Chapter XVII: Introduction: § 1. Idea and Task of Church History (1)

The Christian Church is to be defined as the one, many-branched communion, consisting of all those who confess that Jesus of Nazareth is the Christ who in the fulness of time appeared as the Saviour of the world. It is the Church’s special task to render the saving work of Christ increasingly fruitful for all nations and individuals, under all the varying conditions of life and stages of culture. It is the task of Church History to describe the course of development through which the Church as a whole, as well as its special departments and various institutions, has passed, from the time of its foundation down to our own day; to show what have been the Church’s advances and retrogressions, how it has been furthered and hindered; and to tell the story of its deterioration and renewal.

§ 2. DISTRIBUTION OF CHURCH HISTORY ACCORDING TO CONTENTS.

The treatment of Church History, on account of its manifold ramifications, demands a distribution of its material, on the one hand, according to definite periods, during which the end hitherto aimed at in the whole course of development has been practically attained, so that either entirely new phenomena gain prominence, or else the old go forth in an altogether different direction; on the other hand, according to the various phases of endeavour and development, which in respect of time are evolved alongside of one another. When this last-mentioned method of division is adopted, we may still choose between two different modes of treatment. First, we may deal with national churches, in so far as these are independent and have pursued some special direction; or with particular churches, which have originated from the splitting up of the church universal over some important difference in doctrine, worship, and constitution. Secondly, we may group our material according to the various departments of historical activity, which are essential to the intellectual and spiritual life of all national churches and denominations, and are thus common to all, although in different churches in characteristic ways and varying degrees. It follows however from the very idea of history, especially from that of the universal history of the church, that the distribution according to periods must be the leading feature of the entire exposition. At the same time, whatever may now and again, in accordance with the other principles of arrangement, be brought into prominence will be influenced materially by the course of the history and formally by the facility afforded for review by the mode of treatment pursued.

§ 2.1. =The Various Branches Included in a Complete Course of
Church History.=--The Christian Church has undertaken the task
of absorbing all peoples and tongues. Hence it is possessed of
an eager desire to enlarge its borders by the conversion of all
non-Christian races. The description of what helps or hinders
this endeavour, the history of the spread and limitation of
Christianity, is therefore an essential constituent of church
history. Since, further, the church, in order to secure its
continued existence and well-being, must strive after a legally
determined position outwardly, as well as a firm, harmonious
articulation, combination and order inwardly, it evidently also
belongs to our science to give the history of the ecclesiastical
constitution, both of the place which the church has in the state,
and the relation it bears to the state; and also of its own
internal arrangements by superordination, subordination, and
co-ordination, and by church discipline and legislation. Not
less essential, nay, even more important for the successful
development of the church, is the construction and establishment
of saving truth. In Holy Scripture the church indeed has
possession of the fountain and standard, as well as the
all-sufficient power and fulness, of all saving knowledge.
But the words of Scripture are spirit and life, living seeds of
knowledge, which, under the care of the same Spirit who sows them,
may and shall be developed so as to yield a harvest which becomes
ever more and more abundant; and therefore the fulness of the
truth which dwells in them comes to be known more simply, clearly,
fully, and becomes always more fruitful for all stages and
forms of culture, for faith, for science, and for life. Hence
church history is required to describe the construction of the
doctrine and science of the church, to follow its course and the
deviations from it into heresy, whenever these appear. The church
is, further, in need of a form of public worship as a necessary
expression of the feelings and emotions of believers toward
their Lord and God, as a means of edification and instruction.
The history of the worship of the church is therefore also an
essential constituent of church history. It is also the duty of
the church to introduce into the practical life and customs of
the people that new spiritual energy of which she is possessor.
And thus the history of the Christian life among the people comes
to be included in church history as a further constituent of the
science. Further, there is also included here, in consequence of
the nature and aim of Christianity as a leaven (Matt. xiii. 33),
an account of the effects produced upon it by the development of
art (of which various branches, architecture, sculpture, painting,
music, have a direct connexion with Christian worship), and
likewise upon national literature, philosophy, and secular
science generally; and also, conversely, an estimate of the
influence of these forms of secular culture upon the condition
of the church and religion must not be omitted. The order of
succession in the historical treatment of these phases under
which the life of the church is manifested, is not to be rigidly
determined in the same way for all ages after an abstract logical
scheme. For each period that order of succession should be
adopted which will most suitably give prominence to those matters
which have come to the front, and so call for early and detailed
treatment in the history of that age.

§ 2.2. =The Separate Branches of Church History.=--The
constituent parts of church history that have been already
enumerated are of such importance that they might also be treated
as independent sciences, and indeed for the most part they have
often been so treated. In this way, not only is a more exact
treatment of details rendered possible, but also, what is more
important, the particular science so limited can be construed in
a natural manner according to principles furnished by itself. The
history of the spread and limitation of Christianity then assumes
a separate form as the History of Missions. The separate history
of the ecclesiastical constitution, worship, and customs is
known by the name of Christian Archæology, which is indeed,
in respect of title and contents, an undefined conglomeration
of heterogeneous elements restricted in a purely arbitrary way
to the early ages. The treatment of this department therefore
requires that we should undertake the scientific task of
distinguishing these heterogeneous elements, and arranging them
apart for separate consideration; thus following the course of
their development down to the present day, as the history of the
constitution, of the worship, and of the culture of the church.
The history of the development of doctrine falls into four
divisions:

a. The History of Doctrines in the form of a regular historical
sketch of the doctrinal development of the church.

b. Symbolics, which gives a systematic representation of the
relatively final and concluded doctrine of the church as
determined in the public ecclesiastical confessions or
symbols for the church universal and for particular sects:
these again being compared together in Comparative Symbolics.

c. Patristics, which deals with the subjective development of
doctrine as carried out by the most distinguished teachers
of the church, who are usually designated church Fathers,
and confined to the first six or eight centuries.

d. And, finally, the History of Theology in general, or the
History of the particular Theological Sciences, which treats
of the scientific conception and treatment of theology
and its separate branches according to its historical
development; while the History of Theological Literature,
which when restricted to the age of the Fathers is called
Patrology, has to describe and estimate the whole literary
activity of the church according to the persons, motives,
and tendencies that are present in it.

