Chapter IV: The Counter-Reformation (4)

5. =The Order of the Visitation of Mary=, or _Salesian Nuns_,
instituted in A.D. 1610 by the mystic Francis de Sales
and Francisca Chantal (§ 157, 1). They visited the poor
and sick in imitation of Elizabeth’s visit to the Virgin
(Luke i. 39); but the papal rescript of A.D. 1618 gave
prominence to the education of children.

§ 156.8.

6. =The Priests of the Missions and Sisters of Charity= were
both founded by Vincent de Paul. Born of poor parents,
he was, after completing his education, captured by
pirates, and as a slave converted his renegade master
to Christianity. As domestic chaplain to the noble family
of Gondy he was characterized in a remarkable degree
for unassuming humility, and he wrought earnestly and
successfully as a home missionary. In A.D. 1618 he founded
the order of Sisters of Mercy, who became devoted nurses
of the sick throughout all France, and in A.D. 1627 that
of the Priests of the Missions, or Lazarists, who travelled
the country attending to the spiritual and bodily wants
of men. After the death of the Countess Gondy in A.D. 1625,
he placed at the head of the Sisters of Mercy the widow
Louise le Gras, distinguished equally for qualities of head
and heart. Vincent died in A.D. 1660, and was subsequently
canonized.[460]

7. =The Trappists=, founded by De Rancé, a distinguished canon,
who in A.D. 1664 passed from the extreme of worldliness
to the extreme of fanatical asceticism. The order got its
name from the Cistercian abbey La Trappe in Normandy, of
which Rancé was commendatory abbot. Amid many difficulties
he succeeded, in A.D. 1665, in thoroughly reforming the
wild monks, who were called “the bandits of La Trappe.”
His rule enjoined on the monks perpetual silence, only
broken in public prayer and singing and in uttering
the greeting as they met, _Memento mori_. Their bed
was a hard board with some straw; their only food was
bread and water, roots, herbs, some fruit and vegetables,
without butter, fat, or oil. Study was forbidden, and they
occupied themselves with hard field labour. Their clothing
was a dark-brown cloak worn on the naked body, with wooden
shoes. Very few cloisters besides La Trappe submitted to
such severities (§ 185, 2).

8. =The English Nuns=, founded at St. Omer, in France, by
Mary Ward, the daughter of an English Catholic nobleman,
for the education of girls. Originally composed of English
maidens, it was afterwards enlarged by receiving those of
other nationalities, with establishments in Germany, Italy,
and the Netherlands. It did not obtain papal confirmation,
and in A.D. 1630 Urban VIII., giving heed to the calumnies
of enemies, formally dissolved it on account of arrogance,
insubordination, and heresy. All its institutions and
schools were then closed, while Mary herself was imprisoned
and given over to the Inquisition in Rome. Urban was
soon convinced of her innocence and set her free. Her
scattered nuns were now collected again, but succeeded only
in A.D. 1703 in obtaining confirmation from Clement XI.
Their chief tasks were the education of youth and care
of the sick. They were arranged in three classes, according
to their rank in life, and were bound by their vows for
a year or at the most three years, after which they might
return to the world and marry. Their chief centre was
Bavaria with the mother cloister in Munich.--Continuation,
§ 165, 2.

§ 156.9. =The Propaganda.=--Gregory XV. gave unity and strength
to the efforts for conversion of heretics and heathens by
instituting, in A.D. 1662, the _Congregatio de Propaganda
Fide_. Urban VIII. in A.D. 1627 attached to it a missionary
training school, recruited as far as possible from natives of
the respective countries, like Loyola’s _Collegium Germanicum_
founded in A.D. 1552 (§ 151, 1). He was thus able every Epiphany
to astonish Romans and foreigners by what seemed a repetition of
the pentecostal miracle of tongues. At this institute training
in all languages was given, and breviaries, mass and devotional
books, and handbooks were printed for the use of the missions.
It was also the centre from which all missionary enterprises
originated.--Continuation, § 204, 2.

§ 156.10. =Foreign Missions.=--Even during this century the
Jesuits excelled all others in missionary zeal. In A.D. 1608
they sent out from Madrid mission colonies among the wandering
Indians of South America, and no Spaniard could settle there
without their permission. The most thoroughly organized of
these was that of =Paraguay=, in which, according to their
own reports, over 100,000 converted savages lived happily
and contented under the mild, patriarchal rule of the Jesuits
for 140 years, A.D. 1610-1750; but according to another well
informed, though perhaps not altogether impartial, account,
that of Ibagnez, a member of the mission, expelled for advising
submission to the decree depriving it of political independence,
the paternal government was flavoured by a liberal dose of
slave-driver despotism. It was at least an undoubted fact,
notwithstanding the boasted patriarchal idyllic character of
the Jesuit state, that the order amassed great wealth from the
proceeds of the industry of their _protégés_.--Continuation,
§ 165, 3.

§ 156.11. =In the East Indies= (§ 150, 1) the Jesuits had
uninterrupted success. In A.D. 1606, in order to make way
among the Brahmans, the Jesuit Rob. Nobili assumed their
dress, avoided all contact with even the converts of low
caste, giving them the communion elements not directly, but
by an instrument, or laying them down for them outside the
door, and as a Christian Brahman made a considerable impression
upon the most exclusive classes.--In =Japan= the mission
prospects were dark (§ 150, 2). Mendicants and Jesuits opposed
and mutually excommunicated one another. The Catholic Spaniards
and Portuguese were at feud among themselves, and only agreed
in intriguing against Dutch and English Protestants. When the
land was opened to foreign trade, it became the gathering point
of the moral scum of all European countries, and the traffic in
Japanese slaves, especially by the Portuguese, brought discredit
on the Christian cause. The idea gained ground that the efforts
at Christianization were but a prelude to conquest by the
Spaniards and Portuguese. In the new organization of the country
by the _shiogun_ Ijejasu all governors were to vow hostility to
Christians and foreigners. In A.D. 1606 he forbad the observance
of the Christian religion anywhere in the land. When the
conspiracy of a Christian daimio was discovered, he caused,
in A.D. 1614, whole shiploads of Jesuits, mendicants, and
native priests to be sent out of the country. But as many
of the banished returned, death was threatened against all
who might be found, and in A.D. 1624 all foreigners, with the
exception of Chinese and Dutch, were rigorously driven out.
And now a bloody persecution of native Christians began. Many
thousands fled to China and the neighbouring islands; crowds
of those remaining were buried alive or burnt on piles made up
of the wood of Christian crosses. The victims displayed a martyr
spirit like those of the early days. Those who escaped organized
in A.D. 1637 an armed resistance, and held the fortress of Arima
in face of the _shiogun’s_ army sent against them. After a three
months’ siege the fortress was conquered by the help of Dutch
cannon; 37,000 were massacred in the fort, and the rest were
hurled down from high rocks. The most severe enactments were
passed against Christians, and the edicts filled with fearful
curses against “the wicked sect” and “the vile God” of the
Christians were posted on all the bridges, street corners, and
squares. Christianity now seemed to be completely stamped out.
The recollection of this work, however, was still retained down
to the nineteenth century. For when French missionaries went
in A.D. 1860 to Nagasaki, they found to their surprise in the
villages around thousands (?) who greeted them joyfully as the
successors of the first Christian missionaries.

