Chapter XIV: Safe-Guarding of Machinery

Amidst the variety of dangers which attend those who are employed in factories none occupies so prominent a position as that arising from machinery moved by mechanical power; others, such, for instance, as periodical outbreaks of industrial poisoning or the occurrence of disastrous explosions, may from time to time attract public attention more vividly, but we have only to refer to the statistics issued annually by the Home Office to perceive how ever present and ever recurrent are the risks incurred by factory workers from machinery. From these statistics it appears that during the year 1899 there occurred in factories 301 fatal and 19,321 non-fatal accidents, all attributable to machinery moved by mechanical power. Beyond, however, stating that the numbers are the highest yet recorded in any one year, no useful purpose would be served by comparison with former years, or by inquiry as to the reasons of the increase in spite of legislative and executive requirements for safe-guarding. The Factory and Workshop Act of 1895 introduced such an entirely new element by the inclusion of every dock, wharf, warehouse, laundry, etc., in the definition of the term “factory,” that any comparison would be entirely misleading, whilst the facilities afforded in recent years by the introduction of, and improvements in, gas engines have added largely to the number of small factories using mechanical power, and therefore to the number of persons brought into direct contact with machinery. The statistics quoted are, however, in themselves sufficient to establish the importance of the subject of safeguards and the prevention of accidents.

In searching for the causes of such a large number of annually occurring accidents they are found to be various, but after enumerating several, such as carelessness on the part of operatives, unsuitable clothing, insufficient lighting, etc., there remains a very considerable proportion directly attributable to the absence of proper safeguards. It is with this cause that this paper proposes chiefly to deal.

With a view to prevention of such a distressing number of accidents, Parliament has, from time to time, passed enactments requiring certain steps to be taken for safe-guarding machinery, and the appointment of Inspectors has been made for the purpose of seeing that these provisions are duly carried out. Much, however, still remains to be done, not only through further legislation, but also by enforcing the requirements of the law as it at present stands. The latter course at first sight might appear to be feasible enough, but in reality it is a Herculean task, as difficult to accomplish as the destruction of the many-headed hydra of ancient fable, and is due to the fact that as fast as the requirements of the law are insisted upon and carried out in the case of machinery already existing in factories, so fast do makers of machinery send out new machines in a similarly defective condition. If the desired finality is to be arrived at, it must be by pressure brought to bear upon machine makers. At present machinery does not come within the provisions of the law as to safety till it is in actual use, when the attention of the user is perhaps first drawn to its defects by the occurrence of an accident. Much, no doubt, could be done were purchasers in all cases to insist on due regard being paid to this point by makers, but experience shows that this is done in very few instances. Whilst some parts of prime movers and mill-gearing must necessarily be fenced after being placed in position, there is no reason whatever why the effectual guarding of cog-wheels, the countersinking of set-screws, the provision of loose pulleys and strap forks, and the substitution of plate wheels for exposed arm wheels, which are all intrinsic parts of machines, absolutely necessary for ordinary safety, should not be dealt with in the first instance by makers who can provide more effective and neater guards at a much less cost than the user.

The subject of safe-guarding machinery is such a wide one that it will be impossible, within the limits of this paper, to do more than briefly touch upon the more salient points which naturally present themselves to one accustomed to inquire into the causes of machinery accidents. For this purpose it will be most convenient to deal with machinery under the four following headings:--

1. Prime movers.
2. Mill-gearing and belts.
3. Machines for manufacturing purposes.
4. Hoists and other lifting tackle.

Each of these divisions is separately dealt with by the provisions of the Factory Acts, but it should be pointed out that whereas belts have herein been coupled with mill-gearing, yet by Section 37 of the Factory Act of 1891, all “driving straps and bands” are expressly included in the term “machinery” and are therefore subject to the provisions laid down for the third division.[48] They are, however, so intimately connected with mill-gearing as more properly to belong to that class, and they will therefore be more conveniently dealt with in connection with mill-gearing, between which and the machine tools themselves they are the connecting link.