As the conclusion and result of church history at particular
periods, we have the science of Ecclesiastical Statistics, which
describes the condition of the church in respect of all its
interests as it stands at some particular moment, “like a slice
cut cross-wise out of its history.” The most important works in
these departments are the following:

a. =History of Missions.=--
Brown, “Hist. of Propag. of Christ. among Heathen since
Reformation.” 3rd Ed., 3 vols., Edin., 1854.
Warneck, “Outlines of Hist. of Prot. Miss.” Edin., 1884.
Smith, “Short Hist. of Christ. Miss.” Edin., 1884.

b. =History of the Papacy.=--
Ranke, “History of Papacy in 16th and 17th Cent.” 2 vols.,
Lond., 1855.
Platina (Lib. of Vatican), “Lives of Popes.” (1481). Trans.
by Rycaut, Lond., 1685.
Bower, “Hist. of Popes.” 7 vols., Lond., 1750.
Bryce, “Holy Rom. Empire.” Lond., 1866.
Creighton, “Hist. of Papacy during the Reformation.”
Vols. I.-IV., from A.D. 1378-1518, Lond., 1882-1886.
Janus, “Pope and the Council.” Lond., 1869.
Pennington, “Epochs of the Papacy.” Lond., 1882.

c. =History of Monasticism.=--
Hospinianus [Hospinian], “De Monachis.” Etc., Tigur., 1609.
Maitland, “The Dark Ages.” Lond., 1844.

d. =History of Councils.=--
Hefele, “Hist. of Councils.” Vols. I.-III., to A.D. 451,
Edin., 1871-1883. (Original German work brought down
to the Council of Trent exclusive.)

e. =Church law.=--
Haddan and Stubbs, “Councils and Eccl. Documents illust.
Eccl. Hist. of Gr. Brit. and Ireland.” 3 vols.,
Lond., 1869 ff.
Phillimore, “Eccl. Law.” Lond., 1873.

f. =Archæology.=--
By Cath. Didron, “Christ. Iconography; or, Hist. of Christ.
Art in M. A.” Lond., 1886.
By Prot. Bingham, “Antiq. of Christ. Church.” 9 vols.,
Lond., 1845.
“Dictionary of Christ. Antiquities.” Ed. by Smith &
Cheetham, 2 vols., Lond., 1875 ff.

g. =History of Doctrines.=--
Neander, “Hist. of Christ. Doct.” 2 vols., Lond.
Hagenbach, “Hist. of Christ. Doctrines.” 3 vols.,
Edin., 1880 f.
Shedd, “Hist. of Christ. Doc.” 2 vols., Edin., 1869.

h. =Symbolics and Polemics.=--
Winer, “Confessions of Christendom.” Edin., 1873.
Schaff, “Creeds of Christendom.” 3 vols., Edin., 1877 ff.
Möhler, “Symbolism: an Expos. of the Doct. Differences
between Catholics and Protestants.” 2 vols., Lond.,
1843.

i. =Patrology and History of Theolog. Literature.=--
Dupin, “New History of Ecclesiastical Writers.”
Lond., 1696.
Cave, “Script. Eccl. Hist. Lit.” 2 vols., Lond., 1668.
Fabricii, “Biblioth. Græca.” 14 vols., Hamb., 1705;
“Biblioth. Mediæ et infinæ Latin.” 6 vols.,
Hamb., 1734.
Teuffel, “Hist. of Rom. Lit.” 2 vols., Lond., 1873.

k. =History of the Theological Sciences.=--
Buddæus, “Isagoge Hist. Theol. ad Theol. Univ.” Lps., 1727.
Räbiger, “Encyclopædia of Theology.” 2 vols., Edin., 1884.
Dorner, “Hist. of Prot. Theol.” 2 vols., Edin., 1871.

=History of Exegesis.=--
Davidson, “Sacred Hermeneutics; including Hist. of Biblical
Interpretation from earliest Fathers to Reformation.”
Edin., 1843.
Farrar, “Hist. of Interpretation.” Lond., 1886.

=History of Morals.=--
Wuttke’s “Christian Ethics.” Vol. I., “Hist. of Ethics.”
Edin., 1873.

l. =Biographies.=--
“Acta Sanctorum.” 63 vols. fol., Ant., 1643 ff.
Mabillon, “Acta Ss. ord. S. Bened.” 9 vols. fol.,
Par., 1666 ff.
Flaccius [Flacius], “Catalog. Testium Veritatis.” 1555.
Piper, “Lives of Leaders of Church Universal.” 2 vols.,
Edin.
Smith and Wace, “Dict. of Chr. Biog.” etc., 4 vols.,
Lond., 1877 ff.

§ 3. DISTRIBUTION OF CHURCH HISTORY ACCORDING TO PERIODS.

In the history of the world’s culture three historical stages of universal development succeed each other: the Oriental, the Franco-German, and the Teutono-Romanic. The kingdom of God had to enter each of these and have in each a distinctive character, so that as comprehensive a development as possible might be secured. The history of the preparation for Christianity in the history of the Israelitish theocracy moves along the lines of Oriental culture. The history of the beginnings of Christianity embraces the history of the founding of the church by Christ and His Apostles. These two together constitute Biblical history, which, as an independent branch of study receiving separate treatment, need be here treated merely in a brief, introductory manner. This holds true also of the history of pagan culture alongside of and subsequent to the founding of the church. Church history, strictly so-called, the development of the already founded church, begins therefore, according to our conception, with the Post-Apostolic Age, and from that point pursues its course in three principal divisions. The ancient church completes its task by thoroughly assimilating the elements contributed by the Græco-Roman forms of civilization. In the Teutono-Romanic Church of the middle ages the appropriation and amalgamation of ancient classical modes of thought with modern tendencies awakened by its immediate surroundings were carried out and completed. On the other hand, the development of church history since the Reformation has its impulse given it by that Teutono-Christian culture which had maturity and an independent form secured to it by the Reformation. This distribution in accordance with the various forms of civilization seems to us so essential, that we propose to borrow from it our principle for the arrangement of our church history.

The chronological distribution of the material may be represented in
the following outline:

I. =History of the Preparation for Christianity=: Preparation
for Redemption during the Hebraic-Oriental stage of
civilization, and the construction alongside of it in the
universalism of classical culture of forms that prepared the
way for the coming salvation.

II. =History of the Beginnings of Christianity=: a sketch of the
redemption by Christ and the founding of the Church through
the preaching of it by the Apostles.

III. =History of the Development of Christianity=, on the basis
of the sketch of the redemption given in the history of the
Beginnings:

A. =In the Græco-Roman and Græco-Byzantine Period, under
Ancient Classical Forms of Civilization.=
_First Section_, A.D. 70 to A.D. 323,--down to
the final victory of Christianity over the Græco-Roman
paganism; the Post-Apostolic and Old Catholic Ages.
_Second Section_, from A.D. 323 to A.D. 692,--down
to the final close of œcumenical development of doctrine
in A.D. 680, and the appearance of what proved a lasting
estrangement between the Eastern and the Western Churches
in A.D. 692, which was soon followed by the alliance of
the Papacy with the Frankish instead of the Byzantine
empire; the Œcumenico-Catholic Church, or the Church of
the Roman-Byzantine Empire.
_Third Section_, from A.D. 692 to A.D. 1453,--down
to the overthrow of Constantinople. Languishing and decay
of the old church life in the Byzantine Empire; complete
breach and futile attempts at union between East and West.
The Church of the Byzantine Empire.