§ 156.12. =In China=, after Ricci’s death (§ 150, 1), the
success of the mission continued uninterrupted. In A.D. 1628
a German Jesuit, Adam Schell, went out from Cologne, who gained
great fame at court for his mathematical skill. Louis XIV.
founded at Paris a missionary college, which sent out Jesuits
thoroughly trained in mathematics. But Dominicans and Franciscans
over and over again complained to Rome of the Jesuits. They
never allowed missionaries of other orders to come near their
own establishments, and actually drove them away from places
where they had begun to work. They even opposed priests,
bishops, and vicars-apostolic sent by the Propaganda, declared
their papal briefs forgeries, forbad their congregations to have
any intercourse with those “heretics,” and under suspicion of
Jansenism brought them before the Inquisition of Goa. Clement X.
issued a firm-toned bull against such proceedings; but the
Jesuits gave no heed to it, and attended only to their own
general. The papal condemnation a century later of the Jesuits’
accommodation scheme, and their permission of heathen rites
and beliefs to the new converts, complained against by the
Dominicans, was equally fruitless. In A.D. 1645 Innocent X.
forbad this practice on pain of excommunication; but still
they continued it till the decree was modified by Alexander VII.
in A.D. 1656. After persistent complaints by the Dominicans,
Innocent XII. appointed a new congregation in Rome to
investigate the question, but their deliberations yielded no
result for ten years. At last Clement XI. confirmed the first
decree of Innocent X., condemned anew the so called Chinese
rites, and sent the legate Thomas of Tournon in A.D. 1703 to
enforce his decision. Tournon, received at first by the emperor
at Pekin with great consideration, fell into disfavour through
Jesuit intrigues, was banished from the capital, and returned
to Nankin. But as he continued his efforts from this point,
and an attempt to poison him failed in A.D. 1707, he went to
Macao, where he was put in prison by the Portuguese, in which
he died in A.D. 1710. Clement XI., in A.D. 1715, issued his
decree against the Chinese rites in a yet severer form; but
the Franciscan who proclaimed the papal bull was put in prison
as an offender against the laws of the country, and, after
being maltreated for seventeen months, was banished. So proudly
confident had the Jesuits become, that in A.D. 1720 they treated
with scorn and contempt the papal legate Mezzabarba, Patriarch
of Alexandria, who tried by certain concessions to move them
to submit. A more severe decree of Clement XII. of A.D. 1735
was scoffed at by being proclaimed only in the Latin original.
Benedict XIV. succeeded for the first time, in A.D. 1742, in
breaking down their opposition, after the charges had been
renewed by the Capuchin Norbert. All the Jesuit missionaries
were now obliged by oath to exclude all pagan customs and rites;
but with this all the glory and wonderful success of their
Asiatic missions came to an end.--Continuation, § 165, 3.

§ 156.13. =Trade and Industry of the Jesuits.=--As Christian
missions generally deserve credit, not only for introducing
civilization and culture along with the preaching of the gospel
into far distant heathen lands, but also for having greatly
promoted the knowledge of countries, peoples, and languages
among their fellow countrymen at home, opening up new fields
for colonization and trade, these ends were also served by
the world-wide missionary enterprises of the Jesuits, and
were in perfect accordance with the character and intention of
this order, which aimed at universal dominion. In carrying out
these schemes the Jesuits abandoned the ascetical principles
of their founder and their vow of poverty, amassing enormous
wealth by securing in many parts a practical monopoly of
trade. Their fifth general, Aquaviva (§ 149, 8), secured from
Gregory XIII., avowedly in favour of the mission, exclusive
right to trade with both Indies. They soon erected great
factories in all parts of the world, and had ships laden
with valuable merchandise on all seas. They had mines, farms,
sugar plantations, apothecary shops, bakeries, etc., founded
banks, sold relics, miracle-working amulets, rosaries, healing
Ignatius- and Xavier-water (§ 149, 11), etc., and in successful
legacy-hunting excelled all other orders. Urban VIII. and
Clement XI. issued severe bulls against such abuses, but only
succeeded in restricting them to some extent.--Continuation,
§ 165, 9.

§ 156.14. =An Apostate to Judaism.=--Gabriel, or as he was
called after circumcision, =Uriel Acosta=, was sprung from
a noble Portuguese family, originally Jewish. Doubting
Christianity in consequence of the traffic in indulgences,
he at last repudiated the New Testament in favour of the Old.
He refused rich ecclesiastical appointments, fled to Amsterdam,
and there formally went over to Judaism. Instead of the biblical
Mosaism, however, he was disappointed to find only Pharisaic
pride and Talmudic traditionalism, against which he wrote
a treatise in A.D. 1623. The Jews now denounced him to the
civil authorities as a denier of God and immortality. The whole
issue of his book was burnt. Twice the synagogue thundered its
ban against him. The first was withdrawn on his recantation,
and the second, seven years after, upon his submitting to a
severe flagellation. In spite of all he held to his Sadducean
standpoint to his end in A.D. 1647, when he died by his own
hand from a pistol shot, driven to despair by the unceasing
persecution of the Jews.

§ 157. QUIETISM AND JANSENISM.

Down to the last quarter of the seventeenth century the Spanish Mystics (§ 149, 16), and especially those attached to Francis de Sales, were recognised as thoroughly orthodox. But now the Jesuits appeared as the determined opponents of all mysticism that savoured of enthusiasm. By means of vile intrigues they succeeded in getting Molinos, Guyon, and Fénelon condemned, as “Quietist” heretics, although the founder of their party had been canonized and his doctrine solemnly sanctioned by the pope. Yet more objectionable to the Jesuits was that reaction toward Augustinianism which, hitherto limited to the Dominicans (§ 149, 13), and treated by them as a theological theory, was now spreading among other orders in the form of French Jansenism, accompanied by deep moral earnestness and a revival of the whole Christian life.

