, may be used adverbially. Such a noun is called an +adverbial objective+ (p. 53).

14. An +appositive+ is in the same case as the substantive which it limits (p. 42).

15. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in +gender+, +number+, and +person+ (p. 55).

16. +Relative pronouns+ connect dependent clauses with main clauses by referring directly to a substantive in the main clause.

This substantive is the +antecedent+ of the relative (p. 66).

A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in +gender+, +number+, and +person+.

The +case+ of a relative pronoun has nothing to do with its antecedent, but depends on the construction of its own clause (p. 68).

17. A relative pronoun in the objective case is often omitted (p. 69).

18. The relative pronoun _what_ is equivalent to _that which_, and has a +double construction+:--(1) the construction of the +omitted+ or +implied antecedent+ _that_; (2) the construction of the +relative+ _which_ (p. 71).

19. The +compound relative pronouns+ may include or imply their own antecedents and hence may have a +double construction+ (p. 72).

The compound relatives are sometimes used without an antecedent expressed or implied (p. 72).

20. An adjective is said to +belong+ to the substantive which it describes or limits (pp. 5, 75).

21. Adjectives may be classified, according to their position in the sentence, as +attributive+, +appositive+, and +predicate adjectives+ (p. 76).

1. An +attributive adjective+ is closely attached to its noun and regularly precedes it.

2. An +appositive adjective+ is added to its noun to explain it, like a noun in apposition.

3. A +predicate adjective+ completes the meaning of the predicate verb, but describes or limits the subject.

For the use of an adjective as +predicate objective+, see § 488.

22. The +comparative degree+, not the superlative, is used in comparing two persons or things.

The +superlative+ is used in comparing one person or thing with two or more (p. 88).

23. +Relative adverbs+ introduce subordinate clauses and are similar in their use to relative pronouns (p. 86).

24. A +verb+ must agree with its subject in +number+ and +person+ (p. 97).

25. A +compound subject+ with _and_ usually takes a verb in the plural number (p. 100).

26. A +compound subject+ with _or_ or _nor_ takes a verb in the singular number if the substantives are singular (p. 100).

27. Nouns that are +plural in form but singular in sense+ commonly take a verb in the singular number (p. 101).

28. +Collective nouns+ take sometimes a singular and sometimes a plural verb.

When the persons or things denoted are thought of as +individuals+, the plural should be used. When the collection is regarded as a +unit+, the singular should be used (p. 101).

29. A verb is in the +active voice+ when it represents the subject as the +doer+ of an act (p. 107).

30. A verb is in the +passive voice+ when it represents the subject as the +receiver+ or the +product+ of an action (p. 107).

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive, and the subject of the active verb becomes in the passive an adverbial phrase modifying the predicate verb (p. 110).

31. When a verb takes both a +direct+ and an +indirect object+, one of the two is often retained after the passive, the other becoming the subject (p. 112).

32. The +indicative+ is the mood of +simple assertion+ or +interrogation+, but it is used in other constructions also (p. 115).

33. The +imperative+ is the mood of +command+ or +request+ (p. 115).

34. The +subject+ of an +imperative+ is seldom expressed unless it is emphatic.

The subject, when expressed, may precede the imperative: as,--_You go_, _You read_ (p. 117).

35. The +subjunctive mood+ is used in certain special constructions of +wish+, +condition+, and the like (pp. 115, 118).

For particulars and examples, see pp. 119–123.

For modal auxiliaries, see pp. 124–132.

36. An +infinitive+, with or without a complement or modifiers, may be used as the +subject+ of a sentence, as a +predicate nominative+, or as an +appositive+ (pp. 134, 135).

37. An +infinitive+ may be used as the +object+ of the prepositions _but_, _except_, _about_, (p. 135).

38. The +infinitive+ may be used as a +nominative of exclamation+ (p. 136).

39. An +infinitive+ may modify a verb by +completing+ its meaning, or by expressing the +purpose+ of the action (p. 137).

40. An +infinitive+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+ of a +noun+ or as an +adverbial modifier+ of an +adjective+.

In this use the infinitive is said to +depend+ on the word which it modifies (p. 136).

41. A kind of +clause+, consisting of a substantive in the objective case followed by an +infinitive+, may be used as the object of certain verbs.

Such clauses are called +infinitive clauses+, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.