B. =In the Mediæval Period, under Teutono-Romanic Forms of
Civilization.=
_First Section_, 4-9th cent.--from the first
beginnings of Teutonic church life down to the end of the
Carlovingian Age, A.D. 911. The Teutonic Age.
_Second Section_, 10-13th cent.--down to
Boniface VIII., A.D. 1294; rise of mediæval
institutions--the Papacy, Monasticism, Scholasticism;
Germany in the foreground of the ecclesiastico-political
movement.
_Third Section_, the 14-15th cent.--down to the
Reformation in A.D. 1517; deterioration and collapse of
mediæval institutions; France in the foreground of the
ecclesiastico-political movement.

C. =In the Modern Period, under the European Forms of
Civilization.=
_First Section_, the 16th cent. Age of
Evangelical-Protestant Reformation and Roman Catholic
Counter-Reformation.
_Second Section_, the 17th cent. Age of Orthodoxy
on the Protestant side and continued endeavours after
restoration on the side of Catholicism.
_Third Section_, the 18th cent. Age of advancing
Illuminism in both churches,--Deism, Naturalism,
Rationalism.
_Fourth Section_, the 19th cent. Age of re-awakened
Christian and Ecclesiastical life. Unionism,
Confessionalism, and Liberalism in conflict with
one another on the Protestant side; the revival of
Ultramontanism in conflict with the civil power on the
Catholic side. In opposition to both churches, widespread
pantheistic, materialistic, and communistic tendencies.

§ 4. SOURCES AND AUXILIARIES OF CHURCH HISTORY.[1]

=The sources of Church history= are partly original, in the shape of inscriptions and early documents; partly derivative, in the shape of traditions and researches in regard to primitive documents that have meanwhile been lost. Of greater importance to church history than the so-called dumb sources, _e.g._ church buildings, furniture, pictures, are the inscriptions coming down from the earliest times; but of the very highest importance are the extant official documents, _e.g._ acts and decisions of Church Councils, decrees and edicts of the Popes,--decretals, bulls, briefs,--the pastoral letters of bishops, civil enactments and decrees regarding ecclesiastical matters, the rules of Spiritual Orders, monastic rules, liturgies, confessional writings, the epistles of influential ecclesiastical and civil officers, reports by eye witnesses, sermons and doctrinal treatises by Church teachers, etc. In regard to matters not determined by any extant original documents, earlier or later fixed traditions and historical researches must take the place of those lost documents.--=Sciences Auxiliary to Church History= are such as are indispensable for the critical estimating and sifting, as well as for the comprehensive understanding of the sources of church history. To this class the following branches belong: _Diplomatics_, which teaches how to estimate the genuineness, completeness, and credibility of the documents in question; _Philology_, which enables us to understand the languages of the sources; _Geography and Chronology_, which make us acquainted with the scenes and periods where and when the incidents related in the original documents were enacted. Among auxiliary sciences in the wider sense, the history of the _State_, of _Law_, of _Culture_, of _Literature_, of _Philosophy_, and of _Universal Religion_, may also be included as indispensable owing to their intimate connection with ecclesiastical development.

§ 4.1. =Literature of the Sources.=--

a. =Inscriptions=:
de Rossi, “Inscriptt. chr. urbis Rom.” Vols. I. II.,
Rome, 1857.

b. =Collections of Councils=:
Harduin [Hardouin], “Conc. coll.” (to A.D. 1715),
12 vols., Par., 1715.
Mansi, “Conc. nova et ampl. coll.” 31 vols., Flor., 1759.

c. =Papal Acts=:
Jaffe, “Regesta pont. Rom.” (to A.D. 1198), 2 ed.,
Brl., 1881.
Potthast, “Regesta pont. Rom.” (A.D. 1198-1304), 2 Vols.,
Brl., 1873.
The Papal Decretals in “Corp. jur. Canonici.” ed.,
Friedberg, Lips., 1879.
“Bullarum, diplom. et privil. SS. rom. pont.” Taurenensis
editio, 24 vols., 1857 ff.
Nussi, “Conventiones de reb. eccl. inter s. sedem et civ.
pot. initæ.” Mogunt., 1870.

d. =Monastic Rules=:
Holstenii, “Cod. regul. mon. et. can.” 6 vols., 1759.

e. =Liturgies=:
Daniel, “Cod. liturg. eccl. univ.” 4 vols., Leipz.,
1847 ff.
Hammond, “Ancient Liturgies.” Oxf., 1878.

f. =Symbolics=:
Kimmel, “Ll. Symb. eccl. Orient.” Jena., 1843.
Danz, “Ll. Symb. eccl. Rom. Cath.” Weimar, 1835.
Hase, “Ll. Symb. eccl. evang.” Ed. iii., Leipz., 1840.
Niemeyer, “Coll. Conf. eccl. Ref.” Leipz., 1840.
Schaff, “Creeds of Christendom.” 3 vols., Lond., 1882.

g. =Martyrologies=:
Ruinart, “Acta prim. Mart.” 3 vols., 1802.
Assemanni [Assemani], “Acta SS. Mart. orient. et occid.”
2 vols., Rome, 1748.

h. =Greek and Latin Church Fathers and Teachers=:
Migne, “Patrologiæ currus completus.” Ser. I., Eccl. Græc.,
162 vols., Par., 1857 ff.; Ser. II., Eccl. Lat.,
221 vols., Par., 1844 ff.
Horoy, “Media ævi biblioth. patrist.” (from A.D. 1216 to
1564), Paris, 1879.
“Corpus Scriptorum eccl. lat.” Vindob., 1866 ff.
Grabe, “Spicilegium SS. Pp. et Hærett.” Sæc. I.-III.,
3 vols., Oxford, 1698.
Routh, “Reliquiæ sac.” 4 vols., Oxford, 1814 ff.
“Ante-Nicene Christian Library; a collection of all the
works of the Fathers of the Christian Church prior to
the Council of Nicæa.” 24 vols., Edin., 1867 ff.

i. =Ancient Writers of the East=:
Assemanus [Assemani], “Biblioth. orient.” 4 vols.,
Rome, 1719.

k. =Byzantine Writers=:
Niebuhr, “Corp. scr. hist. Byz.” 48 vols., Bonn, 1828 ff.
Sathas, “Biblioth. Græc. Med. ævi.” Vols. I.-VI., Athens,
1872 ff.