§ 157.1. =Francis de Sales and Madame Chantal.=--Francis Count
de Sales, from A.D. 1602 Bishop of Geneva, _i.e._ _in partibus_,
with Annecy as his residence, had shown himself a good Catholic
by his zeal in rooting out Protestantism in Chablais, on the
south of the Genevan lake. In A.D. 1604 meeting the young
widowed Baroness de Chantal, along with whom at a later period
he founded the Order of the Visitation of Mary (§ 156, 7),
he proved a good physician to her amid her sorrow, doubts,
and temptations. He sought to qualify himself for this task
by reading the writings of St. Theresa. Teacher and scholar
so profited by their mystical studies, that in A.D. 1665
Alexander VII. deemed the one worthy of canonization and the
other of beatification. In A.D. 1877 Pius IX. raised Francis
to the dignity of _doctor ecclesiæ_. His “Introduction to
the Devout Life” affords a guide to laymen to the life of
the soul, amid all the disturbances of the world resting in
calm contemplation and unselfish love of God. In the Catholic
Church, next to À Kempis’ “Imitation of Christ,” it is the
most appreciated and most widely used book of devotion. In
his “_Theotime_” he leads the reader deeper into the yearnings
of the soul after fellowship with God, and describes the perfect
peace which the soul reaches in God.[461]

§ 157.2. =Michael Molinos.=--After Francis de Sales a great
multitude of male and female apostles of the new mystical
gospel sprang up, and were favourably received by all the
more moderate church leaders. The reactionaries, headed by the
Jesuits, sought therefore all the more eagerly to deal severely
with the Spaniard Michael Molinos. Having settled in Rome in
A.D. 1669, he soon became the most popular of father confessors.
His “Spiritual Guide” in A.D. 1675 received the approval of the
Holy Office, and was introduced into Protestant Germany through
a Latin translation by Francke in A.D. 1687, and a German
translation in A.D. 1699 by Arnold. In it he taught those who
came to the confessional that the way to the perfection of
the Christian life, which consists in peaceful rest in the
most intimate communion with God, is to be found in spiritual
conference, secret prayer, active and passive contemplation,
in rigorous destruction of all self-will, and in disinterested
love of God, fortified, wherever that is possible, by daily
communion. The success of the book was astonishing. It promptly
influenced all ranks and classes, both men and women, lay and
clerical, not only in Italy, but also by means of translations
in France and Spain. But soon a reaction set in. As early
as A.D. 1681 the famous Jesuit =Segneri= issued a treatise,
in which he charged Molinos’ contemplative mysticism with
onesidedness and exaggeration. He was answered by the pious
and learned Oratorian =Petrucci=. A commission, appointed
by the Inquisition to examine the writings of both parties,
pronounced the views of Molinos and Petrucci to be in accordance
with church doctrine and Segneri’s objections to be unfounded.
All that Jesuitism reckoned as foundation, means, and end of
piety was characterized as purely elementary. No hope could
be entertained of winning over Innocent XI., the bitter enemy
of the Jesuits. But Louis XIV. of France, at the instigation
of his Jesuit father confessor, Lachaise, expressed through
his ambassador his surprise that his holiness should, not only
tolerate, but even encourage and support so dangerous a heretic,
who taught all Christendom to undervalue the public services
of the Church. In A.D. 1685 Innocent referred the matter to
the tribunal of the Inquisition. Throughout the two years
during which the investigation proceeded all arts were used to
secure condemnation. Extreme statements of fanatical adherents
of Molinos were not rarely met with, depreciating the public
ordinances and ceremonies, confession, hearing of mass, church
prayers, rosaries, etc. The pope, facile with age, amid groans
and lamentations, allowed things to take their course, and at
last confirmed the decree of the Inquisition of August 28th,
A.D. 1687, by which Molinos was found guilty of spreading
godless doctrine, and sixty-eight propositions, partly from
his own writings, partly from the utterances of his adherents,
were condemned as heretical and blasphemous. The heretic was
to abjure his heresies publicly, clad in penitential garments,
and was then consigned to lifelong solitary confinement in a
Dominican cloister, where he died in A.D. 1697.[462]

