Chapter I: Part 1

COLOR KEY TO

NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS

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| By FRANK M. CHAPMAN |
| Curator of Ornithology in the American Museum |
| of Natural History |
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| HANDBOOK OF BIRDS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA |
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| preserve birds, their nests and eggs. 20 full-page plates |
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| BIRD-LIFE |
| A guide to the study of our common birds. With 75 full-page |
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| BIRD STUDIES WITH A CAMERA |
| A fascinating account of the habits of common birds, with |
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| WARBLERS OF NORTH AMERICA |
| A full description of our "most beautiful, most abundant, |
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| CAMPS AND CRUISES OF AN ORNITHOLOGIST |
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| COLOR KEY TO NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS |
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| OUR WINTER BIRDS |
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COLOR KEY TO
NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS

With Bibliographical Appendix

BY

FRANK M. CHAPMAN

CURATOR OF ORNITHOLOGY
IN THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

Author of "Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America,"
"Bird-Life," Etc.

_With Upward of 800 Drawings_

BY

CHESTER A REED, B. S.

_Revised Edition_

NEW YORK
D. APPLETON & COMPANY
1912

COPYRIGHT,
DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & CO.
1903

COPYRIGHT,
D. APPLETON & CO.
1912

_Published November 1912_

Printed in the United States

PREFACE.

To learn to call a bird by its right name is the first step in the study of ornithology. We may propose to investigate the structure, food, and habits of the birds of the world, or desire merely a superficial knowledge of the species found in our garden, but in either case we are at once confronted by this question of identification.

From the scientific point of view there is but one satisfactory way to identify a bird. A specimen of it should be in hand in order that its form, color, and size may be accurately determined, when, with the aid of analytical keys, with which most text-books are provided, it is a simple matter to ascertain the bird's name.

Wide experience has shown the writer, however, that where one dead bird is identified, hundreds of attempts are made to name the living bird in nature. This is to be expected. It is the natural outcome of the recent remarkable interest in the study of birds which, fostered by Audubon Societies and nature study teachers, has assumed an ethical and educational importance of the first magnitude.

We cannot place a gun in the hands of these thousands of bird-lovers whom we are yearly developing; indeed most of them would refuse to use it. Specimens, therefore, are rarely available to them and we should make some special effort to meet their peculiar wants. The present volume has been prepared with this end in view. Identification of the bird in the bush is its sole end; an end, however, which we trust will prove but the beginning of a new and potent interest in nature.

FRANK M. CHAPMAN

_American Museum of Natural History,
New York City, 1903._

PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION.

In the present edition of the Color Key the body of the book, aside from the correction of typographical errors, remains as it was in the preceding edition. The Systematic Table has been reset and brought up to July, 1912, the date of the publication of the latest supplement to the third edition of the American Ornithologists' Union's 'Check-List of North American Birds.' Two Appendixes are added. The first includes all the changes in nomenclature and descriptions of new birds which have been accepted by the A.O.U. Committee on Classification and Nomenclature since the publication of the Color Key in 1903; the second contains a list of faunal ornithological papers which it is hoped will add greatly to the reference value of the book.

F. M. C.

_American Museum of Natural History,
New York City, October, 1912._

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION 1
How to Learn a Bird's Name 1
How Birds Are Named 4

SYNOPSIS OF ORDERS AND FAMILIES OF NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS 9

COLOR KEY TO NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS 41

SYSTEMATIC TABLE OF NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS 257

APPENDIX I. ADDITIONS, SUBTRACTIONS, EMENDATIONS 298

APPENDIX II. BIBLIOGRAPHY 305

INDEX 333

ILLUSTRATIONS

The illustrations in this volume are designed to aid the student in identifying birds in their haunts by giving, in color, those markings which most quickly catch the eye. They do not pretend to be perfect reproductions of every shade and tint of the plumage of the species they figure, but aim to present a bird's characteristic colors as they appear when seen at a distance. It was impracticable to draw all the birds to the same scale but all those on the same page are so figured. Reference should always be made, however, to the measurements given at the beginning at each description. The figures are based on the male bird.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.

[Male]. The sign of Mars, signifying male.

[Female]. The sign of Venus, signifying female.

Ad. Adult, a bird in fully mature plumage.

Yng. Young, a fully grown bird which has not yet acquired the
plumage of the adult.

L. Length, the distance from the tip of the bill to the end of the
tail. This measurement is made from dead birds, birds in life
appear somewhat shorter.

W. Wing, the distance from the 'bend' of the wing to the end of the
longest feather.

T. Tail, the distance from the insertion of the tail-feathers to the
end of the longest one.

Tar. Tarsus, the distance from the heel to the insertion of the toes,
or of the so-called 'leg.'

B. Bill, the distance from the feathers at the base of the bill
above to its tip.

NOTE. All measurements are in inches and tenths, and a
variation of about ten per cent. from the figures given may be
expected. The number before the name of each species is that of
the American Ornithologists' Union's 'Check-List of North
American Birds.'

INTRODUCTION

HOW TO LEARN A BIRD'S NAME

"How can I learn to know the birds?" is the first question of the seeker after bird-lore. The scientist's reply, "By shooting them and studying their structure and markings in detail," may do for the few who, like himself, desire to know the birds scientifically; but it is emphatically not the answer to give the ninety and nine who, while they desire to secure an intimate, accurate knowledge of birds, will not gain it at the sacrifice of bird-life.

In the present volume, therefore, an attempt has been made so to group, figure, and describe our birds that any species may be named which has been _definitely seen_. The birds are kept in their systematic Orders, a natural arrangement, readily comprehended, but, further than this, accepted classifications have been abandoned and the birds have been grouped according to color and markings.

A key to the Orders gives the more prominent characters on which they are based; telling for example, the external differences between a Duck and a Grebe. In comparatively few instances, however, will the beginner have much difficulty in deciding to what Order a bird belongs. Probably eight times, out of ten the unknown bird will belong to the Order Passeres, or Perching Birds, when one has only to select the color section in which it should be placed, choose from among the colored figures the bird whose identity is sought, and verify one's selection by reading the description of the bird's characteristics and the outline of its range.

In the case of closely related species, and particularly subspecies, the subjects of range and season are of the utmost importance. Most subspecies resemble their nearest allies too closely to be identified in life by color alone, and in such cases a bird's name is to be learned by its color in connection with its distribution and the season in which it is seen.