§ 4.2. =Literature of the Auxiliary Sciences.=--

a. =Diplomatics=:
Mabillon, “De re diplomatic.” Ed. ii., Par., 1709.

b. =Philology=:
Du Fresne (du Cange), “Glossarium ad scriptt. med. et
infim. Latin.” 6 vols., Par., 1733; New ed., Henschel
and Favre, in course of publication.
Du Fresne, “Glossarium, ad scriptt. med. et infim. Græc.”
2 vols., Leyden, 1688.
Suiceri, “Thesaurus ecclesiast. e patribus græcis.”
Ed. ii., 2 vols., Amst., 1728.

c. =Geography and Statistics=:
Mich. le Quien, “Oriens christianus in quatuor
patriarchatus digestus.” 3 vols., Par., 1704.

d. =Chronology=:
Nicolas, “The Chronology of History.” 2 ed., Lond., 1838.
“L’art de verifier les dates, by d’Antine.” Etc., ed. by
Courcelles, 19 vols., Par., 1821-1824.

§ 5. HISTORY OF GENERAL CHURCH HISTORY.

The earliest writer of church history properly so called is Eusebius, Bishop of Cæsarea, † 340. During the fifth century certain members of the Greek Church continued his work. The Western Church did not so soon engage upon undertakings of that sort, and was contented with translations and reproductions of the materials that had come down from the Greeks instead of entering upon original investigations. During the middle ages, in consequence of the close connection subsisting between Church and State, the Greek _Scriptores historiæ Byzantinæ_, as well as the Latin national histories, biographies, annals, and chronicles, are of the very utmost importance as sources of information regarding the church history of their times. It was the Reformation, however, that first awakened and inspired the spirit of true critical research and scientific treatment of church history, for the appeal of the Reformers to the pure practices and institutions of the early days of the church demanded an authoritative historical exposition of the founding of the church, and this obliged the Catholic church to engage upon the studies necessary for this end. The Lutheran as well as the Catholic Church, however, down to the middle of the 17th century, were satisfied with the voluminous productions of the two great pioneers in Church history, Flacius and Baronius. Afterwards, however, emulation in the study of church history was excited, which was undoubtedly, during the 17th century, most successfully prosecuted in the Catholic Church. In consequence of the greater freedom which prevailed in the Gallican Church, these studies flourished conspicuously in France, and were pursued with exceptional success by the Oratorians and the Order of St. Maur. The Reformed theologians, especially in France and the Netherlands, did not remain far behind them in the contest. Throughout the 18th century, again, the performances of the Lutheran Church came to the front, while a laudable rivalry leads the Reformed to emulate their excellencies. In the case of the Catholics, on the other hand, that zeal and capacity which, during the 17th century, had won new laurels in the field of honour, were now sadly crippled. But as rationalism spread in the domain of doctrine, pragmatism spread in the domain of church history, which set for itself as the highest ideal of historical writing the art of deducing everything in history, even what is highest and most profound in it, from the co-operation of fortune and passion, arbitrariness and calculation. It was only in the 19th century, when a return was made to the careful investigation of original authorities, and it came to be regarded as the task of the historian, to give a conception and exposition of the science as objective as possible, that this erroneous tendency was arrested.

§ 5.1. =Down to the Reformation.=--The church history of
=Eusebius=, which reaches down to A.D. 324, was to some extent
continued by his _Vita Constantini_, down to A.D. 337 (§ 47, 2).
The church history of =Philostorgius=, which reaches from
A.D. 318-423, coming down to us only in fragments quoted by
Photius, was an Arian party production of some importance.
During the 5th century, however, the church history of Eusebius
was continued down to A.D. 439 by the Catholic =Socrates=, an
advocate at Constantinople, written in a simple and impartial
style, yet not altogether uncritical, and with a certain measure
of liberality; and down to A.D. 423, by =Sozomen=, also an
advocate at Constantinople, who in large measure plagiarizes from
Socrates, and is, in what is his own, uncritical, credulous, and
fond of retailing anecdotes; and down to A.D. 428 by =Theodoret=,
Bishop of Cyrus in Syria, who produces much useful material in
the shape of original authorities, confining himself, however,
like both of his predecessors, almost exclusively to the affairs
of the Eastern Church. In the 6th century, =Theodorus=, reader at
Constantinople, made a collection of extracts from these works,
continuing the history down to his own time in A.D. 527. Of this
we have only fragments preserved by Nicephorus Callisti. The
continuation by =Evagrius= of Antioch, reaching from A.D. 431-594,
is characterized by carefulness, learning, and impartiality,
along with zealous orthodoxy, and an uncritical belief in the
marvellous. Collected editions of all these works have been
published by Valesius (Par., 1659), and Reading (Cantab., 1720),
in each case in 3 vols. folio.--In the Latin Church =Rufinus= of
Aquileia translated the work of Eusebius and enlarged it before
the continuations of the three Greek historians had appeared,
carrying it down to his own time in A.D. 395 in an utterly
uncritical fashion. =Sulpicius Severus=, a presbyter of Gaul,
wrote about the same time his _Historia Sacra_, in two books,
from the creation of the world down to A.D. 400. In the 6th
century, =Cassiodorus= fused together into one treatise in
12 books, by means of extracts, the works of the three Greek
continuators of Eusebius, under the title _Hist. ecclesiastica
tripartita_, which, combined with the history of Rufinus,
remained down to the Reformation in common use as a text-book.
A church history written in the 6th century in Syriac, by the
monophysite bishop, =John of Ephesus=, morbidly fond of the
miraculous, first became known to us in an abridged form of
the third part embracing the history of his own time. (Ed.
Cureton, Oxf., 1853. Transl. into Engl. by Payne Smith, Oxford,
1859.)--Belonging to the Latin church of the middle ages, =Haymo=
of Halberstadt deserves to be named as a writer of universal
history, about A.D. 850, leaning mainly upon Rufinus and
Cassiodorus. The same too may be said about the work entitled,
_Libri XIII. historiæ ecclesiasticæ_ written by the Abbot
=Odericus Vitalis= in Normandy, about A.D. 1150, which forms
upon the whole the most creditable production of the middle
ages. In the 24 books of the Church history of the Dominican and
Papal librarian, =Tolomeo of Lucca=, composed about A.D. 1315,
church history is conceived of as if it were simply a historical
commentary on the ecclesiastical laws and canons then in force,
as an attempt, that is, to incorporate in the history all the
fictions and falsifications, which Pseudo-Isidore in the 9th
century (§ 87, 2-4), Gratian in the 12th century, and Raimundus
[Raimund] de Penneforti [Pennaforte] in the 13th century
(§ 99, 5), had wrought into the Canon law. Toward the end of
the 15th century, under the influence of humanism there was an
awakening here and there to a sense of the need of a critical
procedure in the domain of church history, which had been
altogether wanting throughout the middle ages. In the Greek
Church again, during the 14th century, =Nicephorus Callisti=
of Constantinople, wrote a treatise on church history, reaching
down to A.D. 610, devoid of taste and without any indication of
critical power.