§ 157.3. =Madame Guyon and Fénelon.=--After her husband’s
death, =Madame Guyon=, in company with her father confessor,
the Barnabite =Lacombe=, who had been initiated during a long
residence at Rome into the mysteries of Molinist mysticism,
spent five years travelling through France, Switzerland,
Savoy, and Piedmont. Though already much suspected, she won
the hearts of many men and women among the clergy and laity,
and enkindled in them by personal conference, correspondence,
and her literary work, the ardour of mystical love. Her
brilliant writings are indeed disfigured by traces of foolish
exaggeration, fanaticism and spiritual pride. She calls herself
the woman of Revelation xii. 1, and the _mère de la grace_
of her adherents. The following are the main distinguishing
characteristics of her mysticism: The necessity of turning
away from everything creaturely, rejecting all earthly pleasure
and destroying every selfish interest, as well as of turning
to God in passive contemplation, silent devotion, naked faith,
which dispensed with all intellectual evidence, and pure
disinterested love, which loves God for Himself alone, not
for the eternal salvation obtained through Him. On her return
to Paris with Lacombe in A.D. 1686 the proper martyrdom of
her life began. Her chief persecutor was her step-brother,
the Parisian superior of the Barnabites, La Mothe, who spread
the most scandalous reports about his half-sister and Lacombe,
and had them both imprisoned by a royal decree in A.D. 1688.
Lacombe never regained his liberty. Taken from one prison to
another, he lost his reason, and died in an asylum in A.D. 1699.
Madame Guyon, however, by the influence of Madame de Maintenon,
was released after ten months’ confinement. The favour of
this royal dame was not of long continuance. Warned on all
sides of the dangerous heretic, she broke off all intercourse
with her in A.D. 1693, and persuaded the king to appoint a
new commission, in A.D. 1694, with Bishop =Bossuet= of Meaux
at its head, to examine her suspected writings. This commission
meeting at Issy, had already, in February, A.D. 1695, drawn
up thirty test articles, when =Fénelon=, tutor of the king’s
grandson, and now nominated to the archbishopric of Cambray,
was ordered by the king to take part in the proceedings. He
signed the articles, though he objected to much in them, and
had four articles of his own added. Madame Guyon also did so,
and Bossuet at last testified for her that he had found her
moral character stainless and her doctrine free from Molinist
heresy. But the bigot Maintenon was not satisfied with this.
Bossuet demanded the surrender of this certificate that he
might draw up another; and when Madame Guyon refused, on
the basis of a statement by the crazed Lacombe, she was sent
to the Bastile [Bastille] in A.D. 1696. In A.D. 1697 Fénelon
had written in her defence his “_Explication des Maximes des
Saintes sur la Vie Intérieur_,” showing that the condemned
doctrines of passive contemplation, secret prayer, naked
faith, and disinterested love, had all been previously taught
by St. Theresa, John of the Cross, Francis de Sales, and other
saints. He sent this treatise for an opinion to Rome. A violent
controversy then arose between Bossuet and Fénelon. The pious,
well-meaning pope, =Innocent XII.=, endeavoured vainly to
bring about a good understanding. Bossuet and the all-powerful
Maintenon wished no reconciliation, but condemnation, and gave
the king and pope no rest till very reluctantly he prohibited
the objectionable book by a brief in A.D. 1699, and condemned
twenty-three propositions from it as heretical. Fénelon,
strongly attached to the church, and a bitter persecutor
of Protestants, made an unconditional surrender, as guilty
of a defective exposition of the truth. But Madame Guyon
continued in the Bastile [Bastille] till A.D. 1701, when she
retired to Blois, where she died in A.D. 1717. Bossuet had
died in A.D. 1704, and Fénelon in A.D. 1715. She published
only two of her writings: “An Exposition of the Song,” and
the “_Moyen Court et très Facile de faire Oraison_.” Many
others, including her translation and expositions of the
Bible, were during her lifetime edited in twenty volumes by
her friend, the Reformed preacher of the Palatinate, Peter
Poiret.[463]

§ 157.4. =Mysticism Tinged with Theosophy and
Pantheism.=--=Antoinette Bourignon=, the daughter of a rich
merchant of Lille, in France, while matron of a hospital in
her native city, had in A.D. 1662 gathered around her a party
of believers in her theosophic and fantastic revelations.
She was obliged to flee to the Netherlands, and there, by
the force of her eloquence in speech and writing, spread her
views among the Protestants. Among them she attracted the
great scientist Swammerdam. But when she introduced politics,
she escaped imprisonment only by flight. Down to her death
in A.D. 1680 she earnestly and successfully prosecuted
her mission in north-west Germany. Peter Poiret collected
her writings and published them in twenty-one volumes at
Amsterdam, in A.D. 1679.--Quite of another sort was the
pantheistic mysticism of =Angelus Silesius=. Originally
a Protestant physician at Breslau, he went over to the
Romish church in A.D. 1653, and in consequence received from
Vienna the honorary title of physician to the emperor. He
was made priest in A.D. 1661, and till his death in A.D. 1677
maintained a keen polemic against the Protestant church
with all a pervert’s zeal. Most of his hymns belong to his
Protestant period. As a Catholic he wrote his “_Cherubinischer
Wandersmann_,” a collection of rhymes in which, with childish
_naïveté_ and hearty, gushing ardour, he merges self into the
abyss of the universal Deity, and develops a system of the most
pronounced pantheism.

§ 157.5. =Jansenism in its first Stage.=--Bishop Cornelius
Jansen, of Ypres, who died in A.D. 1638, gave the fruits
of his lifelong studies of Augustine in his learned work,
“_Augustinus s. doctr. Aug. de humanæ Naturæ Sanitate,
Ægritudine, et Medicina adv. Pelagianos et Massilienses_,”
which was published after his death in three volumes, Louvain,
1640. The Jesuits induced Urban VIII., in A.D. 1642, to prohibit
it in his bull _In eminenti_. Augustine’s numerous followers
in France felt themselves hit by this decree. Jansen’s pupil
at Port Royal from A.D. 1635, Duvergier de Hauranne, usually
called St. Cyran, from the Benedictine monastery of which he
was abbot, was the bitter foe of the Jesuits and Richelieu,
who had him cast into prison in A.D. 1638, from which he was
liberated after the death of the cardinal in A.D. 1643, and
shortly before his own. Another distinguished member of the
party was Antoine Arnauld, doctor of the Sorbonne, who died in
A.D. 1694, the youngest of twenty children of a parliamentary
advocate, whose powerful defence of the University of Paris
against the Jesuits called forth their hatred and lifelong
persecution. His mantle, as a vigorous polemist, had fallen
upon his youngest son. Very important too was the influence
of his much older sister, Angelica Arnauld, Abbess of the
Cistercian cloister of Port Royal des Champs, six miles from
Paris, which under her became the centre of religious life and
effort for all France. Around her gathered some of the noblest,
most pious, and talented men of the time: the poet Racine, the
mathematician and apologist Pascal, the Bible translator De Sacy,
the church historian Tillemont, all ardent admirers of Augustine
and determined opponents of the lax morality of the Jesuits.
Arnauld’s book, “_De la fréquente Communion_,” was approved
by the Sorbonne, the Parliament, and the most distinguished
of the French clergy; but in A.D. 1653 Innocent X. condemned
five Jansenist propositions in it as heretical. The Augustinians
now maintained that these doctrines were not taught in the
sense attributed to them by the pope. Arnauld distinguished
the _question du fait_ from the _question du droit_, maintaining
that the latter only were subject to the judgment of the
Holy See. The Sorbonne, now greatly changed in composition
and character, expelled him on account of this position from
its corporation in A.D. 1656. About this time, at Arnauld’s
instigation, Pascal, the profound and brilliant author of
“_Pensées sur la Religion_,” began, under the name of Louis
de Montalte to publish his famous “Provincial Letters,” which
in an admirable style exposed and lashed with deep earnestness
and biting wit the base moral principles of Jesuit casuistry.
The truly annihilating effect of these letters upon the
reputation of the powerful order could not be checked by
their being burnt by order of Parliament by the hangman at
Aix in A.D. 1657, and at Paris in A.D. 1660. But meanwhile
the specifically Jansenist movement entered upon a new phase
of its development. Alexander VII. had issued in A.D. 1656
a bull which denounced the application of the distinction _du
fait_ and _du droit_ to the papal decrees as derogatory to the
holy see, and affirmed that Jansen taught the five propositions
in the sense they had been condemned. In order to enforce the
sentence, Annal, the Jesuit father confessor of Louis XIV.,
obtained in 1661 a royal decree requiring all French clergy,
monks, nuns, and teachers to sign a formula unconditionally
accepting this bull. Those who refused were banished, and
fled mostly to the Netherlands. The sorely oppressed nuns of
Port Royal at last reluctantly agreed to sign it; but they were
still persecuted, and in A.D. 1664 the new archbishop, Perefixe,
inaugurated a more severe persecution, placed this cloister
under the interdict, and removed some of the nuns to other
convents. In A.D. 1669, Alexander’s successor, Clement IX.,
secured the submission of Arnauld, De Sacy, Nicole, and many
of the nuns by a policy of mild connivance. But the hatred
of the Jesuits was still directed against their cloister. In
A.D. 1705 Clement XI. again demanded full and unconditioned
acceptance of the decree of Alexander VII., and when the nuns
refused, the pope, in A.D. 1708, declared this convent an
irredeemable nest of heresy, and ordered its suppression, which
was carried out in A.D. 1709. In A.D. 1710 cloister and church
were levelled to the ground, and the very corpses taken out of
their graves.[464]--Continuation, § 165, 7.