During the breeding period, unless one chance to be in a region where two races intergrade, subspecific names may be applied to the bird in nature with some certainty, for it is a law that only one subspecies of a species can nest in the same area; but during migrations and in the winter, when several subspecies of one species may be found associated, it is frequently impossible to name them with accuracy.

For example, during the summer one need have no hesitancy in calling the Robins of the lowlands of South Carolina the Southern Robin (_Planesticus migratorius achrusterus_) but later, when the Northern Robins (_Planesticus migratorius migratorius_) begin to appear, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish them in life from the resident birds.

If it were possible to impress the student, who proposes to name the bird in the bush, with the _absolute necessity_ for careful, definite observation he would be saved many disappointing and discouraging experiences.

It is not possible to examine your bird too thoroughly. Never be satisfied with a superficial view and a general impression. Look at your bird, if you can, from several points of view; study its appearance in detail, its size, bill, crown, back, tail, wings, throat, breast, etc., and AT ONCE enter what you see in a note-book kept for that purpose. In this way, and this way alone, can you expect to compete with those who use the gun.

It does not follow, however, that because one does not collect specimens of birds one cannot study them scientifically. While the student may not be interested in the classification of birds purely from the standpoint of the systematist, he is strongly urged to acquaint himself with at least the arrangement of the Orders and Families of our birds and their leading structural characters.

To the student who desires to prepare himself for his work afield such a study may well come before he attempts to name the birds. But where the chief end in view is to learn a bird's name, the more technical side of the subject may be deferred. In any event, it should not be neglected. This orderly arrangement of knowledge will not only be practical benefit in one's future labors but it will bring with it that sense of satisfaction which accompanies the assurance that we know what we know.

As one learns to recognize bird after bird it is an admirable plan to classify systematically one's list of bird acquaintances under their proper Orders and Families. These may be learned at once from the systematic table at the end of the book, where the numbers which precede each species are arranged serially, and hence systematically.

In some instances, as an aid to identification in the field, descriptions of birds' notes have been included. It is not supposed that these descriptions will convey an adequate idea of a bird's song to a person who has never heard it, but it is hoped that they may occasionally lead to the recognition of calls or songs when they are heard.

An adequate method of transcribing bird's notes has as yet to be devised and the author realizes only too well how unsatisfactory the data here presented will appear to the student. It is hoped, however, that they may sometimes prove of assistance in naming birds in life.

As has been said before, the aim of this volume is to help students to learn the names of our birds in their haunts. But we should be doing scant justice to the possibilities of bird study if, even by silence, we should imply that they ended with the learning to know the bird. This is only the beginning of the quest which may bring us into close intimacy with the secrets of nature. The birds' haunts and food, their seasons and times of coming and going; their songs and habits during courtship, their nest-building, egg-laying, incubating and care of their young, these and a hundred other subjects connected with their lives may claim our attention and by increasing our knowledge of bird-life, add to our love of birds.

HOW BIRDS ARE NAMED

Birds have two kinds of names. One is a common, vernacular, or popular name; the other is a technical or scientific name. The first is usually given to the living bird by the people of the country it inhabits. The second is applied to specimens of birds by ornithologists who classify them.

Common names in their origin and use know no law. Technical names are bestowed under the system of nomenclature established by LinnA|us and their formation and application are governed by certain definite, generally accepted rules. The LinnA|an system, as it is now employed by most American ornithologists, provides that a bird, in addition to being grouped in a certain Class, Order, Family, etc., shall have a generic and specific name which, together, shall not be applied to any other animal.

Our Robin, therefore, is classified and named as follows:

CLASS AVES,

ORDER PASSERES, Perching Birds.

Suborder _Oscines_, Singing Perching Birds.

Family _TurdidA|_ Thrushes.

Subfamily _TurdinA|_ Thrushes.

Genus, _Planesticus_, Thrushes.

Species, _migratorius_ American Robin.

The Robin's distinctive scientific name, therefore, which it alone possesses, is _Planesticus migratorius_. There are numerous other members of the genus _Planesticus_, but not one of them is called _migratorius_ and this combination of names, therefore, applied to only one bird.

The questions Why use all these Latin terms? Why not call the bird "Robin" and be done with it? are easily answered. Widely distributed birds frequently have different names in different parts of their range. The Flicker (_Colaptes auratus_), for instance, has over one hundred common or vernacular names. Again, the same name is often applied to wholly different birds. Our Robin (_Planesticus migratorius_) is not even a member of the same family as the European Robin (_Erithacus rubecola_.) If, therefore, we should write of birds or attempt to classify them only by their common names, we should be dealing with such unfixed quantities that the result would be inaccurate and misleading. But by using one name in a language known to educated people of all countries, a writer may indicate, without danger of being misunderstood, the particular animal to which he refers. Among people speaking the same tongue, where a definite list of vernacular names of animals has been established, they can of course be used instead of the scientific names.

Such a list of North American birds has been prepared by the American Ornithologists' Union. It furnishes a common as well as scientific name for each of our birds, and is the recognized standard of nomenclature among American ornithologists. The names and numbers of birds employed in this Color Key are those of the American Ornithologists' Union's 'Check-List of North American Birds.'

It will be observed that in this 'Check-List,' and consequently in the following pages, many birds have three scientific names, a generic, specific, and subspecific. The Western Robin, for example, appears as _Planesticus migratorius propinquus_. What is the significance of this third name?

In the days of LinnA|us, and for many years after, it was supposed that a species was a distinct creation whose characters never varied. But in comparatively recent years, as specimens have been gathered from throughout the country inhabited by a species, comparison frequently shows that specimens from one part of its range differ from those taken in another part of its range. At intervening localities, however, intermediate specimens will be found connecting the extremes.

Generally, these geographical variations, as they are called, are the result of climatic conditions. For instance, in regions of heavy rainfall a bird's colors are usually much darker than they are where the rainfall is light. Song Sparrows, for example, are palest in the desert region of Arizona, where the annual rainfall may not reach eight inches, and darkest on the coast of British Columbia and Alaska, where the annual rainfall may be over one hundred inches. In going from one region, however, to the other the gradual changes in climate are accompanied by gradual changes in the colors of the Song Sparrows, and the wide differences between Arizona and Alaska Song Sparrows are therefore bridged by a series of intermediates.