§ 5.2. =The 16th and 17th Centuries.=--About the middle of the
16th century the Lutheran Church produced a voluminous work in
church history, the so-called =Magdeburg Centuries=, composed
by a committee of Lutheran theologians, at the head of which was
=Matthias Flacius=, of Illyria in Magdeburg. This work consisted
of 13 folio vols., each of which embraced a century. (_Eccles.
Hist., integram eccl. ideam complectens, congesta per aliquot
studiosos et pios viros in urbe Magdb._ Bas., 1559-1574.) They
rest throughout on careful studies of original authorities,
produce many documents that were previously unknown, and, with
an unsparingly bitter polemic against the Romish doctrinal
degeneration, address themselves with special diligence to the
historical development of dogma. In answer to them the Romish
Oratorian, =Cæsar Baronius=, produced his _Annales ecclesiastici_,
in 12 vols. folio, reaching down to A.D. 1198 (Rome, 1588-1607).
This work moves entirely along Roman Catholic lines and is quite
prejudiced and partial, and seeks in a thoroughly uncritical
way, by every species of ingenuity, to justify Romish positions;
yet, as communicating many hitherto unknown, and to others
inaccessible documents, it must be regarded as an important
production. It secured for its author the cardinal’s hat,
and had wellnigh raised him to the chair of St. Peter. In the
interests of a scholarly and truth-loving research, it was
keenly criticised by the Franciscan Anthony Pagi (_Critica
hist-chronol._ 4 vols., Antw., 1705), carried down in the 17th
century from A.D. 1198-1565, in 9 vols. by Oderic. Raynaldi, in
the 18th century from A.D. 1566-1571, in 3 vols. by de Laderchi,
and in the 19th century down to A.D. 1585 in 3 vols. by August
Theiner. A new edition was published by Mansi (43 vols., 1738
ff.), with Raynaldi’s continuation and Pagi’s criticism.--During
the 17th century the French Catholic scholars bore the palm
as writers of Church history. The course was opened in general
church history by the Dominican =Natalis Alexander=, a learned
man, but writing a stiff scholastic style (_Selecta hist. eccl.
capita et diss. hist. chron. et dogm._ 24 vols., Par., 1676 ff.).
This first edition, on account of its Gallicanism was forbidden
at Rome; a later one by Roncaglia of Lucca, with corrective notes,
was allowed to pass. Sebast. le Nain de =Tillemont=, with the
conscientiousness of his Jansenist faith, gave an account of
early church history in a cleverly grouped series of carefully
selected authorities (_Memoires pour servir à l’hist. eccl. des
six premiers siècles, justifiés par les citations des auteurs
originaux._ 16 vols., Par., 1693 ff.). =Bossuet= wrote, for
the instruction of the Dauphin, what Hase has styled “an
ecclesiastical history of the world with eloquent dialectic
and with an insight into the ways of providence, as if the wise
Bishop of Meaux had been in the secrets not only of the king’s
but also of God’s councils” (_Discours sur l’hist. universelle
depuis le commencement du monde jusqu’à l’empire de Charles M._
Par., 1681). =Claude Fleury=, aiming at edification, proceeds in
flowing and diffuse periods (_Histoire ecclst._ 20 vols., Par.,
1691 ff.).--The history of the French Church (A.D. 1580) ascribed,
probably erroneously, to Theodore Beza, the successor of Calvin,
marks the beginning of the writing of ecclesiastical history
in the Reformed Church. During the 17th century it secured an
eminence in the department of church history, especially on
account of learned special researches (§ 160, 7), but also to
some extent in the domain of general church history. =J. H.
Hottinger= overloaded his _Hist. ecclst. N. T._ (9 vols., Fig.,
1651 ff.) by dragging in the history of Judaism, and Paganism,
and even of Mohammedanism, with much irrelevant matter of that
sort. Superior to it were the works of =Friedr. Spanheim= (_Summa
hist. eccl._ Leyd., 1689) =Jas. Basnage= (_Hist. de l’égl._
2 vols., Rotd., 1699). Most important of all were the keen
criticism of the Annals of Baronius by =Isaac Casaubon=
(_Exercitt. Baronianæ._ Lond., 1614), and by =Sam. Basnage=
(_Exercitt. hist. crit._ Traj., 1692; and _Annales polit. ecclst._
3 vols., Rotd., 1706).

§ 5.3. =The 18th Century.=--After the publication of the
Magdeburg _Opus palmare_ the study of church history fell
into the background in the Lutheran Church. It was George
Calixtus († A.D. 1658) and the syncretist controversies which
he occasioned that again awakened an interest in such pursuits.
=Gottfr. Arnold’s= colossal party-spirited treatise entitled
“Unparteiische Kirchen- und Ketzerhistorie” (2 vols. fol., Frkf.,
1699), which scarcely recognised Christianity except in heresies
and fanatical sects, gave a powerful impulse to the spirit of
investigation and to the generous treatment of opponents. This
bore fruit in the irenical and conciliatory attempts of =Weismann=
of Tübingen (_Introd. in memorabilia ecclst._ 2 vols., Tüb.,
1718). The shining star, however, in the firmament of church
history during the 18th century was =J. Lor. v. Mosheim= in
Helmstedt [Helmstadt] and Göttingen, distinguished alike for
thorough investigation, with a divinatory power of insight, and
by a brilliant execution and an artistic facility in the use
of a noble Latin style (_Institutionum hist. ecclst. Libri IV._
Helmst., 1755; transl. into English by Murdock, ed. by Reid,
11th ed., Lond., 1880). =J. A. Cramer=, in Kiel, translated
Bossuet’s _Einl. in die Gesch. d. Welt u. d. Relig._, with a
continuation which gave a specially careful treatment of the
theology of the middle ages (7 vols., Leipz., 1757 ff.). =J. Sal.
Semler=, in Halle, shook, with a morbidly sceptical criticism,
many traditional views in Church history that had previously been
regarded as unassailable (_Hist. eccl. selecta capita._ 3 vols.,
Halle, 1767 ff.; _Versuch e. fruchtb. Auszugs d. K. Gesch._
3 vols., Halle, 1773 ff.). On the other hand, =Jon. Matt. Schröckh
of Wittenberg= produced a gigantic work on church history, which
is characterized by patient research, and gives, in so far as
the means within his reach allowed, a far-sighted, temperate, and
correct statement of facts (_Christl. K. G._ 45 vols., Leipz.,
1772 ff., the last two vols. by Tzschirner). The Würtemburg
[Württemberg] minister of state, Baron =von Spittler=, sketched
a _Grundriss der K. Gesch._, in short and smartly expressed
utterances, which in many cases were no better than caricatures
(5th ed. by Planck, Gött., 1812). In his footsteps =Henke=
of Helmstedt [Helmstadt], followed, who, while making full
acknowledgment of the moral blessing which had been brought by
true Christianity to mankind, nevertheless described the “_Allg.
Gesch. der Kirche_” as if it were a bedlam gallery of religious
and moral aberrations and strange developments (6 vols.,
Brsweig., 1788 ff.; 5th ed. revised and continued by =Vater= in
9 vols.).--In the Reformed Church, =Herm. Venema=, of Franeker,
the Mosheim of this church, distinguished himself by the thorough
documentary basis which he gave to his exposition, written in
a conciliatory spirit (_Institutt. hist. eccl. V. et N. T._
7 vols., Leyd., 1777 ff.). In the Catholic Church, =Royko= of
Prague, favoured by the reforming tendencies of the Emperor
Joseph II., was able with impunity to give expression to his
anti-hierarchical views in an almost cynically outspoken statement
(_Einl. in d. chr. Rel. u. K. G._ Prague, 1788).

