Chapter IV: Theology and Its Battles (23)

§ 143.2. =Public Worship.=--Zwingli wished at first to do
away with church bells, organ playing, and church psalmody,
and even Calvin would not tolerate altars, crucifixes, images,
and candles in the churches. These he regarded as contrary
to the Divine law revealed in the decalogue, inasmuch as
the commandment that properly stood second as a distinct and
separate statute, though it had slipped out of the enumeration
usual among the Catholics and Lutherans, was understood to
forbid the use of images. The churches were reduced to bare and
unadorned places for prayer and assembly rooms for preaching,
and simple communion tables took the place of altars. Kneeling,
as savouring of ceremonialism, was discountenanced; the breaking
of bread was again introduced in the administration of the
Lord’s Supper as forming an important part of the symbolism;
private confession was abolished; exorcism at baptism, as well
as baptism in emergencies as a necessary thing, was discontinued;
the liturgy was reduced to simple prayers spoken, not sung,
and from a literalist purism the usual _Vater unser_ was changed
into _Unser Vater_. The festivals were reduced to the smallest
number possible, and only the principal Christian feasts were
celebrated, Christmas, Easter, Pentecost; while the Sunday
festival was observed with almost the Old Testament strictness
of Sabbath keeping.--In securing the introduction of psalmody
into the worship of the German Reformed church, John Zwick,
pastor at Constance, who died in A.D. 1542, was particularly
active. In A.D. 1536 he published a small psalmody, with some
Bible psalms set to Lutheran melodies. At Calvin’s request,
Clement Marot set a good number of the Psalms to popular French
airs in A.D. 1541-1543; Beza completed it, and then Calvin
introduced this French psalter into the church of Geneva. Claude
Goudimel (§ 149, 15) in A.D. 1562 published sixteen of these
psalms with four-part harmonies. He was murdered in the massacre
of St. Bartholomew at Lyons, in A.D. 1572. A professor of law at
Königsberg, Ambrose Lobwasser, in A.D. 1573 made an arrangement
of the Psalter in the German language after the style of
Marot. This psalter, notwithstanding its poetical deficiencies,
continued in use for a long time in Germany and Switzerland.
Zwingli’s aversion to congregational singing was given effect
to only in Zürich, but even there the service of praise was
introduced by a decree of the council in A.D. 1598. In the other
German Swiss cantons they did not confine themselves to the use
of the Psalms, but adopted unhesitatingly spiritual songs by
both Reformed and Lutheran poets. Among the former, who neither
in number nor in ability could approach the latter, the most
important were John Zwick and Ambrose Blaurer (§ 133, 3). It
was only in the seventeenth century that the Lutheran sister
church abandoned her rigid adherence to the exclusive use of
Lobwasser’s psalms in congregational singing, when the rise of
Pietism, and afterwards the spread of rationalism, overcame this
narrow-mindedness.[410]

