Chapter LII: Manufacture of Cotton

Although the manufacture of cotton goods is or has been carried on under conditions to some extent injurious to health, yet there is no definite disease which can be traced to these conditions. There is no disease produced which corresponds to wool-sorters’ disease in woollen manufacture, or the various forms of tuberculosis of the lungs in trades where dust composed of sharp, hard particles is inhaled. If it were not for the fact that moisture has for trade purposes been artificially introduced into the atmosphere of weaving-sheds, it is doubtful whether the health condition of cotton factories would have received any special attention beyond that devoted to factories and workshops in general. This addition of moisture was carried on in a reckless and unscientific manner, and in consequence Government investigations were made which resulted in special legislation.

Artificial humidity is the condition which has attracted most attention, but it is not by any means the only important factor influencing the health conditions of cotton operatives. It is mainly in weaving-sheds that artificial humidity is used, and this article will be principally devoted to the health conditions of weaving. It will, however, be well, for the sake of the few remarks which will be made with regard to other branches of the cotton industry, to describe very briefly the different processes which the raw material undergoes before it is finally turned out as cotton cloth.

Raw cotton, as it is received in bales, is naturally somewhat impure. The processes that it undergoes before it is made into yarn are somewhat complicated when considered in detail, but they consist roughly of cleansing, combing, and twisting.

Most of the dirt in the raw material is separated in the “blowing-room.” The cotton is drawn by means of a current of air through the blowing machine. The heavier impurities fall out during the process, and the cleaned cotton is formed into a more or less even layer or lap. It is then taken to the card-room, where it is “carded”--a process which combs the fibres so that they are laid parallel, and still further cleans the cotton. Before being delivered to the actual spinning machinery, the cotton passes through other preparatory machines, known as slubbing and roving frames, where it is drawn out and slightly twisted. The cotton “roving,” as it is then termed, is taken to the spinning-room, to be finally attenuated and twisted into the required form of yarn. There are different types of spinning machines, known as mules, throstles, and ring frames. The attendants on the mules are, as a rule, men, and they have a considerable amount of physical exertion in following the movements of the carriage, which is constantly moving backwards and forwards. In ring spinning, on the other hand, women are almost invariably employed. After the yarn has been spun it is wound on to bobbins by “winders,” and from the bobbins on to beams by “warpers.” The warp is then sized and prepared for the looms by “reachers” and “drawers.” The cotton is then ready for the process with which we are mainly concerned, viz., weaving.

The health conditions of these various departments of the cotton industry prior to weaving will be dismissed very briefly. The workpeople in all of them have an ample air-space, rising in mule spinning up to about 10,000 cubic feet per head. In the blowing-room there is a moderate amount of dust, consisting almost entirely of cotton fibre, but at the same time there is a plentiful supply of fresh air. The principal feature with regard to the air of the card-room is the amount of dust. This at times is sufficient to cause a distinct cloudiness of the atmosphere. This dust is certainly serious, and needs special treatment.

Spinning, unlike weaving, is carried on in a many-storied building. The light and fresh air for a spinning-room has consequently to be obtained entirely from the sides. For several reasons very little fresh air is provided. By excluding the outside air, the room can generally be kept at a good spinning temperature simply by the friction of the machinery, and at the same time particles of soot are prevented from entering and damaging the yarn. The result is, that notwithstanding the enormous air-space per head in a spinning-room, the atmosphere is frequently by no means pure, and it is often excessively hot. The temperature is commonly above 90° F., and occasionally above 100° F. As no moisture is, as a rule, added, the air becomes very dry. The artificial moistening of the air of spinning-mills is gaining ground, and there can be little doubt that up to a certain point it will be beneficial to the workpeople. The conditions could also be much improved by the provision of suitable means of ventilation. On account of the large amount of cubic space per head, and the marked difference in the temperature inside the spinning-room and outside, it is possible that natural ventilation would be sufficient to accomplish all that is necessary. In order, however, to obtain a high degree of purity and to thoroughly control the air currents, artificial ventilation must be employed.

The winders and warpers are subjected to no special conditions. They have somewhat less air-space than most other operatives, and there is usually no mechanical ventilation. They are not, however, subjected to great heat or moisture.

Weaving, the industry which will principally be dealt with, is carried on almost entirely in one-storied buildings. In choosing the site of a weaving-shed it is usually borne in mind that dampness conduces to good weaving. Most weaving-sheds are situated in somewhat damp positions, and the floor of the sheds being formed simply of flags laid directly on the earth, dampness is not prevented from rising from the ground. The walls are without windows, and where openings are provided for ventilation, they are usually closed. All the light and most of the fresh air have to gain admittance through the roof, which is formed by a series of bays, usually running from east to west of the shed. The south side of the bay is formed of slate, and the north side of glass, so that little direct sunlight is admitted to the shed. The height of a shed varies considerably, but an average height is about 11 feet to the gutters, and about 15 feet to the top of the bays, and the span of the bays is about 10 feet. There is a small space along the gutters left open to allow the escape of water which condenses on the glass. The roof therefore of a weaving-shed, and usually two or more of the walls, are exposed to outside influences, and fresh air can, if desired, be admitted through them.