§ 158. SCIENCE AND ART IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH.

Catholic theology flourished during the seventeenth century as it had never done since the twelfth and thirteenth. Especially in the liberal Gallican church there was a vigorous scientific life. The Parisian Sorbonne and the orders of the Jesuits, St. Maur, and the Oratorians, excelled in theological, particularly in patristic and historical, learning, and the contemporary brilliancy of Reformed theology in France afforded a powerful stimulus. But the best days of art, especially Italian painting, were now past. Sacred music was diligently cultivated, though in a secularized style, and many gifted hymn-writers made their appearance in Spain and Germany.

§ 158.1. =Theological Science= (§ 149, 14).--The parliamentary
advocate, Mich. le Jay, published at his own expense the
Parisian Polyglott in ten folio vols., A.D. 1629-1645, which,
besides complete Syriac and Arabic translations, included also
the Samaritan. The chief contributor was the Oratorian =Morinus=,
who edited the LXX. and the Samaritan texts, which he regarded
as incomparably superior to the Masoretic text corrupted by
the Jews. The Jansenists produced a French translation of
the Bible with practical notes, condemned by the pope, but
much read by the people. It was mainly the work of the brothers
=De Sacy=. The New Testament was issued in A.D. 1667 and the
Old Testament somewhat later, called the Bible of Mons from
the fictitious name of the place of publication. =Richard Simon=,
the Oratorian, who died in A.D. 1712, treated Scripture with
a boldness of criticism never before heard of within the church.
While opposed by many on the Catholic side, the curia favoured
his work as undermining the Protestant doctrine of Scripture.
=Cornelius à Lapide=, who died A.D. 1637, expounded Scripture
according to the fourfold sense.--In systematic theology
the old scholastic method still held sway. Moral theology
was wrought out in the form of casuistry with unexampled
lasciviousness, especially by the Jesuits (§ 149, 10). The
work of the Spaniard =Escobar=, who died in A.D. 1669, ran
through fifty editions, and that of =Busembaum=, professor in
Cologne and afterwards rector of Münster, who died A.D. 1668,
went through seventy editions. On account of the attempted
assassination of Louis XV. by Damiens in A.D. 1757, with
which the Jesuits and their doctrine of tyrannicide were
charged, the Parliament of Toulouse in A.D. 1757, and of Paris
in A.D. 1761, had Busembaum’s book publicly burnt, and several
popes, Alexander VII., VIII., and Innocent XI., condemned a
number of propositions from the moral writings of these and
other Jesuits. Among polemical writers the most distinguished
were =Becanus=, who died in A.D. 1624, and =Bossuet= (§ 153, 7).
Among the Jansenists the most prominent controversialists were
=Nicole= and =Arnauld=, who, in order to escape the reproach of
Calvinism, sought to prove the Catholic doctrine of the supper
to be the same as that of the apostles, and were answered
by the Reformed theologians Claude and Jurieu. In apologetics
the leading place is occupied by =Pascal=, with his brilliant
“_Pensées_.” =Huetius=, a French bishop and editor of Origen,
who died in A.D. 1721, replied to Spinoza’s attacks on the
Pentateuch, and applying to reason itself the Cartesian
principle, that philosophy must begin with doubt, pointed
the doubter to the supernatural revealed truths in the Catholic
church as the only anchor of salvation. The learned Jesuit
=Dionysius Petavius=, who died in A.D. 1652, edited Epiphanius
and wrote gigantic chronological works and numerous violent
polemics against Calvinists and Jansenists. His chief work
is the unfinished patristic-dogmatic treatise in five vols.
folio, A.D. 1680, “_De theologicis Dogmatibus_.” The Oratorian
=Thomassinus= wrote an able archæological work: “_Vetus et Nova
Eccl. Disciplina circa Beneficia et Beneficiarios_.”