_Prime Movers._--Prime movers are of various kinds, consisting of heat engines, such as steam, gas, and oil engines, electric and hydraulic motors, water-wheels, turbines, and wind-mills. Of these, those most commonly found in factories are steam and gas engines. The provisions of the Factory Acts as to safe-guarding prime movers are absolute. No matter what its position, every part of an engine moved by mechanical power is required to be securely fenced, and such fencing must be constantly maintained. Thus:--

Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 10.--“Every fly-wheel directly connected
with the steam, water, or other mechanical power, whether in the
engine-house or not, and every part of any water-wheel or engine
worked by any such power, shall be securely fenced.”

“Every wheel-race, not otherwise secured, shall be securely
fenced close to the edge of the wheel-race.”

Such absolute provisions, if strictly carried out, should be amply sufficient to prevent almost all accidents arising from prime movers; but the danger lies in the fencing being in the first instance insufficient, or not properly and constantly maintained, in accordance with Sec. 10 (_d_) of the Factory Act of 1901. Accidents caused by prime movers are, of course, restricted in number, partly owing to the fact that they are usually in the sole charge of one man, and partly because, in the case of steam engines at least, they are generally placed in a house or compartment set apart for them, but it will be noted that the words “whether in the engine-house or not” are expressly used for the protection of the engine attendant himself.

Occupiers of factories, owing to their absolute obligation to fence securely every part of a prime mover, and to their liabilities for any neglect to do so, should be specially careful to see that the law is fully carried out before an engine is put into use; whilst no exception should be tolerated for a moment by those whose duty it is to enforce the requirements of the law.

The necessity of fencing being thus absolutely enjoined for every portion of a prime mover, the only point that remains is as to what constitutes secure fencing. Types of engines, however, are of so various a character, and the local surroundings so distinct, that it must suffice for the purposes of this paper to point out what parts of an engine are most liable to cause accidents, and, generally, the most approved steps which should be taken for their prevention.

_Steam Engines._--As regards steam engines, all parts on the floor or platform level, such as fly-wheels and fly-wheel pits, crank and crank-pits, crank shafts, connecting rods, cross-heads, etc., should be securely fenced by means of rail fencing, whilst in the case of large vertical or beam engines, all stairs, platforms, and stagings should be efficiently guarded in similar manner. The fencing adopted should consist of double rails, the upper one being not less than 3 feet in height, whilst in many instances a skirting board 5 to 6 inches in depth should be added; single rails are either so high that persons may slip under them, or so low that they may fall over them. Care should also be taken that no railing be placed within a foot of the moving parts, the placing of such rails too close thereto being a source of great danger; whilst, on the other hand, the practice of leaving so much space between any moving part and the guard as to allow of a passage between them is equally to be condemned; moreover, the keeping of oil-cans, tools, etc., or the hanging up of clothes within the space fenced in accordance with statutory obligations should be absolutely forbidden. Other parts of steam engines requiring fencing which may be mentioned are piston rods prolonged through the end covers of cylinders, governor balls encroaching on a passage, and pinion wheels operating the governors.

_Gas and Oil Engines._--The use of prime movers of the gas engine type has enormously increased of late years, adding greatly to the number of small factories as distinct from workshops. The safe-guarding of these, though they are relatively much smaller than the generality of steam engines, is none the less essential, for whereas the latter are usually placed in an engine-house specially built and separated from the factory itself, the former are in numerous instances placed within the factory, in some cases with a wooden compartment erected round them, and in others with nothing but the statutory fencing separating them from the rest of the works. Where these compartments are large enough, similar railing to that described above for steam engines will be found sufficient, but in many instances they are so confined as to necessitate more complete fencing in order to comply with the requirements of the Acts as to fencing securely any fly-wheel, whether in the engine-house or not.

Wherever possible gas engines should be placed in a room set apart for them, so as to be isolated from the approach of unauthorised persons; those situated in the machine room of a factory are not only a source of danger to those employed therein, but so contaminate the atmosphere as to necessitate the provision of a fan to remove the fumes. In many cases, owing to the confined space of the engine compartment, or to the fact that the fly-wheel is in an exposed position facing into the machine room, a complete wire-work guard should be provided; these can be made either to slide, swing, or to be lifted so as to suit local surroundings; an illustration of such guards is shown in Fig. 1. Shaft ends projecting into passages should be fitted with metal caps so as to avoid the danger of clothing being caught. The common practice of starting a gas engine by hand, by pulling round the fly-wheel, is also attended with risk, but this can be avoided by the use of a starting handle, Fig. 2.