Variations of this kind are spoken of as geographic, racial, or subspecific and the birds exhibiting them are termed subspecies. In naming them a third name, or trinomial is employed, and the possession of such a name indicates at once that a bird is a geographic or racial representative of a species, with one or more representatives of which it intergrades.

Returning now to the Robin. Our eastern Robins always have the outer pair of tail-feathers tipped with white and, in adults, the back is blotched with black; while Robins from the Rocky Mountains and westward have little or no white on the outer tail-feathers, and the back is dark gray, without black blotches. These extremes are connected by intermediate specimens sharing the characters; of both eastern and western birds. We do not, therefore, treat the latter as a species, but as a subspecies, and consequently, apply to it a subspecific name or trinomial, _Planesticus migratorius propinquus_, (_propinquus_, meaning nearly related.)

A further study of our eastern Robin shows that in the southern parts of its breeding range (the Carolinas and Georgia), it varies from the northern type in being smaller in size and much paler and duller in color; and to this second geographical variety is applied the name _Planesticus migratorius achrusterus_, (_achrusterus_, meaning less highly colored).

After the recognition of western and southern races of the Robin under three names (trinomial) it would obviously be inconsistent to apply only two names (binomial) to our eastern bird, the former being no more subspecies of the latter than the latter is of the former. In other words, to continue to apply only generic and specific names to the Eastern Robin would imply that it was a full species, while the use of a trinomial for the Western or the Southern Robin shows them to be subspecies. As a matter of fact we know that there is but one species of true Robin in the United States, consequently in accordance with the logical and now generally accepted method, we apply to that species the name _Planesticus migratorius_, and this is equally applicable to Robins from east, south or west. When, however, we learn that the Eastern Robin is not a species but a subspecies, we repeat the specific name by which it was made known and call it _Planesticus migratorius migratorius_.

It may be asked, Why give names to these geographical races? Why not call Eastern, Western and Southern Robins by one name, _Planesticus migratorius_, without regard to their climatic variations?

In reply, two excellent reasons may be given for the recognition of subspecies by name; first, because in some cases they differ from one another far more than do many species, when it would clearly be inadvisable to apply the same name to what are obviously different creatures. For example, it has lately been discovered by Mr. E. W. Nelson that the small, black-throated, brown-breasted, Quails or Bob-whites of southern Mexico, through a long series of intermediates inhabiting the intervening region, intergrade with the large, white-throated, black-and-white breasted, Bob-white of our northern states. It would be absurd to call such wholly unlike birds by the same name, nor could we give a full specific name to the Mexican Bob-white since at no place can we draw a line definitely separating it from the northern Bob-white. Furthermore, the use of only two names would conceal the remarkable fact of the intergradation of two such strikingly different birds; a fact of the first importance to students of the evolution of species.

For much the same reason we should name those birds which show less pronounced variations, such as are exhibited by the Robin. Here we have a species in the making, and in tracing the relation between cause and effect, we learn something of the influences which create species. Thus, climate has been definitely proven so to alter a species, both in size and color that, as we have seen in the case of the Song Sparrows, marked climate changes are accompanied by correspondingly marked changes in the appearance of certain animals. In naming these animals we are, in effect, giving a 'handle to the fact' of their evolution by environment.

Since it is evident that a bird may vary much or little, according to the governing conditions and its tendency to respond to them, no fixed rule can be laid down which shall decide just what degree of difference are deserving a name. It follows, therefore, that in some cases ornithologists do not agree upon a bird's claim to subspecific rank.

In North America, however, questions of this kind are referred to a committee of seven experts of the American Ornithologists' Union, and their decision establishes a nomenclature, which is accepted as the standard by other American ornithologists and which has been adopted in this volume.

Foreign birds of wholly accidental occurrence, most of which have been found in North America but once or twice, are included in the systematic list of North American birds, but are not described or figured in the body of the book, where their presence would tend to convey an erroneous impression of their North American status. Furthermore, records of the presence of birds so rare as these can be properly based on only the capture of specimens.

In the preparation of the following pages both author and artist have had full access to the collections of the American Museum of Natural History, and they are also glad to acknowledge their indebtedness to William Brewster of Cambridge, Massachusetts, to Robert Ridgway, Curator of Birds in the United States National Museum, and to C. Hart Merriam, Chief of the Biologic Survey, for the loan of specimens for description and illustration.

SYNOPSIS OF ORDERS AND FAMILIES OF NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS.

The figures are all life-size, except as stated.

=WATER BIRDS.=

Order I. Grebes, Loons, and Auks. PYGOPODES.

(3 families, 32 species, 3 subspecies.)

Duck-like birds with the bill usually pointed, never wider than high, and without flutings, 'gutters,' or serrations on its side; wings short, never with a bright colored patch or 'speculum'; tail rudimentary, not noticeable; toes webbed or lobed. Color usually blackish above, white below; the throat often dark. The Grebes and Loons, when pursued, dive rather than fly; the Auks usually take wing.

Family 1. GREBES. PODICIPIDA†.

Toes four with lobate webs; tipped with a broad nail; tail wanting.

Family 2. LOONS. GAVIIDA†.

Toes four, webbed; toe-nails not broad and flat; tail present.

Family 3. AUKS, MURRES, AND PUFFINS. ALCIDA†.

Toes three, webbed; toe-nails sharp; tail present.

Order II. Gulls, Terns, Jaegers, Etc. LONGIPENNES.

(3 families, 42 species, 1 subspecies.)

Birds generally seen on the wing, as a rule, over water. Bill strong, thick; hooked in the Gulls and Jaegers; sharply pointed in the Terns; often colored in part yellow or red; wings very long, the outer feathers much the longest; tail usually short and square in the Gulls, long and forked in the Terns; toes webbed. Color usually pearly gray above, white below in adult Gull and Terns; Jaegers and many young Gulls are dark.

Family 4. SKUAS AND JAEGERS. StercorariidA|.

Toes four; three front ones webbed; bill with swollen, hooked tip, its base with a scaly shield.

Family 5. GULLS AND TERNS. LaridA|.

Toes usually four, three front ones webbed; upper mandible curved and hooked; tail usually square (Gulls, subfamily _LarinA|_). Bill straight and pointed; tail often forked (Terns, subfamily _SterninA|_).

Family 6. SKIMMERS. RynchopidA|.