§ 5.4. =The 19th Century.= In his _Handb. d. chr. K. G._, publ.
in 1801 (in 2nd ed. contin. by Rettberg, 7 vols., Giessen, 1834),
=Chr. Schmidt= of Giessen expressly maintained that the supreme
and indeed the only conditions of a correct treatment of history
consisted in the direct study of the original documents, and a
truly objective exhibition of the results derived therefrom. By
objectivity, however, he understood indifference and coolness
of the subject in reference to the object, which must inevitably
render the representation hard, colourless, and lifeless.
=Gieseler= of Göttingen, † 1854, commended this mode of treatment
by his excellent execution, and in his _Lehrbuch_ (5 vols., Bonn,
1824-1857; Engl. transl. “Compendium of Church History.” 5 vols.,
Edinb., 1846-1856), a master-piece of the first rank, which
supports, explains and amplifies the author’s own admirably
compressed exposition by skilfully chosen extracts from the
documents, together with original and thoughtful criticism under
the text. A temperate, objective, and documentary treatment of
church history is also given in the _Handbuch_ of =Engelhardt=
of Erlangen (5 vols., Erlang., 1832 ff.). Among the so-called
_Compendia_ the most popular was the _Universalgeschichte d. K._
by =Stäudlin=, of Göttingen (Hann., 1807; 5th ed. by Holzhausen,
1833). It was superseded by the _Lehrbuch_ of =Hase=, of Jena
(Leipz., 1834; 10th ed., 1877; Engl. transl. from 7th Germ. ed.,
New York, 1855), which is a generally pregnant and artistically
tasteful exposition with often excellent and striking features,
subtle perception, and with ample references to documentary
sources. The _Vorlesungen_ of =Schleiermacher=, † 1834, published
after his death by Bonell (Brl., 1840), assume acquaintance
with the usual materials, and present in a fragmentary manner
the general outlines of the church’s course of development.
=Niedner’s= _Lehrbuch_ (2nd ed., Brl., 1866), is distinguished by
a philosophical spirit, independent treatment, impartial judgment,
and wealth of contents with omission of customary matter, but
marred by the scholastic stiffness and awkwardness of its style.
=Gfrörer’s= († 1861) _Kirchengeschichte_ (7 vols. reaching down
to A.D. 1000, Stuttg., 1840) treats early Christianity as purely
a product of the culture of the age, and knows of no moving
principles in the historical development of the Christian church
but clerical self-seeking, political interests, machinations
and intrigues. Nevertheless the book, especially in the portion
treating of the middle ages, affords a fresh and lively account
of researches among original documents and of new results,
although even here the author does not altogether restrain his
undue fondness for over subtle combinations. After his entrance
into the Catholic Church his labours in the domain of church
history were limited to a voluminous history of Gregory VII.,
which may be regarded as a continuation of his church history,
the earlier work having only reached down to that point. =Baur=
of Tübingen began the publication of monographical treatises on
particular periods, reaching down to the Reformation (3 vols.,
2nd ed., Tüb., 1860 ff.), a continuation to the end of the 18th
cent. (published by his son F. Baur, 1863), and also a further
volume treating of the 19th cent. (publ. by his son-in-law Zeller,
2nd ed., 1877). These works of this unwearied investigator show
thorough mastery of the immense mass of material, with subtle
criticism and in many cases the first establishment of new views.
=Böhringer’s= massive production (_Die Kirche Christi und ihre
Zeugen, oder Kirchengeschichte in Biographien_. 24 vols., Zur.,
1842; 2nd ed., Zur., 1873), upon the basis of an independent
study of the several ages down to the Reformation, characterizes
by means of detailed portraiture the personalities prominent
during these periods. In the second edition, thoroughly recast
with the assistance of his two sons, there is evidence of a more
strictly critical research and a judicial frame of mind, so that
the predominantly panegyrical character of the first edition is
considerably modified. =Rothe’s= lectures, edited after his death,
with additions from his literary remains, by Weingarten (2 vols.,
Hdlb., 1875) are quite fragmentary because the usual historical
matter was often supplied from Gieseler, Neander, or Hase. The
work is of great value in the departments of the Constitution
and the Life of the Church, but in other respects does not at
all satisfy the expectations which one might entertain respecting
productions bearing such an honoured name; thoroughly solid and
scholarly, however, are the unfortunately only sparse and short
notes of the learned editor.