§ 158.2. In church history, besides those named in § 5, 2, we
may mention Pagi, the keen critic and corrector of Baronius.
The study of sources was vigorously pursued. We have collections
of mediæval writings and documents by Sirmond, D’Achery,
Mabillon, Martène, Baluzius; of acts of councils by Labbé
and Cossart, those of France by =Jac. Sirmond=, and of Spain
by Aguirre; acts of the martyrs by =Ruinart=; monastic rules
by =Holstenius=, a pervert, who became Vatican librarian,
and died at Rome A.D. 1661. =Dufresne Ducange=, an advocate,
who died in A.D. 1688, wrote glossaries of the mediæval and
barbarous Latin and Greek, indispensable for the study of
documents belonging to those times. The greatest prodigy of
learning was =Mabillon=, who died in A.D. 1707, a Benedictine
of St. Maur, and historian of his order. =Pet. de Marca=, who
died Archbishop of Paris A.D. 1662, wrote the famous work on
the Gallican liberties “_De Concordia Sacerdotii et Imperii_.”
The Jansenist doctor of the Sorbonne, =Elias du Pin=, who died
A.D. 1719, wrote “_Nouvelle Bibliothèque des Auteurs Eccles._”
in forty-seven vols. The Jesuit Maimbourg, died A.D. 1686,
compiled several party histories of Wiclifism, Lutheranism,
and Calvinism; but as a Gallican was deprived of office
by the pope, and afterwards supported by a royal pension.
The Antwerp Jesuits Bolland, Henschen, Papebroch started,
in A.D. 1643, the gigantic work “_Acta Sanctorum_,” carried
on by the learned members of their order in Belgium, known
as =Bollandists=. It was stopped by the French invasion
of A.D. 1794, when it had reached October 15th with the
fifty-third folio vol. The Belgian Jesuits continued the
work from A.D. 1845-1867, reaching in six vols. the end of
October, but not displaying the ability and liberality of their
predecessors. In Venice =Paul Sarpi= (§ 155, 2) wrote a history
of the Tridentine Council, one of the most brilliant historical
works of any period. =Leo Allatius=, a Greek convert at Rome,
who died in A.D. 1669, wrote a work to show the agreement of
the Eastern and Western churches. Cardinal =Bona= distinguished
himself as a liturgical writer.--In France pulpit eloquence
reached the highest pitch in such men as Flechier, Bossuet,
Bourdaloue, Fénelon, Massillon, and Bridaine. In Vienna
=Abraham à St. Clara= inveighed in a humorous, grotesque way
against the corruption of manners, with an undercurrent of deep
moral earnestness. Similar in style and spirit, but much more
deeply sunk in Catholic superstition, was his contemporary
the Capuchin =Martin of Cochem=, who missionarized the Rhine
Provinces and western Germany for forty years, and issued
a large number of popular religious tracts.--Continuation,
§ 165, 14.

§ 158.3. =Art and Poetry= (§ 149, 15).--The greatest master
of the musical school founded by Palestrina was _Allêgri_,
whose _Miserere_ is performed yearly on the Wednesday afternoon
of Passion Week in the Sistine Chapel in Rome. The oratorio
originated from the application of the lofty music of this
school to dramatic scenes drawn from the Bible, for purely
musical and not theatrical performance. Philip Neri patronized
this music freely in his oratory, from which it took the name.
This new church music became gradually more and more secularized
and approximated to the ordinary opera style.--In =ecclesiastical
architecture= the Renaissance style still prevailed, but debased
with senseless, tasteless ornamentation.--In the Italian school
of =painting= the decline, both in creative power and imitative
skill, was very marked from the end of the sixteenth century.
In Spain during the seventeenth century religious painting
reached a high point of excellence in Murillo of Seville, who
died in A.D. 1682, a master in representing calm meditation
and entranced felicity.--The two greatest =poets= of Spain,
the creators of the Spanish drama, =Lope de Vega= (died
A.D. 1635) and =Pedro Calderon= (died A.D. 1681), both at
first soldiers and afterwards priests, flourished during
this century. The elder excelled the younger, not only in
fruitfulness and versatility (1,500 comedies, 320 autos,
§ 115, 12, etc.), but also in poetic genius and patriotism.
Calderon, with his 122 dramas, 73 festival plays, 200 preludes,
etc., excelled De Vega in artistic expression and beauty of
imagery. Both alike glorify the Inquisition, but occasionally
subordinate Mary and the saints to the great redemption of
the cross.--Specially deserving of notice is the noble German
Jesuit =Friedr. von Spee=, died A.D. 1635. His spiritual songs
show deep love to the Saviour and a profound feeling for nature,
approaching in some respects the style of the evangelical
hymn-writers. Spee was a keen but unsuccessful opponent of
witch prosecution. Another eminent poetic genius of the age
was the Jesuit =Jac. Balde= of Munich, who died in A.D. 1688.
He is at his best in lyrical poetry. A deep religious vein
runs through all his Latin odes, in which he enthusiastically
appeals to the Virgin to raise him above all earthly passions.
To Herder belongs the merit of rescuing him from oblivion.

III. The Lutheran Church.

§ 159. ORTHODOXY AND ITS BATTLES.[465]

The Formula of Concord commended itself to the hearts and intelligences of Lutherans, and secured a hundred years’ supremacy of orthodoxy, notwithstanding two Christological controversies. Gradually, however, a new dogmatic scholasticism arose, which had the defects as well as the excellences of the mediæval system. The orthodoxy of this school deteriorated, on the one hand, into violent polemic on confessional differences, and, on the other, into undue depreciation of outward forms in favour of a spiritual life and personal piety. These tendencies are represented by the Syncretist and Pietist controversies.

§ 159.1. =Christological Controversies.=

1. =The Cryptist and Kenotist Controversy= between the
Giessen and Tübingen theologians, in A.D. 1619, about
Christ’s state of humiliation, led to the publication of
many violent treatises down to A.D. 1626. The Kenotists
of Giessen, with Mentzer and Feuerborn at their head,
assigned the humiliation only to the human nature, and
explained it as an actual κένωσις, _i.e._ a complete but
voluntary resigning of the omnipresence and omnipotence
immanent in His divinity (κτῆσις, but not χρῆσις),
yet so that He could have them at His command at any
moment, _e.g._ in His miracles. The Cryptists of Tübingen,
with Luc. Osiander and Thumm at their head, ascribed
humiliation to both natures, and taught that all the
while Christ, even _secundum carnem_, was omnipresent
and ruled both in heaven and earth, but in a hidden
way; the humiliation is no κένωσις, but only a κρύψις.
After repeated unsuccessful attempts to bring about
a reconciliation, John George, Elector of Saxony, in
A.D. 1623, accepted the Kenotic doctrine. But the two
parties still continued their strife.[466]

2. =The Lütkemann Controversy= on the humanity of Christ in
death was of far less importance. Lütkemann, a professor
of philosophy at Rostock, affirmed that in death, because
the unity of soul and body was broken, Christ was not true
man, and that to deny this was to destroy the reality and
the saving power of his death. He held that the incarnation
of Christ lasted through death, because the divine nature
was connected, not only with the soul, but also with the
body. Lütkemann was obliged to quit Rostock, but got an
honourable call to Brunswick as superintendent and court
preacher, and there died in A.D. 1655. Later Lutherans
treated the controversy as a useless logomachy.