_Other Prime Movers._--Very similar rail-fencing to that described above for steam and gas engines may be applied in the case of other prime movers where electricity or water provide the moving power. As regards water-wheels, it should be noted that, although situated in a wheel-house, the same obligation to guard securely prevails as in the case of a steam engine, and in every instance the wheel-race must be fenced close to its edge.

As for turbines and wind-mills, the most dangerous parts requiring to be fenced will be found to be toothed gearing and shafting.

_Electrical Generators._--The special risks attendant on electrical generators from shocks scarcely perhaps come within the scope of this paper. Ordinary rail-fencing may be relied upon for protection of moving parts, though the railings should be made of some non-conducting material such as wood.

_Mill-Gearing._--Mill-gearing is defined by Section 156 of the Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, as comprehending--

Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 156.--“Every shaft, whether upright,
oblique, or horizontal, and every wheel, drum, or pulley, by
which the motion of the first moving power is communicated to
any machine appertaining to a manufacturing process.”

The provisions of the Factory Acts bearing on mill-gearing enact that:--

Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 10 (_c_).--“Every part of the
mill-gearing shall either be securely fenced, or be in such a
position, or of such construction, as to be equally safe to
every person employed or working in the factory, as it would be
if it were securely fenced.”

Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 13 (3).--“The cleaning of mill-gearing
whilst in motion is, moreover, prohibited for women, young
persons, and children.”

Accidents caused by mill-gearing and belts are not only amongst the most numerous, but certainly amongst the most serious of all those to which persons employed in factories are subject, and yet nearly all such may be avoided by strict observance of the precautions proposed to be set forth herein.

_Mill-Gearing._--First, as to construction and position, whilst the distance between the bearings which support a shaft must vary with the weight of the shaft and pulleys, and tension of the belts, it should never exceed 13 feet, and in order to comply with the requirement of the law quoted above, both shafting and pulleys should, wherever possible, be not less than 7 feet above the floor, otherwise the obligation to fence prevails. Shafting of considerable length is composed of separate parts connected by couplings. These couplings should always be near a pedestal and not in the middle of a span, and should invariably present a perfectly smooth surface, free from bolts or screws, which are liable to catch the clothes of workmen--the old-fashioned couplings with projecting heads of bolts and screws (Fig. 3) are the worst possible form; there are many kinds without any projections whatever (Fig. 4). Ends of keys fixing the pulleys or bevel wheels on to the shafting should either be cut off or protected by a key cover. All set-screws fastening collars to the shafting should be countersunk (Figs. 5 and 6). In fact it should be an absolute rule that projections of every kind should be removed from shafting. The dangers of shafting, however, do not cease with projections: it is an established fact that perfectly smooth shafting is highly dangerous; should the shaft be greasy or his clothing damp, a workman may be caught by a perfectly smooth shaft. That being so, no one should ever be allowed to come into direct contact with shafting in motion: cleaning or lubricating should only be done when it is at a standstill.

_Access to Shafting._--Where shafting is of the requisite height named above, no further protection is required round the shafting itself, but seeing that it is necessary at times to reach it, proper and secure means of access should be provided. This can be done either by a service platform, when the shafting is very high, or by ladders adapted for the purpose. A service platform, whilst providing easy access to shafting, should keep the attendant at a safe distance from it, and at the same time guard against his falling. With a view to this it should be provided with a hand-rail not less than 3 feet in height, and a skirting board of 5 to 6 inches in depth to stop the foot in case of slipping. Ladders should invariably be supplied with hooks at the upper ends and spikes at the lower, the latter where the nature of the flooring permits. In no case, however, should an attendant be allowed to fix a ladder against a wall so as to place himself between the shafting and the wall.

_Fencing of Low Shafting, etc._--Where, however, shafting and pulleys are not of the desired height above the floor, the obligation to fence both arises. When shafting is near the floor it should be completely covered by a sheet-iron or wooden casing, and the pulleys fenced so as to afford a safe passage for workmen by either stepping over the casing or crossing it by means of steps according to the height from the floor. Shafting from 3 to 6 feet above the floor should be protected by a secure rail preventing access to it except by passages so arranged and boarded as to prevent any contact with the shafting. Vertical shafts should in every case be surrounded by a sheet-iron or wooden sheath firmly fixed.