§ 5.5. Almost contemporaneously with Gieseler, =Aug. Neander=
of Berlin, † 1850, began the publication of his _Allg. Gesch. d.
chr. Kirche_ in xi. divisions down to A.D. 1416 (Ham., 1824-1852.
Engl. Transl. 9 vols., Edin., 1847-1855), by which ground
was broken in another direction. Powerfully influenced by the
religious movement, which since the wars of independence had
inspired the noblest spirits of Germany, and sympathizing with
Schleiermacher’s theology of feeling, he vindicated the rights of
subjective piety in the scientific treatment of church history,
and sought to make it fruitful for edification as a commentary
of vast proportions on the parable of the leaven. With special
delight he traces the developments of the inner life, shows what
is Christian in even misconceived and ecclesiastically condemned
manifestations, and feels for the most part repelled from
objective ecclesiasticism, as from an ossification of the
Christian life and the crystallization of dogma. In the same way
he undervalues the significance of the political co-efficients,
and has little appreciation of esthetic and artistic influences.
The exposition goes out too often into wearisome details and
grows somewhat monotonous, but is on every side lighted up by
first hand acquaintance with the original sources. His scholar,
=Hagenbach= of Basel, † 1874, put together in a collected form
his lectures delivered before a cultured public upon several
periods of church history, so as to furnish a treatise dealing
with the whole field (7 vols., Leipz., 1868). These lectures are
distinguished by an exposition luminous, interesting, sometimes
rather broad, but always inspired by a warm Christian spirit and
by circumspect judgment, inclining towards a mild confessional
latitudinarianism. What, even on the confessional and
ecclesiastical side, had been to some extent passed over by
Neander, in consequence of his tendency to that inwardness that
characterizes subjective and pectoral piety, has been enlarged
upon by =Guericke= of Halle, † 1878, another of Neander’s
scholars, in his _Handbuch_ (2 vols., Leipz., 1833; 9th ed.,
3 vols., 1866; Eng. transl. “Manual of Ch. Hist.” Edinb., 1857),
by the contribution of his own enthusiastic estimate of the
Lutheran Church in a strong but clumsy statement; beyond this,
however, the one-sidedness of Neander’s standpoint is not
overcome, and although, alongside of Neander’s exposition, the
materials and estimates of other standpoints are diligently used,
and often the very words incorporated, the general result is not
modified in any essential respect. Written with equal vigour,
and bearing the impress of a freer ecclesiastical spirit, the
_Handbuch_ of =Bruno Lindner= (3 vols., Leipzig, 1848 ff.)
pursues with special diligence the course of the historical
development of doctrine, and also emphasizes the influence
of political factors. This same end is attempted in detailed
treatment with ample production of authoritative documents in
the _Handbuch_ of the author of the present treatise (vol. I.
in three divisions, in a 2nd ed.; vol. II. 1, down to the end
of the Carlovingian Era. Mitau, 1858 ff.). =Milman= (1791-1868)
an English church historian of the first rank (“Hist. of Chr.
to Abolit. of Pag. in Rom. Emp.” 3 vols., London, 1840; “History
of Latin Christianity to the Pontificate of Nicholas V.” 3 vols.,
London, 1854), shows himself, especially in the latter work,
learned, liberal and eloquent, eminently successful in sketching
character and presenting vivid pictures of the general culture
and social conditions of the several periods with which he deals.
The _Vorlesungen_ of =R. Hasse [Hase]=, published after his death
by Köhler (2nd ed., Leipz., 1872), form an unassuming treatise,
which scarcely present any trace of the influence of Hegel’s
teaching upon their author. =Köllner= of Giessen writes an
_Ordnung und Uebersicht der Materien der chr. Kirchengeschichte_,
Giess., 1864, a diligent, well-arranged, and well packed, but
somewhat dry and formless work. =H. Schmid= of Erlangen has
enlarged his compendious _Lehrbuch_ (2nd ed., 1856), into a
_Handbuch_ of two bulky volumes (Erlang., 1880); and =O. Zöckler=
of Greifswald has contributed to the _Handbuch d. theolog.
Wissenschaften_ (Erlang., 1884; 2nd ed., 1885) edited by him an
excellent chronological summary of church history. =Ebrard’s=
_Handbuch_ (4 vols., Erlang., 1865 ff.) endeavours to give
adequate expression to this genuine spirit of the Reformed
conception of historical writing by bringing church history and
the history of doctrines into organic connection. The attempt is
there made, however, as Hase has expressed it, with a paradoxical
rather than an orthodox tendency. The spirit and mind of the
Reformed Church are presented to us in a more temperate, mild
and impartial form, inspired by the pectoralism of Neander, in
the _Handbuch_ of =J. J. Herzog= of Erlangen, † 1882 (3 vols.,
Erlang., 1876), which assumes the name of _Abriss_ or Compendium.
This work set for itself the somewhat too ambitious aim
of supplying the place of the productions of Gieseler and
Neander,--which, as too diffuse, have unfortunately repelled many
readers--by a new treatise which should set forth the important
advances in the treatment of church history since their time,
and give a more concise sketch of universal church history.
The _Histoire du Christianisme_ of Prof. =Chastel= of Geneva,
(5 vols., Par., 1881 ff.) in its earlier volumes occupies the
standpoint of Neander, and we often miss the careful estimation of
the more important results of later research. In regard to modern
church history, notwithstanding every effort after objectivity
and impartiality, theological sympathies are quite apparent. On
the other hand, in the comprehensive _History of the Christian
Church_ by =Philip Schaff= (in 8 vols., Edinb., 1885, reaching
down to Gregory VIII., A.D. 1073), the rich results of research
subsequent to the time of Neander are fully and circumspectly
wrought up in harmony with the general principles of Neander’s
view of history. Herzog’s _ Realencyclopædie für protest. Theol.
u. Kirche_, especially in its 2nd ed. by Herzog and Plitt, and
after the death of both, by Hauck (18 vols., Leipz., 1877 ff.),
has won peculiar distinction in the department of church history
from the contributions of new and powerful writers. Lichtenberger,
formerly Prof. of Theol. in Strassburg, now in Paris, in his
_Encyclopédie des sciences relig. _ has produced a French work
worthy of a place alongside that of Herzog. _The Dictionary of
Christian Biography, Literature, Sects, and Doctrines during
the first eight centuries_, edited with admirable circumspection
and care by Dr. Wm. Smith and Prof. Wace, combines with a
completeness and richness of contents never reached before,
a thoroughgoing examination of the original sources. (4 vols.,
Lond., 1877 ff.) =Weingarten’s= Chronological Tables for Church
History (_Zeittafeln z. K.G._ 2nd ed., Brl., 1874) are most
useful to students as the latest and best helps of that kind.