Toes four, three front ones webbed; bill thin and blade like, the maxilla longer than the mandible; tail slightly forked.

Order III. Albatrosses, Shearwaters, Petrels, Etc. TUBINARES.

(2 families, 30 species, 1 subspecies.)

Sea-birds keeping, as a rule, well off shore, and flying low, near the water, often skimming over the waves. Bill, with upper mandible hooked; nostrils opening through tubes; wings long and pointed; tail short; feet webbed; hind-toe rudimentary or absent. Color usually gray or black and white; no bright markings.

Family 7. ALBATROSSES. DIOMEDEIDA†.

Nostrils opening through tubes, separated and on either side of the bill.

Family 8. FULMARS, PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS. ProcellariidA|.

Nostrils joined and situated on top of the bill.

Order IV. Cormorants, Pelicans, Gannets, Man-o'war Birds,
and Tropic-Birds. STEGANOPODES.

(6 families, 19 species, 5 subspecies.)

Large birds, two feet or more in length, varying widely in appearance and habits; in external structure agreeing only in having all four toes joined by webs.

Family 9. TROPIC BIRDS. PhaA"thontidA|.

Bill pointed, somewhat tern-like; central tail feathers much elongated; chin feathered.

Family 10. GANNETS. SulidA|.

Bill stout, its tip not hooked; chin and eye space bare; tail pointed, its feathers not 'fluted.'

Family 11. ANHINGAS; SNAKE-BIRDS. AnhingidA|.

Bill straight and slender; chin and eye space bare; tail rounded; its middle feathers fluted.

Family 12. CORMORANTS. PhalacrocoracidA|.

Bill with a hooked tip; a small pouch at its base; plumage usually black or blackish.

Family 13. PELICANS. PelecanidA|.

Bill hooked at tip, with a large pouch; tail short, square; eye space bare.

Family 14. MAN-O' WAR BIRDS. FregatidA|.

Bill hooked; pouch small; tail long and forked; eye space feathered.

Order V. Ducks, Geese, and Swans. ANSERES.

(1 family, 49 species, 6 subspecies.)

Birds of familiar form; bill, except in Mergansers or Saw-billed Ducks, broad and with rows of 'strainers' or 'gutters' on either side; wings short, in the Ducks usually with a bright colored patch or speculum; tail generally short; legs short; feet webbed. Most species, unlike the Grebes, take wing rather than dive when pursued.

Family 15. DUCKS, GEESE, AND SWANS. AnatidA|.

Bill long, narrow, and rounded with tooth-like projections along its sides. (Mergansers. Subfamily _MerginA|_.)

Bill broad, flattened, typically duck-like; tarsus or leg with transverse scales; hind toe without a lobe. (River Ducks. Subfamily _AnatinA|_.)

Bill and tarsus as in preceding, but hind toe with a broad lobe or flap. (Sea and Bay Ducks. Subfamily _FuligulinA|_.)

Bill proportionately narrower than in the River or Bay Ducks; gutters on its sides less developed; scales on front of tarsus rounded. (Geese. Subfamily _AnserinA|_.)

Large, usually white birds, with bare eye space. (Swans. Subfamily _CygninA|_.)

Order VI. Flamingoes. ODONTOGLOSSA†.

(1 family, 1 species.)

Bright red or pink and white birds, standing four feet or more in height; side of the bill with gutters, its end bent downward; wings rather short; legs long; feet webbed.

Family 16. FLAMINGOES. PhA"nicopteridA|.

Characters of the Family similar to those of the Order.

Order VII. Herons, Bitterns, Ibises, and Spoonbills. HERODIONES.

(4 families, 19 species, 3 subspecies.)

Long-legged wading birds, generally found along shores or on muddy flats; bill variable; in the Herons straight and sharply pointed; in the Ibises, slender, rounded, and curved downward; in the Spoonbill, flattened: wings rounded; tail short; legs long; toes all on same level, long, slender, without webs. Herons and Bitterns fly with a fold in the neck, the head being drawn in; Ibises and Spoonbills fly with the neck straight, the head being extended.

Family 17. SPOONBILLS. PlataleidA|.

Bill flattened and much broadened at the end; crown and face bare in adults; toes partly webbed.

Family 18. IBISES. IbididA|.

Bill long and curved down; its side with grooves; toes partly webbed.

Family 19. STORKS AND WOOD IBISES. CICONIIDA†.

Bill stout, without grooves; tarsus reticulate.

Family 20. HERONS, EGRETS, AND BITTERNS. ArdeidA|.

Bill usually straight and sharply pointed; lores naked; head feathered; tarsus with transverse scales; middle toe-nail pectinate or with a comblike edge.

Order VIII. Cranes, Rails, Coots, Gallinules, Etc. PALUDICOLA†.

(3 families, 16 species, 3 subspecies.)

Birds varying greatly in size and appearance, but all agreeing (and differing from _Herodiones_) in having the hind-toe elevated, that is, leaving the foot at a higher level than the front toes; tail short; legs usually long. All fly with the neck extended, a fact by which Cranes in flight may be known from Herons. Rails are short-winged skulkers in grassy marshes; Gallinules frequent reedy shores; Coots, which alone of the Order have webbed (lobate) toes, are as aquatic as Ducks, from which they may be known by their pointed, white bill, nodding motion of the head when swimming, and habit of pattering over the water when alarmed.

Family 21. CRANES. GruidA|.

Large birds over three feet in length; head partly bare in adults.

Family 22. COURLANS. AramidA|.

Bill long and slender; head wholly feathered; toes not webbed.

Family 23. RAILS, COOTS, AND GALLINULES. RallidA|.

Bill variable; toes always long, webbed (lobed) in only one species; wings short and rounded; tail short.

Order IX. Snipes, Sandpipers, Curlews, Plovers, Etc. LIMICOLA†.

(7 families, 55 species, 4 subspecies.)

Generally long-legged, slender-billed birds of shores and mud flats, and sometimes fields. Most of them are under a foot in length; none are so large as the Ibises; wings long and pointed; tail short; toes long and slender, usually without webs; color generally brown or blackish above, mottled and streaked with whitish and buff. Many species utter characteristic piping whistles as they fly or when they take wing.

Family 24. PHALAROPES. PhalaropodidA|.

Front toes with lobes or webs; tarsus flattened; plumage thick; swimming Snipe.