The +subject+ of an +infinitive+ is in the objective case.

+Infinitive clauses+ are used (1) after verbs of _wishing_, _commanding_, _advising_, and the like, and (2) after some verbs of _believing_, _declaring_, and _perceiving_ (p. 138).

An infinitive clause may be the object of the preposition _for_.

An infinitive clause with _for_ may be used as a subject, as a predicate nominative, or as the object of a preposition (pp. 138–139).

42. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive (pp. 12, 140).

43. A +participle+ is said to +belong+ to the substantive which it describes or limits (pp. 12, 142).

44. A participle should not be used without some substantive to which it may belong (p. 142).

45. An +infinitive+ or a +participle+, like any other verb-form, may take an +object+ if its meaning allows (pp. 134, 143).

46. +Infinitives+ and +participles+, like other verb-forms, may be +modified+ by adverbs, adverbial phrases, or adverbial clauses (pp. 134, 142).

47. +Verbal+ (or +participial+) +nouns+ in _-ing_ have the form of present participles, but the construction of nouns (p. 145).

48. +Verbal nouns+ in _-ing_ have certain properties of the verb (p. 146).

1. Verbal nouns in _-ing_ may take a +direct+ or an +indirect object+ if their meaning allows.

2. A verbal noun in _-ing_ may take an +adverbial modifier+.

But verbal nouns in _-ing_, like other nouns, may be +modified+ by +adjectives+.

49. A noun in _-ing_ may be used as an +adjective+, or as the adjective element in a +compound noun+ (p. 146).

50. The substantive which follows a +preposition+ is called its +object+ and is in the +objective case+ (p. 148).

51. A +coördinate conjunction+ connects words or groups of words that are independent of each other (p. 151).

52. A +subordinate conjunction+ connects a subordinate clause with the clause on which it depends (p. 151).

53. +Interjections+ usually have no grammatical connection with the phrases or sentences in which they stand.

Sometimes, however, a substantive is connected with an interjection by means of a preposition (p. 155).

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

English is a member of the great Indo-European Family of languages, which is so called because it includes well-nigh all the languages of Europe and the most important of those found in India. Within this family, English belongs to the Teutonic (or Germanic) Group, which contains also German, Dutch, the Scandinavian tongues (Icelandic, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish), and some others.

English of the oldest period is called either Anglo-Saxon or Old English. This was the speech of certain piratical tribes whose home was in northern Germany, on the eastern and southern shores of the North Sea, but who invaded Britain about A.D. 450, and subdued the Celtic inhabitants of the island in a series of fierce wars. The most considerable of the invading tribes were the Angles and the Saxons. Their dominion was well assured by the beginning of the seventh century, and their language, which they usually called “English” (that is, “the tongue of the Angles”), gradually spread through England and most of Scotland. In Wales, however, the native Britons have maintained their own Celtic speech to the present day; and in the Scottish Highlands, Gaelic--which is akin to Welsh and practically identical with the native language of Ireland--is still extensively used.

At the time of the invasion, the Angles and Saxons were heathen, and the Britons, who had been for four centuries under the sway of the Roman Empire, were Christians, and much more highly civilized than their conquerors. Indeed, they had adopted many features of Roman culture, and Latin was spoken to some extent, at least in the larger towns. By the end of the seventh century, however, the Anglo-Saxons also had embraced Christianity and had made remarkable advances in literature and learning. The language of the Britons exerted but slight influence upon that of the Anglo-Saxons. The Celtic words in English are few in number, and most of them were borrowed in comparatively recent times.

The Norman Conquest (1066) marks a highly significant date in the history of our language. The Normans were a Scandinavian tribe who had been in possession of Normandy (in northern France) for about a hundred and fifty years. They had abandoned their native tongue, and spoke a dialect of French. From 1066 to about the year 1400, two languages were therefore common in England,--English, which was employed by the vast majority of the people, and French, which was the language of the court and the higher orders. French, however, was never a serious rival of English for supremacy in the island. It was the speech of a class, not of the nation, and its use gradually died out, except as an accomplishment. By the time of Chaucer (who was born about 1340 and died in 1400), it was clear that the English tongue was henceforth to be regarded as the only natural language for Englishmen, whether they were of Anglo-Saxon or of Norman origin.