§ 143.3. =The English Puritans.=--The Reformation under
Elizabeth (§ 139, 6), with its Lutheranizing doctrinal
standpoint and Catholicizing forms of constitution and worship,
had been sanctioned in A.D. 1559 by the Act of Uniformity
in the exercise of the royal supremacy that was claimed over
the whole ecclesiastical institutions of the country. But
the Protestants who had fled from the persecutions of Bloody
Mary and had returned in vast troops when Elizabeth ascended
the throne brought with them from their foreign resorts,
in Switzerland from Geneva, Zürich, Basel, in Germany from
Strassburg, Frankfort, Emden, entirely different notions about
the nature of genuine evangelical Christianity; and now with
all the assumption of confessors they sought to have these ideas
realized in their native land. Inspired for the most part with
the rigorist spirit of the Genevan Reformation, they desired,
instead of the royal supremacy, to have the independence
of the church proclaimed, and instead of the hierarchical
episcopal system a presbyterial constitution with strict church
discipline, arranged in accordance with the Genevan model.
They also gave a one-sided prominence to the formal principle
of the Holy Scripture, adhered rigidly to the doctrinal theory
of Calvin and to a mode of worship as bare as possible, stripped
of every vestige of popish superstition, such as priestly dress,
altars, candles, crucifixes, sign of the cross, forms of prayer,
godfathers, confirmation, kneeling at the sacrament, bowing the
head at the mention of the name of Jesus, bells, organs, etc.
On account of their opposition to the Act of Uniformity, these
were designated Nonconformists or Dissenters. They were also
called =Puritans=, because they insisted upon an organization
of the church purified from every human invention, and ordered
strictly in accordance with the word of God. Their principles,
which were enunciated first of all in private conventicles,
found a very wide acceptance amongst ministers and people.
This movement proved too strong to be suppressed, even by the
frequent deprivation and banishment of the ministers, or the
fining and imprisonment of their adherents. Amid the severity
of persecution and oppression Puritanism continued to grow,
and in A.D. 1572 numerous separatist congregations provided
themselves with a presbyterial and synodal constitution;
the former for the management of the affairs of particular
congregations, the latter for the settlement of questions
affecting the whole church. Specially offensive to the
queen, and therefore strictly forbidden by her and rigorously
suppressed, were the prophesyings introduced into many English
churches after the pattern of the prophesyings of the church
of Zürich. These were week-day meetings of the congregation,
at which the Sunday sermons were further explained and
illustrated from Scripture by the preachers, and applied to
the circumstances and needs of the church of that day.[411]

§ 143.4. Even before the sixteenth century had come to an end
an ultra-puritan tendency had been developed, the adherents
of which were called Brownists, from their leader Robert Brown.
As chaplain of the Duke of Norfolk, he was brought into contact
at Norwich with Dutch Anabaptist refugees; and stirred up by
them, he began a violent and bitter polemic, not only against
the Cæsaro-papism and episcopacy of the State church, but also
against the aristocratic element in the presbyterial and synodal
constitution. He taught that church and congregation were to be
completely identified; that every separate congregation, because
subject to no other authority than that of Christ and His word,
has the right of independently arranging and administering its
own affairs according to the decisions of the majority. Having
been cast into prison, but again liberated through the powerful
influence of his friends, he retired in A.D. 1581 to Holland,
and founded a small congregation there at Middleburg in Zealand.
When this soon became reduced to a mere handful, he returned
to England in A.D. 1589, and there renewed his agitation; but
afterwards submitted to the hierarchical State church, and
died in A.D. 1630 in the enjoyment of a rich living. After his
apostasy, the jurist Henry Barrow took his place as leader of
the Brownists, who still numbered many thousands, and were now
called after him Barrowists. Persecuted by the government and
harassed by severe measures from A.D. 1594, whole troops of them
retreated to the Netherlands, where in several of the principal
cities they formed considerable congregations, and issued, in
A.D. 1598, their first symbolical document, “The Confession of
Faith of certain English People exiled.”--The second founder of
the party, a more trustworthy leader and more vigorous apologist,
was the pastor John Robinson, who, in A.D. 1608, with his
Norwich congregation settled at Amsterdam, and in A.D. 1610
moved to Leyden. He died in A.D. 1625. The fundamental points
in the constitution under his leadership were these:

1. Complete equality of all the members of the church among
themselves, and consequently the setting aside of all
clerical prerogatives;

2. Thorough subordination of the college of presbyters to
the will of the majority of the congregation, from which
circumstance they obtained the name of =Congregationalists=;
and

3. The perfect autonomy of separate congregations and their
independence alike of every civil authority and of every
synodal judicature, from which characteristic they obtained
the name of =Independents=.