Family 25. AVOCETS AND STILTS. RecurvirostridA|.

Long legged, wading Snipe; in Avocets toes four, front three webbed; bill recurved; in Stilts toes three, almost unwebbed; bill straight.

Family 26. SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, CURLEWS, ETC. ScolopacidA|.

Toes usually four; tarsus with transverse scales; bill generally long, slender, and soft, used as a probe.

Family 27. PLOVERS. CharadriidA|.

Toes usually three, or when four, the fourth rudimentary; tarsus with rounded scales, bill, as compared with that of Snipe, short and stout.

Family 28. SURF BIRDS AND TURNSTONES. AphrizidA|.

Toes four, tarsus with transverse scales; bill short, rather hard.

Family 29. OYSTER-CATCHERS. HA|matopodidA|.

Toes three, webbed at base; tarsus stout, with rounded scales; bill heavy, compressed, and said to be used for opening shells.

Family 30. JACANAS. JacanidA|.

Toes four, with their nails greatly elongated to support the bird while walking on aquatic vegetation; wing, with a sharp spur; bill with fleshy lobes at base and, in some species, on its sides.

LAND BIRDS.

Order X. Grouse, Partridges, Bob-Whites, Etc. GALLINA†.

(3 families, 24 species, 25 subspecies.)

Ground-inhabiting birds of chicken-like form; bill stout, hen-like; wings short and rounded; tail variable; feet strong; hind-toe elevated. Color usually mixed brown, black, and buff, or bluish gray.

Family 31. GROUSE, PARTRIDGES, ETC. TetraonidA|.

Characters the same as those of the Order; tarsus naked in Partridges and Quails; more or less feathered in Grouse and Ptarmigan.

Family 32. TURKEYS, PHEASANTS, AND CHICKENS. PhasianidA|.

Tarsus naked, often spurred, tail remarkably variable (for example, Turkey, Peacock); head often with a comb, wattles, or other excrescences.

Family 33. CURASSOWS AND GUANS. CracidA|.

Large tree-haunting, pheasant-like birds; toes four, all on same level.

Order XI. Pigeons and Doves. COLUMBA†.

(1 family, 13 species, 3 subspecies.)

Walking birds, feeding both on the ground and in trees; bill slender, grooved, nostrils opening in a fleshy membrane; tail variable, short and square, or long and pointed; feet stout, often reddish. Color usually grayish brown. Call-notes a characteristic cooing.

Family 34. PIGEONS AND DOVES. ColumbidA|.

Characters those of the Order.

Order XII. Vultures, Hawks, and Owls. RAPTORES.

(4 families, 56 species, 33 subspecies.)

Generally large birds with hooked bill; strong, heavy feet, and long, curved nails; wings large; tail rather long, usually square.

Family 35. AMERICAN VULTURES. CathartidA|.

Bill not strongly hooked; toe-nails comparatively weak; nostrils large, piercing the bill; head and more or less of neck, bare.

Family 36. FALCONS, HAWKS, EAGLES, ETC. FalconidA|.

Nostrils opening in a cere at the base of the bill; hook of bill and claws well developed; plumage firm and close; tarsus usually largely bare.

Family 37. BARN OWLS. StrigidA|.

Eyes black, set in a somewhat triangular facial disc; bill more or less concealed by feathers; nostril opening at the edge of a fleshy cere; inner edge of middle toe-nail serrate; no 'ears'; tarsus feathered.

Family 38. HORNED OWLS, ETC. BubonidA|.

Eyes yellow or black, set in a circular facial disc; bill more or less concealed by feathers; nostrils opening at the edge of a fleshy cere; tarsus feathered.

Order XIII. Paroquets and Parrots. PSITTACI.

(1 family, 2 species.)

Usually bright green birds with, a heavy hooked bill, broad scoop-shaped lower mandible; long, pointed wings; tail, in Parrots, generally square; in Paroquets, pointed; feet heavy, two toes in front and two behind.

Family 39. PARROTS AND PAROQUETS. PsittacidA|.

Characters the same as those of Order.

Order XIV. Cuckoos, Trogons, Kingfishers, Etc. COCCYGES.

(3 families, 8 species, 2 subspecies.)

A composite Order of several groups of birds bearing no close relation to each other. Cuckoos have slightly curved bills, long tails, and two toes in front and two behind. Trogons have short, rather broad, stout bills, and soft, loose plumage, often green above, red below; moderately long tails; small feet with two toes in front, two behind. Kingfishers have long, rather stout, pointed bills; wings, long; tail, medium; three toes in front and one behind; middle and outer toes joined for half their length.

Family 40. CUCKOOS, ANIS. ETC. CuculidA|.

Toes two in front, two behind; bill, usually, more or less decurved; tail, long and rounded, the outer feathers being, generally, much shorter than the middle pair.

Family 41. TROGONS. TrogonidA|.

Toes two in front, two behind; bill, short; upper mandible decurved and dentate; tail square; plumage, soft, loose, and generally shining green above.

Family 42. KINGFISHERS. AlcedinidA|.

Legs short; feet small; toes, three in front, one behind; third and fourth toes joined; bill, stout and long.

Order XV. Woodpeckers. PICI.

(1 family, 24 species, 22 subspecies.)

Climbing birds with stout, pointed bills, bristly nostrils, pointed, stiffened tail feathers, strong feet and nails; two toes in front and two behind, except in _Picoides_, which has two in front and one behind. Prevailing colors, black and white, the males usually with red on the crown.

Family 43. WOODPECKERS. PicidA|.

Characters the same as those of the Order.

Order XVI. Goatsuckers, Swifts, and Hummingbirds. MACROCHIRES.

(3 families, 27 species, 6 subspecies.)

Bill, in the Goatsuckers and Swifts, small; mouth large; in the Hummingbirds, bill long, slender, needle-like; wings and tail variable; feet, in all three groups, small and weak. Color, in Goatsuckers, mixed brown, buff and black; in Swifts, black and white; in Hummingbirds, usually shining green above with resplendent throat-patches of varied hues.

Family 44. GOATSUCKERS, ETC. CaprimulgidA|.

Feet usually small and weak; toes, three in front, one behind; middle toe-nail pectinate or combed; bill small; mouth very large and usually beset by long bristles.

Family 45. SWIFTS. MicropodidA|.