§ 159.2. =The Syncretist Controversy.=--Since the Hofmann
controversy (§ 141, 15) the University of Helmstadt had shown
a decided humanistic tendency, and gave even greater freedom in
the treatment of doctrines than the Formula of Concord, which
it declined to adopt. To this school belonged =George Calixt=,
and from A.D. 1614 for forty years he laboured in promoting
its interests. He was a man of wide culture and experience,
who had obtained a thorough knowledge of church history, and
acquaintance with the most distinguished theologians of all
churches, during his extensive foreign travels, and therewith
a geniality and breadth of view not by any means common in
those days. He did not indeed desire any formal union between
the different churches, but rather a mutual recognition,
love, and tolerance. For this purpose he set, as a secondary
principle of Christian theology, besides Scripture, as the
primary principle, the consensus of the first five centuries
as the common basis of all churches, and sought to represent
later ecclesiastical differences as unessential or of less
consequence. This was denounced by strict Lutherans as
Syncretism and Cryptocatholicism. In A.D. 1639 the Hanoverian
preacher Buscher charged him with being a secret Papist. After
the Thorn Conference of A.D. 1645, a violent controversy arose,
which divided Lutherans into two camps. On the one side were
the universities of Helmstadt and Königsberg; on the other
hand, the theologians of the electorate of Saxony, Hülsemann
of Leipzig, Waller of Dresden, and Abr. Calov, who died
professor in Wittenberg in A.D. 1686. Calov wrote twenty-six
controversial treatises on this subject. Jena vainly sought to
mediate between the parties. In the _Theologorum Sax. Consensus
repetitus Fidei vera Lutheranæ_ of A.D. 1655, for which the
Wittenberg divines failed to secure symbolical authority, the
following sentiments were branded as Syncretist errors: That
in the Apostles’ Creed everything is taught that is necessary
to salvation; that the Catholic and Reformed systems retain
hold of fundamental truths; that original sin is of a merely
privative nature; that God _indirecte, improprie, et per
accidens_ is the cause of sin; that the doctrine of the Trinity
was first clearly revealed in the New Testament, etc. Calixt
died A.D. 1656 in the midst of most violent controversies. His
son Ulrich continued these, but had neither the ability nor
moderation of his father. Even the peaceably disposed Conference
of Cassel of A.D. 1661 (§ 154, 4) only poured oil on the flames.
The strife lost itself at last in actions for damages between
the younger Calixt and his bitter opponent Strauch of Wittenberg.
Wearied of these fruitless discussions, theologians now turned
their attention to the rising movement of Pietism.[467]

§ 159.3. =The Pietist Controversy in its First
Stage.=--=Philip Jacob Spener= born in Alsace in A.D. 1635,
was in his thirty-first year, on account of his spirituality,
distinguished gifts, and singularly wide scholarship, made
president of a clerical seminary at Frankfort-on-Main. In
A.D. 1686 he became chief court preacher at Dresden, and
provost of Berlin in A.D. 1691, when, on account of his intense
earnestness in pastoral work, he had been expelled from Dresden.
He died in Berlin in A.D. 1705. His year’s attendance at Geneva
after the completion of his curriculum at Strassburg had an
important influence on his whole future career. He there learned
to value discipline for securing purity of life as well as of
doctrine, and was also powerfully impressed by the practical
lectures of Labadie (§ 163, 7) and the reading of the “Practice
of Piety” and other ascetical writings of the English Puritans
(§ 162, 3). Though strongly attached to the Lutheran church,
he believed that in the restoration of evangelical doctrine
by the Wittenberg Reformation, “not by any means had all been
accomplished that needed to be done,” and that Lutheranism in
the form of the orthodoxy of the age had lost the living power
of the reformers, and was in danger of burying its talent in
dead and barren service of the letter. There was therefore a
pressing need of a new and wider reformation. In the Lutheran
church, as the depository of sound doctrine, he recognised
the fittest field for the development of a genuinely Christian
life; but he heartily appreciated any true spiritual movement
in whatsoever church it arose. He went back from scholastic
dogmatics to Holy Scripture as the living source of saving
knowledge, substituted for the external orthodox theology the
theology of the heart, demanded evidence of this in a pious
Christian walk: these were the means by which he sought to
promote his reformation. A whole series of Lutheran theologians
of the seventeenth century (§ 159) had indeed contributed to
this same end by their devotional works, hymns, and sermons.
What was new in Spener was the conviction of the insufficiency
of the hitherto used means and the undue prominence given to
doctrine, and his consequent effort vigorously made to raise
the tone of the Christian life. In his childlike, pious humility
he regarded himself as by no means called to carry out this work,
but felt it his duty to insist upon the necessity of it, and
indicate the means that should be used to realize it. This he
did in his work of A.D. 1675, “_Pia Desideria_.” As it was his
aim to recommend biblical practical Christianity to the heart
of the individual Christian, he revived the almost forgotten
doctrine “Of Spiritual Priesthood” in a separate treatise.
In A.D. 1670 he began to have meetings in his own house for
encouraging Christian piety in the community, which soon
were imitated in other places. Spener’s influence on the
Lutheran church became greater and wider through his position
at Dresden. Stirred up by his spirit, three young graduates of
Leipzig. A. H. Francke, Paul Anton, and J. K. Schade, formed
in A.D. 1686 a private _Collegia Philobiblica_ for practical
exposition of Scripture and the delivery of public exegetical
lectures at the university in the German language. But the
Leipzig theological faculty, with J. B. Carpzov II. at its
head, charged them with despising the public ordinances as
well as theological science, and with favouring the views
of separatists. The _Collegia Philobiblica_ was suppressed,
and the three friends obliged to leave Leipzig in A.D. 1690.
This marked the beginning of the Pietist controversies.
Soon afterwards Spener was expelled from Dresden; but in
his new position at Berlin he secured great influence in the
appointments to the theological faculty of the new university
founded at Halle by the peace-loving elector Frederick III.
of Brandenburg, in opposition to the contentious universities
of Wittenberg and Leipzig. Francke, Anton, and Breithaupt
were made professors of theology. Halle now won the position
which Wittenberg and Geneva had held during the Reformation
period, and the Pietist controversy thus entered upon
a second, more general, and more critical epoch of its
history.[468]--Continuation, § 166, 1.