§ 5.6. In the Catholic Church of Germany too a great activity has
been displayed in the realm of church history. First of all in
general Church history we have the diffuse work of the convert
=von Stolberg= (_Gesch. d. Rel. Jesu_, 15 vols., down to A.D. 430,
Hamb., 1806 ff., continued by von Kerz, vols. 16-45, and by
Brischar, vols. 46-52, Mainz, 1825-1859), spreading out into
hortatory and uncritical details. The elegant work of =Katerkamp=
(_K.G._, 5 vols., down to 1153, Münst., 1819 ff.) followed it,
inspired by a like mild spirit, but conceived in a more strictly
scientific way. Liberal, so far as that could be without breaking
with the hierarchy, is the _Handbuch der K.G._ (3 vols., Bonn,
1826 ff.; 6th ed. by Ennen, 2 vols., 1862), by =I. Ign. Ritter=.
The ample and detailed _Gesch. d. Chr. Rel. u. d. K._ (8 vols.,
down to 1073, Ravensb., 1824 ff.) of =Locherer= reminds one of
Schröckh’s work in other respects than that of its voluminousness.
A decidedly ultramontane conception of church history, with
frequent flashes of sharp wit, first appears in =Hortig’s=
_Handbuch_ (2 vols., Landsh., 1826). =Döllinger= in 1828 publ. as
a 3rd vol. of this work a _Handbuch d. Neuern K.G._, which, with
a similar tendency, assumed a more earnest tone. This theologian
afterwards undertook a thoroughly new and independent work of a
wider range, which still remains incomplete (_Gesch. d. chr. K._,
I. 1, 2, partially down to A.D. 630, Landsh., 1833-1835). This
work with ostensible liberality exposed the notorious fables
of Romish historical literature; but, on the other hand, with
brilliant ingenuity, endeavoured carefully to preserve intact
everything which on ultramontane principles and views might seem
capable of even partial justification. His _Lehrbuch_ (I. II. 1.,
Rgsb., 1836 ff.), reaching down only to the Reformation, treats
the matter in a similar way, and confines itself to a simple
statement of acknowledged facts. In the meantime =J. A. Möhler=,
by his earlier monographical works, and still more decidedly
by his far-reaching influence as a Professor at Tübingen, gave
rise to an expectation of the opening up of a new epoch in the
treatment of Catholic church history. He represented himself
as in spiritual sympathy with the forms and means of Protestant
science, although in decided opposition and conflict with its
contents, maintaining his faithful adhesion to all elements
essential to Roman Catholicism. This master, however, was
prevented by his early death, † 1838, from issuing his complete
history. This was done almost thirty years after his death by
Gams, who published the work from his posthumous papers (_K. G._,
3 vols., Rgsb., 1867 ff.), with much ultramontane amendment. It
shows all the defects of such patchwork, with here and there,
but relatively, very few fruitful cases. Traces of his influence
still appear in the spirit which pervades the _Lehrbücher_
proceeding from his school, by Alzog († 1878) and Kraus. The
_Universalgeschichte d. K._, by =J. Alzog= (Mainz, 1841; 9th ed.,
2 vols., 1872; transl. into Engl., 3 vols., Lond., 1877), was,
in its earlier editions, closely associated with the lectures of
his teacher, not ashamed even to draw from Hase’s fresh-sparkling
fountains something at times for his own yet rather parched
meadows, but in his later editions he became ever more
independent, more thorough in his investigation, more fresh and
lively in his exposition, making at the same time a praiseworthy
endeavour at moderation and impartiality of judgment, although
his adhesion to the Catholic standpoint grows more and more
strict till it reaches its culmination in the acceptance of the
dogma of Papal Infallibility. The 10th ed. of his work appeared
in 1882 under the supervision of Kraus, who contributed much to
its correction and completion. The _Lehrbuch_ of =F. Xav. Kraus=
of Freiburg (2nd ed., Trier, 1882) is without doubt among all
the Roman Catholic handbooks of the present the most solid from
a scientific point of view, and while diplomatically reserved
and carefully balanced in its expression of opinions, one of
the most liberal, and it is distinguished by a clever as well as
instructive mode of treatment. On the other hand, the Würzburgian
theologian, =J. Hergenröther= (since 1879 Cardinal and Keeper of
the Papal Archives at Rome), who represents the normal attitude
of implicit trust in the Vatican, has published a _Handbuch_
(2 vols. in 4 parts, Freib., 1876 ff.; 2nd ed., 1879, with a
supplement: Sources, Literat., and Foundations). In this work
he draws upon the rich stores of his acknowledged scholarship,
which, however, often strangely forsakes him in treating of the
history of Protestant theology. It is a skilful and instructive
exposition, and may very fitly be represented as “a history of
the church, yea, of the whole world, viewed through correctly set
Romish spectacles.” Far beneath him in scientific importance, but
in obstinate ultramontanism far above him, stands the _Lehrbuch_
of =H. Bruck [Brück]= (2nd ed., Mainz, 1877). A far more solid
production is presented in the _Dissertatt. selectæ in hist.
ecclst._ of Prof. =B. Jungmann= of Louvain, which treat in
chronological succession of parties and controversies prominent
in church history, especially of the historical development of
doctrine, in a thorough manner and with reference to original
documents, not without a prepossession in favour of Vaticanism
(vols. i.-iii., Ratisb., 1880-1883, reaching down to the end
of the 9th cent.). The _Kirchenlexikon_ of Wetzer and Wette
(12 vols., Freib., 1847 ff.) gained a prominent place on account
of the articles on church history contributed by the most eminent
Catholic scholars, conceived for the most part in the scientific
spirit of Möhler. The very copious and of its kind admirably
executed 2nd ed. by Kaulen (Freib., 1880 ff.), under the
auspices of Card. Hergenröther, is conceived in a far more
decidedly Papistic-Vatican spirit, which often does not
shrink from maintaining and vindicating even the most glaring
productions of mediæval superstition, illusion and credulity,
as grounded in indubitable historical facts. Much more
important is the historical research in the _Hist. Jahrbuch
der Görres-Gesellschaft_, edited from 1880 by G. Hüffer, and
from 1883 by B. Gramich, which presents itself as “a means of
reconciliation for those historians with whom Christ is the
middle point of history and the Catholic Church the God-ordained
institution for the education of the human race.”--In the French
Church the following are the most important productions: the
_Hist. de l’égl._ of =Berault-Bercastel= (24 vols., Par., 1778
ff.), which have had many French continuators and also a German
translator (24 vols., Vienna, 1784 ff.); the _Hist. ecclst.
depuis la création_, etc., of =Baron Henrion=, ed. by Migne
(25 vols., Par., 1852 ff.); and the very diffuse compilation,
wholly devoted to the glorification of the Papacy and its
institutions, _Hist. universelle de l’égl. Cath._ of the Louvain
French Abbé Rohrbacher (29 vols., Par., 1842 ff.; of which an
English transl. is in course of publication). Finally, the
scientifically careful exposition of the Old Catholic =J. Rieks=,
_Gesch. d. chr. K. u. d. Papstthums_, Lahr., 1882, though in some
respects onesided, may be mentioned as deserving of notice for its
general impartiality and love of the truth.

HISTORY OF THE PREPARATION FOR CHRISTIANITY.

The pre-Christian World preparing the way
of the Christian Church.

§ 6. THE STANDPOINT OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

The middle point of the epochs and developments of the human race is the incarnation of God in Christ. With it begins, upon it rests, the fulness of the time (Gal. iv. 4), and toward it the whole pre-Christian history is directed as anticipatory or progressive. This preparation has its beginning in the very cradle of humanity, and is soon parted in the two directions of Heathenism and Judaism. In the former case we have the development of merely human powers and capacities; in the latter case this development is carried on by continuous divine revelation. Both courses of development, distinguished not only by the means, but also by the task undertaken and the end aimed at, run alongside of one another, until in the fulness of the time they are united in Christianity and contribute thereto the fruits and results of what was essential and characteristic in their several separate developments.

§ 7. HEATHENISM.

The primitive race of man, surrounded by rich and luxuriant forms of nature, put this abundance of primeval power in the place of the personal and supramundane God. Surrounded by such an inexhaustible fulness of life and pleasures, man came to look upon nature as more worthy of sacrifice and reverence than a personal God removed far off into supramundane heights. Thus arose heathenism as to its general features: a self-absorption into the depths of the life of nature, a deification of nature, a worshipping of nature (Rom. i. 21 ff.), therefore, the religion of nature, in accordance with which, too, its moral character is determined. Most conspicuously by means of its intellectual culture has heathenism given preliminary aid to the church for the performing of her intellectual task. And even the pagan empire, with its striving after universal dominion, as well as the active commercial intercourse in the old heathen world, contributed in preparing the way of the church.