Bill small, triangular when seen from above; mouth large, no bristles; tail variable, in _ChA|tura_ with projecting spines; wings long and narrow; feet small and toes short; plumage usually dark.

Family 46. HUMMINGBIRDS. TrochilidA|.

Bill long and slender; feet slender; wings large and pointed; tail exceedingly variable, often assuming the most striking shapes.

Order XVII. Flycatchers, Jays, Blackbirds, Finches, Swallows,
Warblers, Thrushes, and Other Perching Birds. PASSERES.

(18 families, about 325 species and 226 subspecies.)

Bill, wings, and tail variable; feet with four toes not connected, the hind-toe as long as the middle one; its nail generally longer than that of the middle toe. This Order contains more species than the remaining sixteen Orders put together. In it will be found over 80 per cent. of the birds commonly seen by field students. It is difficult of definition, but almost any small perching bird may, with more or less certainty, be referred to the _Passeres_.

Family 48. FLYCATCHERS. TyrannidA|.

Bill broad, flat, hooked at tip, its base with bristles; wings rather pointed, the second to fourth primaries longest; tarsus rounded behind as well as in front; feathers of crown generally somewhat lengthened, forming when erected, a small crest; pose, when perching, erect; food of insects usually captured on the wing; voice generally unmusical.

Family 49. LARKS. AlaudidA|.

Hind toe-nail much lengthened; bill rounded, straight; tarsus rounded behind as well as in front; our species with a tuft of feathers on either side of the head; outer primary short or rudimentary; walking birds, singing while on the wing.

Family 50. CROWS AND JAYS. CorvidA|.

Large perching birds, usually twelve inches or more in length; bill stout; nostrils covered by projecting bristles; feet heavy; outer tail-feathers usually shortest; fourth to fifth primary longest, first about half as long.

Family 52. BLACKBIRDS, ORIOLES, ETC. IcteridA|.

Base of bill, between nostrils, extending back and dividing feathers on forehead; nostrils not concealed by bristles; first three primaries of equal length.

Family 53. FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. FringillidA|.

Bill short, stout, conical; third or fourth primaries longest; first about half an inch shorter; the majority are small birds and but few are over eight inches in length.

Family 54. TANAGERS. TanagridA|.

Bill somewhat finch-like but more swollen in outline; the upper mandible, in typical forms, toothed or dentate.

Family 55. SWALLOWS. HirundinidA|.

Bill short, broad and flat; feet small and weak; wings long and narrow; tail notched and sometimes forked; birds of the air, feeding while on the wing.

Family 56. WAXWINGS. AmpelidA|.

Bill short, stout, and rounded, its tip notched; wings rather long; head crested.

Family 57. SHRIKES. LaniidA|.

Bill stout, its mandible hooked and hawk-like; feet truly Passerine; pose, in perching, erect; solitary grayish birds.

Family 58. VIREOS. VireonidA|.

Bill small, but distinctly hooked; outer primary usually very small and sometimes apparently wanting; olive-green gleaners among the leaves.

Family 60. WARBLERS. MniotiltidA|.

Bill, in most of the species, slender, sharply pointed, and without a notch or hook at the tip; in the genera _Wilsonia_ and _Setophaga_, flat and flycatcher-like; in _Icteria_ stout; back of tarsus compressed into a thin ridge; three outer primaries of nearly equal length.

Family 61. WAGTAILS. MotacillidA|.

Hind toe-nail much lengthened; bill slender, nostril not covered with bristles, as in true Larks; back of tarsus thin, not rounded; terrestrial, walking with a wagging motion of the tail.

Family 62. DIPPERS. CinclidA|.

Thick-set birds with short wings and tail; plumage thick and water-proof; tarsus scaled; semi-aquatic in habit, haunting mountain streams.

Family 63. WRENS, THRASHERS, ETC. TroglodytidA|.

Tarsus scaled; tail rounded, the outer feathers being shortest; third to fourth primary longest, the outer half as long; bill in Thrashers often decurved, its base with bristles; In Wrens, bill without bristles; brown or grayish inhabitants of lower growth.

Family 64. CREEPERS. CerthiidA|.

Bill slender and much decurved; tail usually pointed and stiffened.

Family 65. NUTHATCHES AND TITS. ParidA|.

Fourth or fifth primary longest; first an inch or less in length. Chickadees (subfamily _ParinA|_) have a short, stout bill, the nostrils covered with bristles; the tail is rather long and rounded. Nuthatches (subfamily _SittinA|_) have a long, slender bill, short, square tail, and large feet.

Family 66. KINGLETS, GNATCATCHERS, ETC. SylviidA|.

Bill slender and Warbler-like, but first primary only one-third as long as the fourth.

Family 67. THRUSHES, BLUEBIRDS, ETC. TurdidA|.

Tarsus 'booted', without scales, (see foot of Robin under Synopsis of Order _Passeres_); tail square; mandible notched and slightly hooked; outer primary an inch or less in length; second to fourth of about equal length.

COLOR KEY TO

NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS

Order I. DIVING BIRDS.

PYGOPODES.

Family 1. GREBES. PodicipidA|. 6 species.

Family 2. LOONS. GaviidA|. 5 species.

Family 3. AUKS, MURRES, and PUFFINS. AlcidA|. 21 species, 3
subspecies.

Grebes are at home in reed-grown ponds or sloughs where their nests are made on rafts or islets of water-soaked vegetation. Their eggs number from four to eight, are dull white in color, and are usually covered by the bird with a portion of the nesting material when it leaves its home. Grebes occasionally rest on the shore, but are rarely found far from the water. When on land they may lie flat on their breasts or sit erect on their tails and entire foot, or tarsus. Their progress on land, as a rule, is awkward and they may use their wings as fore feet to assist them. In diving, Grebes sometimes spring partly from the water and then plunge downward head first, or they may quietly sink with scarce a ripple to mark the place of their disappearance.

Loons generally pass the summer on some large lake, and in the winter many of them live at sea. They nest, as a rule, on the shore, but so near the water that the parent bird may slide off its two dark brown, mottled eggs into its favorite element. Like the Grebes, Loons are expert divers, and birds of both families so often seek safety under the water rather than in the air that it is frequently difficult to make them fly. The young of both Grebes and Loons are born covered with feathers and take to the water shortly after birth, often using the back of the parent bird as an ever present island on which they may rest at will.