_Pulleys._--Whenever driving pulleys are so situated that a workman has reason to pass near them, they should be securely fenced by means of boards or metallic netting, and it is desirable to fill up the pulleys with a disc of wood or sheet-iron fastened to the arms by means of screws. Loose pulleys should not be placed on the shafting itself; lest they grip the shaft and carry the belts round with them, but should be mounted independently.

_Driving Belts._--Driving belts are a constant source of accidents. When a belt has been thrown off its pulley it should never be allowed to rest upon the shaft; when in that position it is liable to be wound rapidly round the shaft, carrying with it anything with which it comes into contact. This danger is easily avoided by means of a belt rest or hook fixed according to available surroundings. Another fruitful source of accidents through belting is the method in which they are joined; one should always be selected which presents no projections capable of catching clothing or dealing severe blows. Accidents have frequently occurred in both ways; hence the necessity of avoiding all projections on belting.

_Shipping of Belts._--Accidents constantly occur during the shipping of belts. Workmen should be absolutely forbidden to put a belt on to a pulley by hand whilst the shaft is in motion at its full speed. It should be stopped altogether, or at least be greatly reduced in speed, in which latter case a man should be ready to complete the stoppage at once in case of danger occurring.

_Belt Poles._--Where it is desired to avoid stoppage of the engine or shafting, belts should in all cases where possible be put on to the pulleys by means of a belt pole. It should be carefully borne in mind, however, that a short belt pole is in itself a source of danger, owing to its liability to deal a severe blow in case of the pin of the pole becoming in any way entangled; fatal accidents have occurred in this way, and therefore it is most important that the length of the pole should be nearly equal to the distance of the shafting from the floor, thus forcing the workman to hold it at his side instead of in front of him. In cases where, for some reason or other, a belt pole cannot be used, the necessity of stopping the shafting in order to put on the belt by hand may be avoided by means of an appliance termed a belt shipper, of which there are a number of types, and which enable a workman to ship a belt with the shafting in motion whilst he is standing on the floor.

_Protection of Belts._--Owing to the danger arising from clothing being caught by belts, it is desirable in many cases to protect them; thus belts passing through floors should in all cases be surrounded with a casing of wood; oblique or horizontal belts should be protected by a railing preventing access to them, or by a trough below the belt securely fixed; the same remarks will apply to driving ropes, whilst the splicings of the latter should be frequently examined, owing to their liability to break and cause serious accidents in falling.

_Bevel Wheels._--Bevel wheels on shafting should be encased with sheet-iron cover, with one of its faces opening for purposes of oiling.

_Means of Stopping Machinery._--Many of the most serious accidents through mill-gearing and belts might be avoided if means existed for stopping the machinery quickly. When it is necessary to go to the engine-house to warn the engine driver to stop the engine, the mischief is done before this can be effected; some means, therefore, should be at hand to stop the machinery at once. In choice of the method by which disconnection is to be accomplished, preference should be given to one which brings it into play from many parts of the factory by mechanical or electrical means, whilst in some cases a brake acting upon a special pulley is provided and brought into play at the same time by the same means. The stoppage of the engine or the disconnection of the main shaft is attended by the disadvantage of stopping the whole of the machinery in the factory, and it is better, therefore, to disconnect each driving shaft individually, thus stopping the machinery in one room only. The disconnecting arrangements which are open to selection are numerous, but mainly consist of two classes, viz., toothed and friction clutches; of these preference may be given to friction clutches for various reasons.

Lastly, with regard to mill-gearing, its care should be entrusted to special and experienced men, and no one else should be allowed to interfere with it. Attendants should, as far as possible, only approach it when it is at a standstill, and their clothing should invariably consist of tight-fitting jackets or jerseys, with nothing whatever loose about them.