Still, the Norman conquest had a profound influence upon English. It is not true--though often asserted--that the multitude of French words which our language contains were derived from the Norman dialect. Comparatively few of them came into English until after 1300, when Normandy had been lost to the English crown for a hundred years. Since 1300 we have borrowed freely--not from Norman, however, but from Central (or Parisian) French, which had become the standard to which the English descendants of the Normans endeavored to conform. The effect of the Conquest, then, was not to fill English with Norman terms. It was rather to bring England into close social and literary relations with France, and thus to facilitate the adoption of words and constructions from Central French.

Further, since literature was in the middle ages dependent in the main upon private patronage, the existence of a ruling class whose interest was in French, discouraged the maintenance of any national or general standard of English composition. Every English writer had recourse to his local dialect, and one dialect was felt to be as good as another.

By 1350, however, the dialect of London and the vicinity had come, apparently, to be regarded as somewhat more elegant and polished than the others. All that was needed was the appearance of some writer of supreme genius to whom this dialect should be native. Chaucer was such a writer, for he was born in London. To be sure, Chaucer did not “make modern English.” None the less, he was a powerful agent in settling the language. Since his time, at all events, the fact of a “standard of literary usage” has been undisputed. Dialects still exist, but they are not regarded as authoritative. Educated speakers and writers of English, the world over, use the language with substantial uniformity.[69]

Meantime, however, the English of the Anglo-Saxons had undergone many changes before Chaucer was born. Most of its inflections had been lost, and still others have been discarded since. Further, there had been extensive borrowing from French and Latin, and this continued throughout the fourteenth century. The habit, once formed, has proved lasting. Our vocabulary has received contributions from many languages, and is still receiving them. Greek may be mentioned in particular as the source of many words, especially in the various departments of science. But French and Latin remain the chief foreign elements in English.

In the following extract from Scott, most of the words printed in Roman type are of Anglo-Saxon origin, whereas the italicized words are derived from Latin or French.

It was not until evening was nearly _closed_ that Ivanhoe was
_restored_ to _consciousness_ of his _situation_. He awoke from a
broken slumber, under the _confused impressions_ which are _naturally
attendant_ on the _recovery_ from a _state_ of _insensibility_.
He was un_able_ for some time to recall _exactly_ to _memory_ the
_circumstances_ which had _preceded_ his fall in the _lists_, or
to make out any _connected chain_ of the _events_ in which he had
been _engaged_ upon the yesterday. A _sense_ of wounds and _injury_,
_joined_ to great weakness and _exhaustion_, was mingled with the
_recollection_ of blows dealt and _received_, of steeds rushing upon
each other, overthrowing and overthrown, of shouts and clashing of
_arms_, and all the heady _tumult_ of a _confused_ fight. An _effort_
to draw aside the _curtain_ of his _couch_ was in some _degree
success_ful, although _rendered difficult_ by the _pain_ of his wound.

English has also adopted a good many Scandinavian words, though they form no such proportion of its vocabulary as French or Latin. Danish and Norwegian pirates began to harry the coast in the eighth century. Permanent settlements followed, as well as wars of conquest, and for about thirty years (1013–1042) a Danish family occupied the English throne. These events explain the Scandinavian element in our language.

Despite the freedom with which English has adopted words from abroad, it is still essentially a Germanic speech. Its structure is still the native structure. The borrowings have enriched its vocabulary, but have had comparatively little effect upon its syntax. The foreign words have been naturalized, and their presence in no wise interferes with the unity and general consistency of the English language. It is a strange error to regard English as a combination of Anglo-Saxon and Norman French. As for the loss or decay of inflections, that is not due to a mixture of dialects. It is a natural tendency, which may be seen, for example, in Dutch and Danish, though there was no Norman Conquest in Holland or Denmark. The loss, indeed, is really a gain, for it is progress in the direction of simplicity.

The Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period comes down to about a century, or a century and a half, after the Norman Conquest. Its extreme limit may be set at 1200. The period from 1200 to 1500 is usually known as the Middle English Period. From 1500 to the present time may be regarded as the Modern Period, though within these boundaries English has changed enormously in pronunciation and in vocabulary, very largely in syntax, and to some extent in inflection. The almost complete abandonment of the subjunctive in common speech is one of the latest of these changes. This, too, is in the direction of simplicity.