Synodal assemblies were allowed merely for the purpose of mutual
consultation and advice, and when so restricted were regarded
as beneficial. With this end in view a _Congregational board_
was appointed to sit in London, which formed a common centre
of union. And as in constitution, so also in worship there was
a complete breach made with all the traditions and developments
of church history. With the exception of Sunday all feast
days were abolished. In the assemblies for public worship each
individual had the right of free speech for the edification
of the congregation. All liturgical formularies and prescribed
prayers, even the Lord’s Prayer not excepted, were set aside, as
hindering the mission of the Holy Spirit in the congregation.--In
order to preserve for their descendants the sacred heritage of
their faith, and their native English language and nationality,
and in order to save them from the moral dangers to which they
were exposed in large cities, but to an equal extent at least
inspired by the wish to break new ground for the kingdom of God
in the New World, many of their families set out, in A.D. 1620,
from Holland for North America, and there, as “Pilgrim Fathers,”
amid indescribable hardships, established a colony in the wastes
of Massachusetts, and laid the foundations of that Congregational
denomination which has now grown into so powerful and influential
a church.[412]

§ 143.5. =Theological Science.=--In A.D. 1523, the grand
council at Zürich set up the peculiar institution of prophesying
(1 Cor. xiv. 29) or biblical conferences. Pastors along with
students, as well as certain scholars specially called for
the purpose, were required to meet together every morning,
with the exception of Sundays and Fridays, in the choir of the
cathedral, where, after a short opening prayer, public exegetical
expositions of the Old Testament were given in the regular order
of books and chapters, with a strict and detailed comparison
of the Vulgate, the LXX. and the original text; and then at the
close one of the professors stated the results of the conference
in a practical discourse for the edification of the congregation.
At a later period theological studies flourished at Geneva and
Basel, in the French church at the academy of Saumur and the
theological seminaries of Montauban, Sedan, and Montpellier.
=Sebastian Münster=, formerly at Heidelberg, afterwards at Basel,
issued, in A.D. 1523, a complete Hebrew lexicon. The Zürich
theologians, Leo Judä and others, in A.D. 1524-1529 translated
Luther’s Bible into the Swiss dialect, making, however, an
independent revision in accordance with the original text. At
the instigation of the Waldensians, =Robert Olivetan= of Geneva
(§ 138, 1) undertook, in A.D. 1535, a translation of the Holy
Scriptures from the original into the French language; but in
so far as the New Testament is concerned he followed almost
literally the translation of Faber (§ 120, 8). In subsequent
editions it was in various particulars greatly improved,
although even to this day it remains very unsatisfactory.
=Theodore Beza= gave an improved recension of the New Testament
text and a new Latin translation of it. Sebastian Münster edited
the Old Testament text with an independent Latin translation.
Also =Leo Judä= in Zürich undertook a similar work, for which
he was well qualified by a competent knowledge of languages.
=Sebastian Castellio= in Geneva endeavoured to make the prophets
and apostles speak in classical Latin and in full Ciceronian
periods. Most successful was the Latin translation of the
Old Testament which =Immanuel Tremellius= at Heidelberg, in
connection with his son-in-law =Francis Junius=, produced.
=John Piscator=, dismissed from Heidelberg under the Elector
Louis VI. (§ 144, 1), from A.D. 1584 professor in the academy
founded at Herborn during that same year, published a new
German translation of the Bible, which was authoritatively
introduced into the churches at Bern and in other Reformed
communities. Commentators on Holy Scripture were also numerous
during this age. Besides =Calvin=, who far outstrips them
all (§ 138, 5), the following were distinguished for their
exegetical performances: Zwingli, Œcolampadius, Conrad Pellican
(§ 120, 4 footnote), Theodore Beza, Francis Junius, John
Piscator, John Mercer, and the Frenchman Marloratus.--As
a dogmatist =Calvin=, again beyond all question occupies the
very front rank. In speculative power and thorough mastery
of his materials he excels all his contemporaries. Leo Judä’s
catechisms, two in German and one in Latin, in which the
scholar puts the question and the teacher gives the answer and
explanation, continued long in use in the Zürich church. Among
the German Reformed theologians =Andrew Hyperius= of Marburg,
who died in A.D. 1564, takes an honourable place as an exegete
by his expositions of the Pauline epistles, as a dogmatist by
his _Methodus theologiæ_, as a homilist by his _De formandis
concionibus s._, and as the first founder of theological
encyclopædia by his _De recte formando theolog. studio_.--The
pietistic efforts of the English Puritan party found a fit
nursery in the University of Cambridge, where =William Whitaker=,
who died in A.D. 1598, the author of _Catechismus s. institutio
pietatis_, and especially =William Perkins=, who died in
A.D. 1602, author of _De casibus conscientiæ_, besides many
other English works of edification, laboured unweariedly in
endeavouring to infuse a pious spirit into the theological
studies. Both were also eager and enthusiastic supporters of
the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination; but the attempt,
through the “Nine Lambeth Articles,” laid before Archbishop
Whitgift in his palace in A.D. 1598, and accepted and approved
by him, to make this doctrine an absolute doctrinal test for
the university was frustrated by the decided veto of Queen
Elizabeth.--Continuation, § 160, 6.