_Machine Tools._--Having thus disposed of the two first main branches of our subject, viz., prime movers which supply the motive power, and mill-gearing and belts which transmit it, it remains for us to deal with the vast number of machines to which the motive power is communicated and by which the manufacturing processes are carried out. These are so numerous that it would be useless to attempt to deal with them individually in this paper. It will, however, be possible to set forth certain rules which should invariably be observed in order to minimise the risks which at present unnecessarily present themselves to those whose duty it is to attend to machine tools. Whilst the danger of accidents from prime movers and mill-gearing is greatly restricted owing to the fact that they are, or ought invariably to be, in the sole charge of a limited number of experienced persons, the machines themselves are attended to by large numbers of men, women, young persons, and even children. There is, therefore, the greater necessity for taking every precaution possible to prevent the occurrence of accident thereby.

The provisions of the Factory Acts with regard to machine tools are as follows:--

Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 10 (_c_).--“All dangerous parts of
the machinery shall either be securely fenced, or be in such a
position, or of such construction as to be equally safe to every
person employed or working in the factory, as it would be if it
were securely fenced.”

Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 10 (_d_).--“All fencing shall be
constantly maintained in an efficient state whilst the parts
required to be fenced are in motion or use.”

By these provisions it will be observed that machine tools are placed on the same footing as mill-gearing, but with the additional precaution that--

Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 13.--“A child shall not be allowed to
clean any part of the machinery in a factory while the same is
in motion by the aid of steam, water, or other mechanical power.”

In connection with this latter provision it is important to notice that in the case of Pearson _v._ Belgian Mills Co., (1896), 1 Q. B. 244, it was held that the words “the same” in the section, refer to the machinery as a whole, whether fixed or in motion, and not merely to such parts of it as are in motion; the employment, therefore, of a child to clean the fixed part of machinery in motion constitutes an infringement of the Act.

Further enactments for safety in connection with machines are that--

Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 12 (3).--“A child, young person, or
woman shall not be allowed to work between the fixed and
traversing part of any self-acting machine while the machine is
in motion by the action of steam, water, or other mechanical
power.”

Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 12 (1).--“In a factory erected after the
commencement of 1896, the traversing carriage of any self-acting
machine shall not be allowed to run out within a distance of
eighteen inches from any fixed structure, not being part of the
machine, if the space over which it so runs out is a space over
which any person is liable to pass, whether in the course of his
employment or otherwise.”

Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 12 (2).--“A person employed in a factory
shall not be allowed to be in the space between the fixed
and traversing portions of a self-acting machine, unless the
machine is stopped with the traversing portion on the outward
run, but for the purpose of this provision the space in front
of a self-acting machine shall not be included in the space
aforesaid.”

Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 156.--“The expression ‘machinery’ shall
include any driving ‘strap or band,’ which are therefore subject
to the same provisions as to safety as mill-gearing and machine
tools.”

The Acts also give powers to deal with dangerous machinery or parts thereof:--

Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 17 (1).--“By application to a Court
of Summary Jurisdiction for an order prohibiting the use of a
machine dangerous to life or limb until it is duly repaired or
altered.”

Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 13 (2).--“By notifying it as dangerous,
in which case it becomes illegal for young persons to clean such
parts in motion.”

_Fencing of Dangerous Machinery._--With respect to the fencing of machinery in a factory, the importance of the words “all dangerous parts of the machinery,” which were superadded by Sect. 6 (2) of the Factory Act of 1891 to Sect. 5 (3) of the Act of 1878, should be carefully noted. Formerly there was absolute obligation to fence only in respect of prime movers and mill-gearing, whilst in the case of other machinery which an inspector considered dangerous, he was required by Sect. 6 of the 1878 Act to serve notice to fence on an occupier, who was empowered, if he thought fit, to have the matter determined by arbitration. Now the obligation to fence extends to all dangerous parts of the machinery, and the question whether it is dangerous or not has to be decided by the Court in each case. In connection with this it should be noticed that in the case of Hindle v. Birtwistle (1897) the Court of Queen’s Bench held that the enactment applies to all machinery from which, in the ordinary course of working, danger may arise by reason of carelessness on the part of the workmen, or of external causes. It should therefore be sufficient, in order to prove the dangerous character of any part of a machine, to show that accidents are frequently caused thereby.

In propounding certain rules for safety, which should be carefully carried out in the construction of all machines, it may be pointed out that these are not based upon mere opinion, but on the experience and statistics of many years.