§ 159.4. =Theological Literature= (§ 142, 6).--The “_Philologia
Sacra_” of =Sol. Glassius= of Jena, published in A.D. 1623,
has ranked as a classical work for almost two centuries. From
A.D. 1620 till the end of the century, a lively controversy was
carried on about the Greek style of the New Testament, in which
Lutherans, and especially the Reformed, took part. The purists
maintained that the New Testament idiom was pure and classical,
thinking that its inspiration would otherwise be endangered.
The first historico-critical introduction to the Scriptures was
the “_Officina Biblica_” of Walther in A.D. 1636. =Pfeiffer= of
Leipzig gained distinction in biblical criticism and hermeneutics
by his “_Critica Sacra_” of A.D. 1680 and “_Hermeneutica_”
of A.D. 1684. Exegesis now made progress, notwithstanding its
dependence on traditional interpretations of doctrinal proof
passages and its mechanical theory of inspiration. The most
distinguished exegetes were =Erasmus Schmidt= of Wittenberg,
who died in A.D. 1637: he wrote a Latin translation of New
Testament with admirable notes, and a very useful concordance
of the Greek New Testament, under the title Ταμεῖον, which
has been revised and improved by Bruder; =Seb. Schmidt= of
Strassburg, who wrote commentaries on several Old Testament
books and on the Pauline epistles; and =Abr. Calov= of
Wittenberg, who died in A.D. 1686, in his 74th year, whose
“_Biblia Illustrata_,” in four vols., is a work of amazing
research and learning, but composed wholly in the interests
of dogmatics.--Little was done in the department of church
history. Calixt awakened a new enthusiasm for historical
studies, and =Gottfried Arnold= (§ 159, 2), pietist, chiliast,
and theosophist, bitterly opposed to every form of orthodoxy,
and finding true Christianity only in sects, separatists,
and heretics, set the whole theological world astir by his
“_Unparteiische Kirchen- und Ketzer-historie_,” in A.D. 1699
(§ 5, 3).

§ 159.5. The orthodox school applied itself most diligently to
dogmatics in a strictly scholastic form. =Hutter= of Wittenberg,
who died in A.D. 1616, wrote “_Loci communes theologici_” and
“_Compendium Loc. Theol._” =John Gerhard= of Jena, who died
in A.D. 1637, published in A.D. 1610 his “_Loc. Theologici_”
in nine folio vols., the standard of Lutheran orthodoxy. =J.
Andr. Quenstedt= of Wittenberg, who died A.D. 1688, exhibited
the best and worst of Lutheran scholasticism in his “_Theol.
didactico-polemica_.” The most important dogmatist of the
Calixtine school was Conrad Horneius. Calixt himself is known
as a dogmatist only by his lectures; but to him we owe the
generally adopted distinction between morals and dogmatics
as set forth in his “_Epitome theol. Moralis_.”--Polemics
were carried on vigorously. =Hoë von Hoënegg= of Dresden
(§ 154, 3, 4) and =Hutter= of Wittenberg were bitter opponents
of Calvinism and Romanism. Hutter was styled by his friends
_Malleus Calvinistorum_ and _Redonatus Lutherus_. The ablest
and most dignified polemic against Romanism was that of =John
Gerhard= in his “_Confessio Catholica_.” =Nich. Hunnius=, son
of Ægid. Hunnius, and Hutter’s successor at Wittenberg, from
A.D. 1623 superintendent at Lübeck, distinguished himself as an
able controversialist against the papacy by his “_Demonstratio
Ministerii Lutherani Divini atque Legitimi_.” Against the
Socinians he wrote his “_Examen Errorum Photinianorum_,”
and against the fanatics a “Chr. Examination of the new
Paracelsist and Weigelian Theology.” His principal work is
his “_Διάσκεψις de Fundamentali Dissensu Doctrinæ Luth. et
Calvin_.” His “_Epitome Credendorum_” went through nineteen
editions. The most incessant controversialist was =Abr. Calov=,
who wrote against Syncretists, Papists, Socinians, Arminians,
etc.--Continuation, § 167, 4.

§ 160. THE RELIGIOUS LIFE.

The attachment of the Lutheran church of this age to pure doctrine led to a one-sided over-estimation of it, often ending in dead orthodoxy. But a succession of able and learned theologians, who recognised the importance of heart theology as well as sound doctrine, corrected this evil tendency by Scripture study, preaching, and faithful pastoral work. A noble and moderate mysticism, which was thoroughly orthodox in its beliefs, and opposing orthodoxy only where that had become external and mechanical, had many influential representatives throughout the whole country, especially during the first half of it. But also separatists, mystics, and theosophists made their appearance, who were decidedly hostile to the church. Sacred song flourished afresh amid the troubles of the Thirty Years’ War; but gradually lost its sublime objective church character, which was poorly compensated by a more flowing versification, polished language, and elegant form. A corresponding advance was also made in church music.

§ 160.1. =Mysticism and Asceticism.=--At the head of the orthodox
mystics stands =John Arndt=. His “True Christianity” and his
“_Paradiesgärtlein_” are the most widely read Lutheran devotional
books, but called forth the bitter hostility of those devoted
to the maintenance of a barren orthodoxy. He died in A.D. 1621,
as general superintendent at Celle. He had been expelled
from Anhalt because he would not condemn exorcism as godless
superstition, and was afterwards in Brunswick publicly charged
by his colleague Denecke and other Lutheran zealots with
Papacy, Calvinism, Osiandrianism, Flacianism, Schwenckfeldism,
Paracelsism, Alchemism, etc. As men of a similar spirit,
anticipators of the school of Spener, may be named =John Gerhard=
of Jena, with his “_Meditationes Sacræ_” and “_Schola pietatis_,”
and =Christian Scriver=, whose “Gotthold’s Emblems” is well known
to English readers. =Rahtmann= of Danzig maintained that the
word of God in Scripture has not in itself the power to enlighten
and convert men except through the gracious influence of God’s
Spirit. He was supported, after a long delay, in A.D. 1626 by
the University of Rostock, but opposed by Königsberg, Jena,
and Wittenberg. In A.D. 1628, the Elector of Saxony obtained
the opinion of the most famous theologians of his realm against
Rahtmann; but his death, which soon followed, brought the
controversy to a close.--The Württemberg theologian, =John
Valentine Andreä=, grandson of one of the authors of the
Formula of Concord, was a man of striking originality, famous
for his satires on the corruptions of the age. His “Order of
Rosicrucians,” published at Cassel in A.D. 1614, ridiculed the
absurdities of astrology and alchemy in the form of a satirical
romance. His influence on the church of his times was great and
wholesome, so that even Spener exclaimed: “Had I the power to
call any one from the dead for the good of the church, it would
be J. V. Andreä.” His later devotional work was almost completely
forgotten until attention was called to it by Herder.[469]