§ 143.6. =Philosophy.=--For the formal scientific construction
of systematic theology the Aristotelian dialectic, as the
heritage bequeathed by the mediæval scholasticism, continued
to exercise upon the occupants of the Reformed professorial
chairs, as well as in Lutheran seminaries, a dominating
influence far down into the seventeenth century. To emancipate
philosophy, and with it also in the same degree theology,
from these fetters, which hindered every free movement, and
inaugurate a simpler scientific method, was an attempt made
first of all by =Peter Ramus=, who from A.D. 1551 was professor
of dialectic and rhetoric in Paris, distinguished also as
a polyhistor, humanist, and mathematician, and diligent in
disseminating his views from the platform and by the press.
As he had openly declared himself a Calvinist, he had repeatedly
to seek refuge in flight. After a long residence in Switzerland
and Germany, where he gained many adherents, who were known
by the name of Ramists, he thought that after the Peace of
St. Germain (§ 139, 15), in A.D. 1571, he might with safety
return to Paris; but there, in A.D. 1572, he fell a victim to
Romish fanaticism on the night of St. Bartholomew.--Continuation,
§ 163, 1.

§ 143.7. The Reformed church made =one missionary= attempt in
A.D. 1557. A French adventurer, Villegagnon, laid before Admiral
Coligny a plan for the colonization of the persecuted Huguenots
in Brazil. With this proposal there was linked a scheme for
conducting a mission among the heathen aborigines. He sailed
under Coligny’s patronage in A.D. 1555 with a number of Huguenot
artisans, and founded Fort Coligny at Rio de Janeiro. At
his request Calvin sent him two Geneva pastors in A.D. 1557.
The intolerable tyranny which Villegagnon exercised over the
unprotected colonists, the failure of their efforts among the
natives, famine, and want impelled them in the following year
to seek again their native shores, which they reached after
a most disastrous voyage. All were not able to secure a place
in the returning ships, and even of those who started several
died of starvation on the way.--Continuation, § 161, 7.[413]

§ 144. CALVINIZING OF GERMAN LUTHERAN NATIONAL CHURCHES.

The Cryptocalvinist controversies conducted with such party violence proved indeed in vain so far as winning over to Philippist Calvinism the Lutheran church as a whole was concerned (§ 141, 10, 13); but they did not succeed in hindering, but rather fostered and advanced, the public adoption of the Reformed Confession on the part of several national churches in Germany or their being driven by force to accept the Calvinistic constitution and creed. The first instance of a procedure of this sort is to be found in the Palatinate. It was followed by Bremen, Anhalt, and in the beginning of the next century by Hesse Cassel and the electoral dynasty of Brandenburg (§ 154, 3).