_Set-screws._--It has been one of the most pernicious habits of almost all machine makers in this country to send out their machinery bristling with projecting set-screws, etc., which are not only unsightly, but also the frequent source of accidents through catching clothing. They are often situated either on or in close proximity to shafts, spindles, collars, or cog-wheels, whereby the dangers attendant on these are greatly enhanced. Hence our first rule, which should be absolute respecting all machinery, should be: (1) _No projections shall be allowed on anything that revolves._ There are various methods of avoiding such projections by countersinking or otherwise, of which illustrations are given above (Figs. 7 to 9).

_Toothed Wheels._--Toothed wheels are probably the cause of more accidents than any other portion of a machine, and their protection has been and is still sadly neglected. They are frequently sent out by makers either with no guard whatever, or with such an inefficient guard as only to partially cover the wheels, thereby doubling the danger to be met by forming two points of junction between the wheels and the guard instead of one only presented by the wheels themselves (Figs. 10 to 12). Our second rule should therefore be: (2) _All toothed wheels shall be so effectually covered as to leave no danger between the guard and the wheels._

_Shaft or Spindle Ends._--Machine makers frequently leave projecting shafts or spindles at each side of a machine so as to allow of choice in the arrangement of pulleys. These are frequently a source of serious accidents, and our third rule should be: (3) _All exposed shaft ends shall be securely covered._ This can easily and simply be done by means of a metal cap fitting sufficiently close to revolve with the shaft, but which will instantly stop on clothing, etc., being caught by it (Fig. 13).

_Loose Pulleys and Strap Forks._--Most machines are now supplied by makers with loose pulleys and strap forks, but exceptions can be found, more especially in the manufacture of cotton, in the case of carding engines and drawing frames; on the former, though loose pulleys are invariably supplied, strap forks are in most instances absent, thus necessitating the moving of the belt from one pulley to the other by hand or by a stick, a very dangerous proceeding, causing frequent accidents. The most dangerous point is where the belt first touches the driving pulley, and this is guarded where a well-arranged strap fork is provided. In the case of drawing frames both loose pulley and strap fork have generally been omitted, with the result that the undershaft cannot be stopped for cleaning without throwing the belt off by hand, causing additional danger in replacing the belt on the pulley. Our fourth rule, therefore, should be: (4) _Loose pulleys and strap forks shall be provided for all machines._

_Plate Wheels._--Arm wheels running at high speed are frequently the cause of accidents. Such are specially found in the balance wheels of power looms, the rim pulleys of self-acting mules, and the speed wheels of platen printing machines. These wheels can in almost all cases be made safe, and our last rule should be: (5) _Plate wheels or wheels filled in shall be substituted, wherever possible, for arm wheels running at high speed_ (Fig. 22).

Each of these rules relate to intrinsic parts of the machines, and should therefore be dealt with by the makers themselves, who can carry them out with little or no extra cost at the time of making. Unfortunately, however, it has been in many instances the practice to have one type of machine for the home, and another for the foreign market, the latter with much more efficient guards, owing to the stricter laws which prevail in certain countries as to the occurrence of accidents.

_Hoists._--We now come to the last head of our subject, viz., the safe-guarding of hoists and other lifting tackle. The requirements of the Factory Act as to these are absolute.

Factory Act, 1901, Sec. 10 (_a_).--“Every hoist or teagle
shall be securely fenced.”

The importance of this enactment may be gathered from the fact that in 1899 there occurred 27 fatal and 315 non-fatal accidents from hoists alone, whilst other lifting tackle was responsible for 66 fatal and 1497 non-fatal. Parliament has fully recognised the dangers arising from this class of machinery by the omission, in the Factory Act of 1891, of the limitation contained in the Act of 1878, “near to which any person is liable to pass or be employed,” thus placing hoists on precisely the same footing as prime movers, the fencing of which, as shown above, is absolutely compulsory.

Cage hoists are most frequently found in factories, and in these the cage should invariably be roofed over, whilst each side of the cage should be cased in, except that used for exit, thus avoiding danger from anything falling down the hoist-way, and also from projecting obstacles therein. On each floor the hoist-way should be guarded by doors not less than 5½ to 6 feet in height. The single bar or chain which used so frequently to be found is a constant source of danger from persons looking down the well and being trapped between the bar and the bottom of the cage. Falls down the hoist-way through absence of any protecting gate, through the latter being carelessly left open, or owing to the cage being moved to another floor without warning, frequently occur. For perfect safety hoists should be in the sole charge of a special attendant, whose duty it should be to travel with the cage, opening or shutting the doors at each landing as required, the fastenings of which should be accessible only from the inside. Otherwise, automatic gates may be used, so adjusted as to open on the arrival at, and close on the departure of the cage from, each landing; it should not be practicable to open these from the outside, and where there is not sufficient headway for a gate six feet in height, it may be made to telescope.