The people of Great Britain have long been famous as travellers, explorers, and colonizers. Their language, once the dialect (or dialects) of a handful of Germanic adventurers, has spread to all parts of the world, so that now it is not merely the language of England, but, to a considerable extent, that of Scotland, Ireland, North America, India, Australasia, and South Africa. In this vast area, numerous varieties of pronunciation and of idiom of course occur, but, on the whole, the uniformity of the language is surprisingly well preserved.

FOOTNOTES

[1] For a brief history of the English language, see p. 316.

[2] Compare pp. 316–317.

[3] In this book, well-established colloquial idioms or constructions are mentioned from time to time, but always with a note as to their actual status in the language.

[4] In this book, several old forms and constructions which the student is constantly encountering in the English classics are treated in their proper places,--always with an indication of their difference from the modern standard.

[5] In the technical language of grammar an adjective is said to _describe_ a substantive when it describes the object which the substantive denotes.

[6] Definitive adjectives are often called +limiting adjectives+. All adjectives, however, _limit_, even those that also _describe_.

[7] The usual brief definition of a verb is, “A verb is a word which asserts.” But this definition in strictness applies only to verbs in declarative sentences.

[8] For full inflection see pp. 300–301.

[9] +Compound complex+ sentences are also called +complex compound+ sentences. For further treatment of such sentences, see pp. 187, 190, 215–216.

[10] _Vixen_ is really formed from _fox_ (compare the German _Füchsin_ from _Fuchs_).

[11] _Halo_, _memento_, _zero_ also form a plural in _es_ (_haloes_, etc.).

[12] This list is intended for reference.

[13] The English word _animalcule_ (plural _animalcules_) is preferable. The plural _animalculæ_ is erroneous.

[14] _Messrs._ is an abbreviation of the French _messieurs_.

[15] When such nouns as _chemistry_ refer to textbooks, they may be used in the plural: as,--“Bring your _chemistries_ to-morrow.”

[16] This section is intended chiefly for reference.

[17] Note the ambiguity to the ear though not to the eye.

[18] The only exception is in reflexive action, where the object is a compound personal pronoun (“Charles deceived _himself_”). See § 126.

[19] The pupil should not “supply nouns” in such sentences as these. For example, it is unscientific to expand the first sentence into “This [morning] is a fine morning,” and then to parse _this_ as an adjective. It is even more objectionable to expand the fifth sentence by inserting _thing_ or the like after _this_. The plan of “supplying” unexpressed words (as being “understood”) tends to confuse real distinctions of language, and should never be resorted to when it can be avoided.

[20] The negative _not_ (§ 190, 4) is merely a shortened form of _naught_.

[21] Because of their use as connectives, relative pronouns are sometimes called +conjunctive pronouns+.

[22] For indirect questions, see § 441.

[23] In some of these cases the comparative and superlative are really different words from the positive.

[24] The four classes are not absolute, for the same adverb may be used in different senses and thus belong to different classes. Sometimes, too, there is room for difference of opinion. Thus in the fourth and fifth examples under 1, _terribly_ and _surprisingly_ are equivalent to “in a terrible (or surprising) manner,” and therefore are classified as adverbs of manner; but they may also be regarded as adverbs of degree.

[25] Many comparatives and superlatives in _er_ and _est_ that are no longer allowable in prose are still used in poetry.

[26] Many grammarians regard _is_ and the noun or adjective that follows it (_is money_, etc.) as the simple predicate; but the nomenclature here adopted is equally scientific and more convenient.

[27] The word _tense_ is simply an English form of the French word for _time_.

[28] The +past tense+ is often called the +preterite+ (from a Latin word meaning “gone by”). _Preterite_ is in some ways a better name for the tense than _past_, since both the perfect and the pluperfect tenses also refer to past time.

[29] Silent final _e_ is not counted as an ending.

[30] Notice also the change from _v_ to _f_ before _t_.

[31] The ending _ed_ indicates tense, not person or number.

[32] The second person singular is often given as “_Thou walkest_ or _You walk_,” but it is simpler to regard _You walk_ in this use as a plural in a singular sense (§ 224).

[33] This rule is not absolute. Sometimes the distinction is unimportant, and the feeling of the moment often determines the number of the verb.

[34] So _I can strike_, etc.

[35] So _I could strike_, etc.

[36] So _I can have struck_, etc.

[37] So _I could have struck_, etc.