The Auks, Murres, and Puffins are sea birds which nest usually in large colonies on isolated islets or rocky, inaccessible shores of the northern part of the northern hemisphere. They lay one or two eggs, sometimes in an exposed position among the rocks with no attempt at nest-building, sometimes at the end of a burrow excavated by the birds. In the latter case, the young are reared in the nest; in the former, they sometimes enter the water at an early age.

The one egg laid by Murres is remarkable both in color and in shape. In color it varies from bluish green to buff, and is usually heavily scrawled with black. In outline it is pyriform or pear-shaped. When moved it does not roll away as would a hen's egg but revolves about its own tip. In this manner it retains its place on the narrow ledges often chosen by Murres for nesting-sites.

Grebes and Loons

=2. HolbA"ll Grebe= (_Colymbus holbA"lli_). L. 19. _Ads._ Crown and hindneck glossy black; back blackish; throat, cheeks, and underparts white; foreneck and sides rufous. _Winter._ Above blackish brown; throat and underparts white; foreneck pale rufous. _Yng._ Similar but no rufous. _Notes._ "An explosive _kup_" and "An exceedingly loud harsh voice not unlike that of an angry Crow, but of much greater volume. The calls were also given more slowly and indeed with singular deliberation, _car_, _car_, three or four times, sometimes lengthened to _caar_, and again, broken and quavering like _ca-a-a-r_ or _ca-a-a-a-r_." (Brewster.)

Range.--North America, eastern Siberia, and Japan; breeds locally in the interior from about Lat. 50A deg. northward; winters from Maine and British Columbia southward to South Carolina, Nebraska and Southern California, chiefly on the coasts.

=3. Horned Grebe= (_Colymbus auritus_). L. 13.5. _Ads., summer._ Crown, hindneck, and throat glossy black; plumes behind eye deep buff; back and wings blackish; foreneck, breast, sides, and lores chestnut; abdomen white. _Winter._ Above grayish black; below white.

Range.--Northern Hemisphere; breeds largely in the interior from eastern Quebec, northern Illinois, St. Clair Flats, North Dakota, and British Columbia northward; winters from Maine and British Columbia south to Gulf States and southern California.

=4. American Eared Grebe= (_Colymbus nigricollis californicus_). L. 13. _Ads._ Above, neck all around, and _upper breast_ brownish black; cheek tufts yellowish brown; flanks chestnut; belly white. _Winter._ Grayish brown above; white below.

Range.--Western North America east to Kansas; breeds locally from Texas and middle California north to Manitoba and British Columbia; winters from British Columbia, on the Pacific coast, and Texas southward.

=5. Least Grebe= (_Colymbus dominicus brachypterus_). L. 10. _Ads._ Throat black; _cheeks slaty_, above blackish; below grayish. _Winter._ Similar but no black or slate on throat or cheeks. Smallest of our Grebes.

Range.--Lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas and southern Lower California south to northern South America.

=6. Pied-billed Grebe= (_Podilymbus podiceps_). L. 13.5. _Ads., summer._ Above brownish black; throat and band on bill black; foreneck, breast, and sides brownish; belly white. _Winter._ The same, but throat white, breast more rusty, bill without black band. _Notes._ A loud, sonorous, "_cow-cow-cow-cow-cow-cow-cow-cow-cow-uh_, _cow-uh_, _cow-uh_, _cow-uh_."

Range.--Argentine Republic; north through Mexico and West Indies to Lat. of Hudson Bay; breeds locally throughout its range, but chiefly northward; winters from New Jersey, Illinois, and southern California southward.

=1. Western Grebe; Swan Grebe= (_A†chmophorus occidentalis_). L. 26. _Ads., summer._ Crown and hindneck black; back grayish brown; sides of head and under parts white. _Winter._ Crown and hindneck like back. _Notes._ A loud, rattling, grating whistle.

Range.--Western North America; In summer eastward to Shoal Lake, Manitoba; northward to southern Alaska; breeds locally from northern California and North Dakota northward; winters from British Columbia to central Mexico.

=7. Loon= (_Gavia imber_). L. 32. _Ads., summer._ Above, including whole neck, glossy black; throat and neck with white streaks; back and wings with white spots or bars; belly white. _Winter._ Above blackish _margined with grayish_; no white spots; below white. _Notes._ A loud, maniacal laugh.

Range.--Northern hemisphere; in North America, breeds from Maine, northern Illinois, Minnesota, and northern California north to Greenland and Alaska; winters from about southern limit of breeding range south to Gulf of Mexico, chiefly on coasts.

=8. Yellow-billed Loon= (_Gavia adamsii_). L. 36. Similar to No. 7, but larger and bill yellowish or whitish. _Notes._ Similar to those of No. 7, but harsher. (Murdoch.)

Range.--"Arctic America west of Hudson Bay, and northern Asia; casual in northern Europe." (A.O.U.)

=9. Black-throated Loon= (_Gavia arctica_). L. 27; W. 12. _Ads., summer._ Foreneck and back bluish black; throat, neck, and back streaked or barred with white; crown and nape _gray_; belly white. _Winter._ Similar to No. 7, but smaller. _Notes._ A dismal "_too-too-e-e._" (Turner.)

Range--Northern part of northern hemisphere; in America breeds from Hudson Bay north to Arctic coast; winters south to British Columbia, the Great Lakes and, casually, to Long Island.

=10. Pacific Loon= (_Gavia pacifica_). Similar to No. 9, but foreneck in summer reflecting deep blue or green; hindneck paler; smaller, W. 11. _Notes._ A harsh "_kok, kok, kok._" (Murdoch.)

Range.--Western North America; breeds at Point Barrow, Alaska, and eastward; winters south along Pacific Coast to Mexico.

=11. Red-throated Loon= (_Gavia lumme_). L. 25. _Ads., summer._ Foreneck chestnut, head and neck ashy. _Winter._ Similar to No. 7, in winter, but back spotted with white. _Notes._ A harsh "_gr-r ga, gr-r, gr-r-ga, gr-r._" (Nelson.)

Range.--Northern part of northern hemisphere; in North America breeds from New Brunswick to Greenland and Hudson Bay, and northwest to Alaska; winters south to South Carolina and southern California.