There are several patent hoists which answer to this description in greater or less degree, but we must content ourselves here with an illustration and description of one of the best methods of safe-guarding hoists, viz., by means of the Knowles safety locking gear for cage hoists (Fig. 14).

Careful attention should be paid to the gear for suspending the cage, in order to prevent accidents from the breaking of the ropes and the precipitation of the cage to the bottom of the hoist-way. For greater safety two wire ropes should be used, which should be periodically and systematically examined. Some one of the various safety gears for arresting the fall of the cage should also be adopted; in this connection we give an illustration (Fig. 15) of “Morgan’s patent safety catches,” which sustain the cage in case of the hoisting ropes breaking through some mishap. In the matter of safe-guarding hoists, also, we are far behind other countries where the law compels employers to provide safety catches and doors for every cage hoist.

_Teagles._--Hoisting of goods is often performed by means of a teagle either outside the buildings of the factory, or inside through openings in the floors. In the latter case these openings in each floor should be securely railed; whilst in the former the attendant should invariably be supplied with a safety belt, strong enough to suspend him in the air should he fall. In case, however, of an outside teagle, the dangerous and laborious work of swinging the goods into the room can be avoided by the use of a self-landing and delivering hoist (Fig. 16), which will not only lift goods off the lorry and take them into the room, but will also pick them up inside the room, travel with them outside the doorway, and lower them on to the lorry.

_Cranes, Winches, etc._--Although the Factory Acts deal specifically only with “hoists” and “teagles,” yet the numerous accidents mentioned above as attributable to other lifting tackle, plainly point to the urgent need for safeguards, and care in its use. The provisions of the Acts as to hoists are of long standing, and were enacted when the term “factory” did not embrace every dock, wharf, quay, warehouse, and building in course of erection. Great care, however, should be taken to securely fence all bevel wheels of cranes, winches, etc., and periodical examination of all chains, ropes, etc., should be strictly carried out. It should be remembered that steam cranes partake of the nature of the two first divisions of our subject, viz., engines and mill-gearing.

In the preceding pages some pains have been taken to set forth certain regulations which should equally apply to all machinery. It has been shown that the provisions of the law as to fencing prime movers and hoists are absolute, and equally so those applying to mill-gearing unless it be in such a position and of such construction as to be equally safe, as if it were fenced, whilst the machines by which the manufacturing processes are carried out are dealt with by means of the general instruction that “all dangerous parts of the machinery shall be securely fenced,” subject to the same reservation as to position and construction as in the case of mill-gearing. Except in the instances of grinding in tenement factories, chaff-cutting machines, and perhaps it may be added, of self-acting machines, the law has not yet entered into any details as to safe-guarding machine tools. Apart, however, from general rules applicable to all, there remain certain machine tools which, owing to the nature of their construction and use, are peculiarly liable to the occurrence of accidents. For these special guards are necessary, and their invention and use have been spurred on by the liabilities of employers under the Compensation Acts. It would not be possible here to illustrate a tithe of these machines and the most approved guards invented for them, but it is proposed to select a few machines which are shown by statistics to be the most frequent cause of accidents, and the means by which these accidents may, in part at any rate, be obviated.

_Self-acting Mules._--Dealing first with our great textile industries, and specially with that of cotton, it will be found that by far the greatest number of accidents occurs in the mule-rooms. Owing to the complicated nature of their construction no one illustration could exhibit all the necessary guards for self-acting mules, but an analysis of the accidents caused by them shows that the parts which are the most fruitful source of injuries to workers are:--

1. Scroll or draw bands and pulleys.
2. Carriage wheels and slips.

For the first, incomplete and approved guards are shown in Figs. 17 and 18; whilst for the second, two types of guards in common use are illustrated in Figs. 19 to 21.