§ 144.1. =The Palatinate, A.D. 1560.=--Tilemann Hesshus,
formerly the scholar and devoted admirer of Melanchthon, had
been banished by the magistrates as a disturber of the peace
from Goslar, and then from Rostock, on account of his reckless
and severe administration of church discipline. At Melanchthon’s
recommendation, the Elector Ottheinrich of the Palatinate called
him as professor and general superintendent to Heidelberg, in
A.D. 1558. Here he came into collision with his deacon William
Klebitz. The latter had produced, on the occasion of his
receiving his bachelor’s degree, a thesis in which he vindicated
a Calvinizing theory of the Lord’s Supper, whereupon Hesshus
condemned and suspended him, in A.D. 1559. But Klebitz would not
move. Passion on both sides developed into senseless fury, which
found expression in the pulpit and at the altar. The new elector,
Frederick III. the Pious, A.D. 1559-1576, sent both into exile,
and obtained an opinion from Melanchthon, which advised him to
hold by the words of Paul in 1 Corinthians x. 16, “the bread is
the communion of the body of Christ.” The elector, who had long
been favourably inclined to the Reformed doctrine and worship,
now introduced, in A.D. 1560, into all the churches of his
domains a Reformed order of service, had altars, baptismal
fonts, images, and even organs removed from the churches,
filled the professors’ chairs with foreign Calvinistic teachers,
and in A.D. 1562 had the “Heidelberg Catechism” composed by two
Heidelberg professors, Zach. Ursinus and Gaspar Olevianus, for
use in the schools throughout his territories.[414] In respect
of that simplicity which befits a popular manual, in power
and spirituality, it is not to be compared to Luther’s “Short
Catechism,” but it is certainly distinguished by learning,
theological genius, Christian fervour, and moderate, peaceful
spirit, and deserves in an eminent degree the acceptance which
it has found, not only among the German, but also among the
foreign Reformed churches. Calvin’s doctrine of predestination
is avoided, and his theory of the Lord’s Supper is taught in a
form approaching as near as possible to the Lutheran view, but
the Roman Catholic mass is characterized as execrable idolatry.
The introduction of this catechism, however, completed the
severance of the Palatinate from the Lutheran church. Brenz
in Stuttgart attacked its doctrine of the supper; Bullinger
in Zürich and Beza in Geneva defended it with passionate
eagerness; and the conference arranged by the elector to
be held at Maulbronn, in A.D. 1564, between the theologians
of the Palatinate and of Württemberg, during its six days’
discussions increased the bitterness of parties, and made
the split perpetual. The Lutheran German states, irritated
by the secession of the elector, complained of him to the Diet
of Augsburg, in A.D. 1564, that he had broken the religious
Peace of Augsburg by the forcible introduction of Calvinism. He
answered in defence, that he had not himself read Calvin’s works,
and was therefore not in a position to know what Calvinism was;
that at Naumburg, in A.D. 1561 (§ 141, 11), he had subscribed
the _Augustana_, more correctly the _Variata_, and still adhered
to the confession he then made. The diet then did not venture to
interfere with him, and was satisfied with a simple expression
of disapproval. By the introduction of presbyteries by the order
of the elector, in A.D. 1570, for the administration of church
discipline, Olevianus embroiled himself in controversy with the
electoral councillor and professor of medicine at Heidelberg,
Thomas Erastus (§ 117, 4), who would much rather have the Zürich
church order introduced (§ 143) than the Zwinglian theory of
the supper. This idea he very persistently pressed, but without
success. Although himself a member of the ecclesiastical council,
he yet fell under its ban, along with Neuser and Sylvanus
(§ 148, 3) as suspected of unitarianism, but this charge has
never been proved against him. In A.D. 1510 he settled in Basel,
and died there, in A.D. 1583, as professor of moral philosophy.
His controversial treatise, “_Explicatio gravissimæ quæstionis,
utrum excommunicatio mandato nitatur divino, an excogitata
sit ab hominibus_,” was published after his death. Beza
answered in two dissertations: “_De presbyteriis_” and “_De
excommunicatione_.” Notice of his theory was now taken in
England and Scotland, and among the names of sects in these
countries during the seventeenth century we find that of
Erastians. At this very day all subordinating of church
government under the authority of the State is commonly styled
Erastianism.[415]--The reign of Louis VI., A.D. 1576-1583,
a zealous friend of the Formula of Concord, was of too short
duration to secure the complete restoration of Lutheranism
throughout his dominions. The count-palatine, John Casimir,
who conducted the government as regent during the minority,
systematically drove out all Lutheran pastors and trained up
his ward Frederick IV. in Calvinism.--Continuation, § 153, 3.