[38] For the so-called +infinitive clause+, in which the infinitive has a subject of a peculiar kind, see §§ 324–328.

[39] After verbs of _wishing_, etc., they express purpose (§ 403); after verbs of _believing_, etc., they are in indirect discourse (§ 431).

[40] The only exceptions are trifling differences in spelling.

[41] Coördinate conjunctions are also called +coördinating+, and subordinate conjunctions are also called +subordinating+.

[42] Compare the exclamatory sentence (§ 3) and the exclamatory nominative (§ 88, 4).

[43] Including clauses of +manner+ and +degree+ (§§ 428–429).

[44] By “_if_-clause” is meant the protasis, whatever the conjunction.

[45] Clauses introduced by _as_ are often called +clauses of manner+.

[46] Such sentences are elliptical in origin. Thus, “The man acts as if he were crazy” is equivalent to “The man acts as [he would act] if he were crazy.” But it is not necessary to supply the ellipsis in analyzing.

[47] In analyzing, the direct quotation may be regarded as the object of the verb of saying, etc. (or the subject, if that verb is passive); and if it forms a complete sentence, this may be analyzed as if it stood by itself. It is not proper to regard the direct quotation as a subordinate clause.

[48] See pp. 102–105, 127–132.

[49] Instead of +compound complex+, the term +complex compound+ is often used. The terms are synonymous, both meaning “compound in general structure, but complex in one or more members.”

[50] Or parse the nominatives according to the models in § 112.

[51] For exercises in the use of the comparative and the superlative, see pp. 249–250, 252.

[52] The omission of a form from the list, then, does not necessarily indicate that it is wrong or even objectionable. There is considerable diversity of usage with regard to the strong verbs, and to state the facts at length would take much space. An attempt to include archaic, poetical, and rare forms in the same list with the usual modern forms is sure to mislead the pupil. Hence the list here presented is confined to forms about whose correctness there can be no difference of opinion. Archaic and poetical tense-forms are treated later (pp. 297–299).

[53] _Born_ is used only in the passive sense of “born into the world.”

[54] The adjective form is _bereaved_: as, “The bereaved father.”

[55] _Cleave_, “to adhere,” has _cleaved_ in both the past tense and the past participle, and also an archaic past form _clave_.

[56] The archaic participle _gotten_ is used in the compounds _begotten_ and _forgotten_, and as an adjective (“_ill-gotten_ gains”). Many good speakers also use it instead of the past participle got, but _got_ is the accepted modern form.

[57] _Hanged_ is used only of execution by hanging.

[58] Usage varies with the context. We say, “The crew _hove_ the cargo overboard,” but NOT “She _hove_ a sigh.”

[59] _Load_ has _loaded_ in both the past tense and the past participle. _Laden_ is sometimes used as the past participle of _load_.

[60] _Lie_, “to tell a falsehood,” has _lied_ in both the past tense and the past participle.

[61] So both _light_, “to kindle,” and _light_, “to alight.” The verb _alight_ has usually _alighted_ in both the past tense and the past participle.

[62] _Seethe_, intransitive, has usually _seethed_ in both the past tense and the past participle. It is in rather common literary use.

[63] _Stricken_ is also used as a participle in a figurative sense. Thus we say, “The community was _stricken_ with pestilence,”--but “The dog was _struck_ with a stick.”

[64] It is a remnant of the old past plural. In Anglo-Saxon the principal parts of _begin_ were: present, _beginne_; past, _began_; past plural, _begunnon_; past participle, _begunnen_.

[65] The adjectives are usually pronounced _blessèd_, _cursèd_. Compare also the adjective _accursèd_.

[66] Both forms are in good use.

[67] Both forms are in good use. The adjective is pronounced _learnèd_.

[68] The main rules of punctuation are well fixed and depend on important distinctions in sentence structure and consequently in thought. In detail, however, there is much variety of usage, and care should be taken not to insist on such uniformity in the pupils’ practice as is not found in the printed books which they use. If young writers can be induced to indicate the ends of their sentences properly, much has been accomplished.

[69] It is not meant, of course, that an American or Australian of the present day should exert himself to imitate the speech of a modern Londoner. The point is, that what we now call “English” is, in most respects, the direct descendant of the London dialect of the fourteenth century.

INDEX

[_References are to pages_; f. _signifies “and following page”_; ff. _signifies “and following pages.”_]