_Looms._--Next to mules, power looms are the most frequent cause of accidents in a cotton mill. These present an excellent specimen of the dangerous character of exposed arm wheels running at high speed alluded to above. An illustration of safeguards for the ends of looms will be found in Fig. 22. During 1899 flying shuttles were the cause of 1 fatal and 161 non-fatal accidents. Shuttle guards, of which an example is given in Fig. 23, are either rigid or semi-automatic, but in either case great care has to be taken that they are not fixed too high on the slay cap.

FRONT
Balance Wheel removed, showing guard
over spur wheels.

SIDE
Spur Wheels guarded
at intake side.

FRONT
Balance Wheel (Plate Wheel) in position, guarding
the crank and tappet wheels (toothed).]

Turning to non-textile machinery, probably no three classes of machine tools show so large an array of accidents as:--

1. Circular saws.
2. Planing machines.
3. Power presses.

Each of these classes present dangers peculiar to itself, and therefore needs special safeguards.

_Circular Saws._--Circular saws during the year 1899 were responsible for 1289 accidents, of which 9 proved fatal. The purposes for which they are used are so various that no one universal guard is practicable, but in all cases a riving knife should be provided at the back of the saw, whilst as much of the top and front should also be covered as circumstances will permit. Figures 24 to 27 show illustrations of a few guards which appear best to fulfil these requirements.

_Planing Machines._--Accidents through planing machines are of frequent occurrence. They are often of such a severe nature that no planing machine should be permitted to be used without an efficient guard, of which an illustration is given in Fig. 28.

_Power Presses._ Power presses like circular saws are put to so many uses that various forms of guards are needed to suit the variety of work. They are usually put into motion in one of two ways: either the plunger is released by means of a foot treadle or by a hand lever. Of these the latter naturally presents the fewest elements of danger, owing to the necessary position of one hand whilst using the lever. Additional safety has recently been imparted by the introduction of machines furnished not only with hand levers, but also fitted with slides obviating any necessity for either hand to approach the die.

Fig. 29 illustrates an approved guard for an ordinary tin stamping or cutting press.

ADDENDA.

FIG. 14.--DESCRIPTION OF KNOWLES’S IMPROVED SAFETY
HOIST.

The rod A, which extends the full depth of the hoist well, is
attached at its upper end to the lever B, the latter carrying
the lever C with the stop or projection D, which drops into
the toothed rim S on the side of the starting pulley E, and
locks the hoist when a door is open, as in Fig. 1. Each door
is provided with the lever H, mounted on the centre I, one end
being coupled to the rod A by the arm K and rod L, the other
end being fitted with the bolt or draw-bar X. To the lever C is
attached the hook T extending over the lever B, by which the
stop or projection D, on the lever C, is lifted out of gear with
the tooth rim S in making an upward movement, caused by dropping
the bolt or draw-bar X. When the lever B drops, by the action
of opening one of the doors, the stop or projection D on the C
is pressed or forced into the toothed rim S by the spring V, as
shown in Fig. 2. This apparatus operates as follows:--When the
attendant desires to work the hoist, he simply closes the door
and drops the bolt or draw-bar X into the hole or slot N in
the threshold O, which lifts the levers B and C by the upward
movement of the rod A, and moves the stop or projection D from
the toothed rim S, as in Fig. 3, at which point it remains
until one of the levers H is operated from the inside by the
attendant, when it is locked, as shown in Fig. 2. When the stop
or projection D is removed from the toothed rim S, the starting
band or chain P is at liberty to be operated in the requisite
direction at will. To prevent the hoist being started when a
door is open, the lever H is latched into the catch or fixing R.
It is impossible to start the hoist until the attendant has both
closed and bolted the doors.

FIG. 15.--MORGAN’S PATENT SAFETY CATCH. (An improved
safety gear for colliery cages, hoists, lifts, etc.)

_To sustain the Cage, in case through any mishap the Hoisting
Ropes break._--In the arrangements of these catches, two strong
steel colliery rods are stretched from top to bottom of the
hoist well, and the cage is fitted with two or more cams, across
the face of which grooves are made to correspond with the
strands of the steel guides.

The cams are fitted in a steel casing, through which the guides
pass, so that should the hoisting ropes break, the steel guides
are at once gripped by the cams, which hold the cage suspended.

H. S. RICHMOND.