§ 144.2. =Bremen, A.D. 1562.=--In Bremen the cathedral
preacher, Albert Rizæus von Hardenberg, long lay under
suspicion of favouring the Zwinglian theory of the sacraments.
He publicly repudiated the Lutheran doctrine of the ubiquity of
the body of Christ, which his colleague John Timann had defended
in his treatise, “_Farrago sententiarum ... de cœna Domini_,”
of A.D. 1555. Upon this there began a lively controversy between
them. All the pastors took Timann’s side, but Hardenberg had
a powerful supporter in the burgomaster Daniel van Büren, and
an opinion obtained from Melanchthon in A.D. 1557 also favoured
him by counselling concession. Through his refusal to subscribe
a confession of faith in reference to the supper submitted
to him by the council, the excitement in Bremen was increased,
and spread from thence over all the provinces of Lower Saxony.
Timann died in A.D. 1557. His place as champion of the Lutheran
doctrine of the supper was taken by Hesshus, who had been driven
out of Heidelberg in A.D. 1559, and had almost immediately
afterward been called to Bremen. He challenged Hardenberg to
a public disputation, which, however, did not come off, because
the new Archbishop of Bremen, Duke George of Brunswick-Lüneberg
[Lüneburg], forbade Hardenberg to take part in it, and instead
of this brought the matter before the league of the cities of
Lower Saxony. The league held a provincial diet at Brunswick,
in A.D. 1561, where Hardenberg was removed from his office, yet
without detracting from his honour. He went now to Oldenburg,
and died in A.D. 1574 as pastor at Emden. Hesshus had left
Bremen in A.D. 1560, having accepted a call to Magdeburg,
and from thence continued his controversy with Hardenberg. His
successor in Bremen, Simon Musæus, no less passionately than he
insisted upon the expulsion of all adherents of Hardenberg, and
had indeed managed to get the council to agree to the proposal
when things took a turn in an altogether different direction.
Büren, in spite of all opposition, became the chief burgomaster
in A.D. 1562. Musæus and other twelve pastors were now expelled,
and also the councillors who were in favour of Lutheranism felt
that they could do nothing else than quit the city. By foreign
mediation an understanding was come to in A.D. 1568, by which
those who had been driven out were allowed to return to the city,
but not to their offices. All the churches of Bremen, with the
exception of the cathedral, which obtained a Lutheran pastor
again in A.D. 1568, continued in the possession of the Reformed
party.--But Hesshus was in A.D. 1562 expelled also from
Magdeburg, as well as afterwards from his position as court
preacher in Neuburg, in A.D. 1569, and from his professorship
at Jena in A.D. 1573 (§ 141, 10), on account of his passionate
and violent polemics. He was also expelled from his bishopric
of Samland, in A.D. 1577, as a teacher of error, because he had
ascribed omnipotence, etc., to the human nature of Christ _etiam
in abstracto_. He died in A.D. 1588 as professor in Helmstadt.

§ 144.3. =Anhalt, A.D. 1597.=--After the death of Prince
Joachim Ernest four Anhalt dynasties were formed by his sons,
Dessau, Bemburg, Köthen, Zerbst. John George, first head of
the family of Anhalt-Dessau, reigned on behalf of his brothers,
who had not yet come of age, from A.D. 1587 till A.D. 1603,
and married a daughter of John Casimir, the count-palatine.
After having refused to sign the Formula of Concord, he began
the Calvinization of the land in A.D. 1589 by striking out
the exorcism, and then, in A.D. 1596, he put the Reformed
church order in place of the Lutheran. Soon after this Luther’s
catechism was set aside, and in A.D. 1597 a document was
produced, consisting of twenty-eight Calvinistic articles with
a modified doctrine of predestination, which all the pastors
under pain of banishment from the country, were required to
subscribe. The most active agents in this movement were Caspar
Peucer (§ 141, 10), who had been expelled from Wittenberg,
and the superintendent Wolfgang Amling of Zerbst. In A.D. 1644,
however, Anhalt-Zerbst returned to the old Lutheran Confession,
under Prince John, who had been trained up by his mother in the
Lutheran faith.