Auks, Murres and Puffins

=12. Tufted Puffin= (_Lunda cirrhata_). L. 15. _Ads., summer._ Cheeks white; a pair of long straw color plumes from behind eyes; rest of plumage sooty. _Winter._ Cheeks sooty, plumes usually absent. _Yng._ Similar to winter adult, but breast and belly whitish.

Range.--Northern Pacific; resident locally from Santa Barbara Islands north to Alaska. Accidental in Maine.

=13. Puffin= (_Fratercula arctica_). L. 13; W. 6; B. 1.8. _Ads._ Above, and foreneck blackish; cheeks and under parts white; bill in summer touched with bright red. _Notes._ A hoarse croak.

Range.--North Atlantic; breeds from Bay of Fundy north to Greenland; winters south to Long Island.

=13a. Large-billed Puffin= (_F. a. glacialis_). W. 7; B. 2.1. Similar to No. 13, but larger.

Range.--Arctic Ocean from Spitzenbergen to northern Greenland.

=14. Horned Puffin= (_Fratercula corniculata_). Similar to No. 13, but in summer with the throat blackish. _Notes._ "A hoarse snuffling, rattling note" (Nelson.)

Range.--"Northern Pacific from Kuril Islands to British Columbia." (A.O.U.)

=15. Rhinoceros Auklet= (_Cerorhinca monocerata_). L. 15.5. _Ads., summer._ A horn on base of bill; _two_ pairs of white tufts; above blackish; throat and breast grayish; belly white. _Winter._ Similar, but no horn. _Yng._ Similar to winter ad. but no tufts.

Range.--"North Pacific: breeding south (formerly) to the Farallones; in winter south to Lower California and Japan." (A.O.U.)

=16. Cassin Auklet.= (_Ptycoramphus aleuticus_). L. 9. _Ads._ A white spot above eye; above blackish; throat and breast grayish; belly white. Notes. A shrill, squealing "_Come bear-r-r, come bear-r-r._"

Range.--"Pacific Coast of North America from Aleutian Islands to Lower California; breeding south to San Geronimo Island (Lat. 30A deg.)." (A.O.U.)

=23. Marbled Murrelet= (_Brachyramphus marmoratus_). L. 9.7. _Ads., summer._ No crest; above dark brown, finely mixed with rusty; below white, all feathers edged with brown. _Winter._ Wholly different; above gray; head dark; below white; a nearly complete white nuchal collar. _Yng._ Similar to winter ad. but blacker above; sprinkled with blackish below.

Range.--North Pacific; breeds from Vancouver north to Aleutian Islands; winters south to southern California.

=24. Kittlitz Murrelet= (_Brachyramphus brevirostris_). L. 9.5; B., from feathers on top, .4. _Ads., summer._ Above gray, mottled with buff; breast and sides mottled with buff and black; belly white. _Winter._ Sides of head, to _above_ eye, and lower parts white; above gray; outer tail-feathers white.

Range.--Northern Japan, Kamchatka and Aleutian Islands, east to Unalaska. (A.O.U.)

=25. Xantus Murrelet= (_Brachyramphus hypoleucus_). L. 10. Bill slender. _Ads._ Above slaty black; under surface of wing _white_; inner webs of outer primaries _white_.

Range.--Pacific Coast from Monterey south to Cape St. Lucas; breeding as far north as Santa Barbara Island.

=26. Craveri Murrelet= (_Brachyramphus craveri_). L. 10. Bill slender. _Ads._ Above slaty or brownish black; sides slaty; under surface of wings _dusky_, sometimes mixed with white.

Range,--Coasts of Lower California, from Cape St. Lucas north to Espiritu Santo Island in the Gulf of California, and to Natividad Island (lat. 28A deg.) on the Pacific side. (A.O.U.)

=34. Dovekie= (_Alle alle_). L. 8. _Ads., summer._ Above blackish; inner wing feathers tipped with white; throat and breast blackish brown. _Winter._ Similar, but throat and breast white or mixed grayish.

Range--North Atlantic and East Arctic; in America breeds from Lat. 68A deg. northward; winters south to Long Island, rarely to Virginia. Accidental in Michigan.

=17. Paroquet Auklet= (_Cyclorrhynchus psittaculus_). L. 10. _Ads., summer._ _No_ crest; a white plume from behind eye; above blackish; throat grayer, rest of under parts white. _Winter._ Throat white. _Notes._ "A low, sonorous, vibrating whistle." (Nelson.)

Range.--"North Pacific, from Sitka and the Kuril Islands northward." (A.O.U.) Five records for coast off San Francisco in winter.

=18. Crested Auklet= (_Simorhynchus cristatellus_). L. 10. _Ads., summer._ Bill red; a crest of slender recurved feathers; a pair of white tufts from behind eye; above sooty black; below grayer. _Yng._ Similar but bill brown; no crest or tufts. _Notes._ "A chirping note," (Nelson.)

Range.--"North Pacific from Kadiak and Japan northward." (A.O.U.)

=19. Whiskered Auklet= (_Simorhynchus pygmA|us_). L. 7.5. _Ads., summer._ White feathers at base of sides of bill and, much lengthened, from above and below eye; a crest of slender recurved feathers; above, and throat dark slate fading into white belly. _Yng._ Similar but no crest; little or no white on head. _Notes._ "A low chattering note." (Nelson.)

Range--"North Pacific, from Unalaska through the Aleutian chain to Kamchatka." (A.O.U.)

=20. Least Auklet= (_Simorhynchus pusillus_). L. 6.5. _Ads., summer._ No crest; sides of head with white feathers; above blackish; chin sooty; throat white; under parts white, marked irregularly with sooty. _Winter._ Little or no sooty on breast. _Yng._ Similar to winter ad., but no white plumes.

Range.--"North Pacific, from Sitka and Japan north to Bering Strait." (A.O.U.)

=21. Ancient Murrelet= (_Synthliboramphus antiquus_). L. 10.5. _Ads., summer._ No crest; head and _throat_ black; broad white stripes behind eye; back gray; breast and belly white. _Winter._ Similar but throat white; no white head stripes. _Notes._ "A low plaintive whistle." (Nelson.)

Range.--North Pacific, from southern Vancouver Island and Japan northward; south in winter to Monterey, California; accidental in Wisconsin.

=27. Black Guillemot= (_Cepphus grylle_). L. 13. _Ads., summer._ Black; greater wing-coverts white, black at base; under surface of wings _white_. _Winter._ Above gray or black tipped with white; below white.