The prominent factors which enter into the health conditions of a weaving-shed are:--

(1) Impurity of the atmosphere from: (_a_) respiration; (_b_) combustion of gas; (_c_) dust; (_d_) emanations from the soil and the sanitary conveniences.

(2) Excessive humidity.

(3) High temperature in summer.

(4) Want of cleanliness.

Although it seems always to have been recognised that a moist atmosphere was advantageous to weaving, yet the introduction of moisture systematically is a growth of comparatively recent years. In the year 1872 Dr Buchanan made a report on certain sizing processes used in the cotton manufacture at Todmorden, and their influence upon health. He described how the practice of sizing had grown and altered much in character owing to the scarcity of cotton during the American Civil War. Ten years later, Dr Bridges and Mr Osborn, H.M. Inspector of Factories, made a report to the Government on “The effects of heavy sizing in cotton weaving upon the health of the operatives employed.” This inquiry was instituted in consequence of a representation by the Parliamentary Committee of the Trades Union Congress in 1882. The views of the memorialists with regard to the dangers from the infusion of steam are clearly set forth in the following quotation:--“Your memorialists desire to draw your attention to a practice that has of late years become very common, especially in the making of goods known as T-cloths and Indian shirtings. We allude to over-sizing of cotton yarns, out of which arises another evil, especially in dry weather, viz., the infusion of steam into the weaving-sheds in order to soften the stiff, over-sized threads. Your memorialists desire to point out that an addition of about 20 per cent. of size, more or less, in accordance with the class of goods being made, is required for manufacturing purposes; but of late years a practice of adding from 50 to more than 200 per cent. of an admixture of various ingredients, which serve no other purpose than to give a fictitious weight and appearance to the cloth, has become very common. Your memorialists complain that the extraordinary addition to the yarn of the admixture already described, gives off in the process of weaving deleterious effluvia, dust, and flocculent matter, which is inhaled by the weavers, to the injury of their health.... The manufacturers of this kind of cloth in infusing steam into their weaving-sheds have two objects in view, viz., (1) to enable more of the admixture to be woven into the cloth; (2) to soften the stiff, over-sized threads, and thus render them soft and pliable, and less subject to breakages. Your memorialists complain that the clothes of the persons, chiefly women and children, who are employed in those sheds, are so damped by the warm moisture given off by the steam, that, after going out into the open air, coughs, colds, and the whole train of lung diseases are contracted; and rheumatism and many other bodily afflictions which tend to enervate and break up the system at a premature age, follow. Dyspepsia is unhappily very often brought on, particularly in the cases of women and children. Your memorialists therefore earnestly pray that Her Majesty’s Government will adopt some means which in their wisdom may appear best by which the health of the weavers, 80 per cent. of whom are females and young persons, may be preserved.”

Dr Bridges and Mr Osborn found, that although the scarcity of cotton had been completely removed in the years following the American War, yet heavily-sized goods were still manufactured, and in fact that the amount of size used had increased very considerably. The importance of sizing on the health of the operatives is due to two facts: (1) heavy sizing requires a very moist atmosphere; (2) the size contributes considerably to the dust of the shed.

The practice of infusing steam appears to have continued to grow, and in the year 1888 the Health Committee of the Blackburn Corporation instituted a public inquiry on account of a very strong report, made in the year 1887 by the Medical Officer of Health (Dr Stephenson). The Committee came to the following conclusion: “That ventilation in the mills is very ineffectually and inefficiently attended to, particularly in winter; that heavy steaming had been practised in Blackburn, and that the adverse conditions under which the weavers had worked (at any rate during the winter months) had had a material influence upon the undoubtedly high death-rate of the borough: that the statements contained in the last annual report made by Dr Stephenson, as the Medical Officer of Health, are, in the main, true, and have been supported by the evidence; and that heavy or excessive steaming in mills is injurious to the health of those who work in them, but that steaming, if lightly performed, with proper attention to ventilation, is not injurious.”

As a result of these reports, and of further agitation on the part of the operatives, the Cotton Cloth Factories Act, 1889, was passed. By this Act manufacturers were required to maintain two hygrometers in each weaving-shed, and were prohibited from exceeding certain limits of moisture. These limits are shown in the schedule below.

_1889 Act._ _SCHEDULE A._

Maximum Limits of Humidity of the Atmosphere at given
Temperatures.

+-------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
| I. | II. | III. | IV. |
| Grains of | Dry Bulb | Wet Bulb | |
|Moisture per | Thermometer | Thermometer | Percentage of |
| Cubic Foot | Readings. | Readings. | Humidity. |
| of Air. | Degrees Fahr. | Degrees Fahr. | |
+-------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
| 5.1 | 60 | 58 | 88 |
| 5.2 | 61 | 59 | 88 |
| 5.4 | 62 | 60 | 88 |
| 5.6 | 63 | 61 | 88 |
| 5.8 | 64 | 62 | 88 |
| 6.0 | 65 | 63 | 88 |
| 6.2 | 66 | 64 | 88 |
| 6.4 | 67 | 65 | 88 |
| 6.6 | 68 | 66 | 88 |
| 6.9 | 69 | 67 | 88 |
| 7.1 | 70 | 68 | 88 |
| 7.1 | 71 | 68.5 | 85.5 |
| 7.1 | 72 | 69 | 84 |
| 7.4 | 73 | 70 | 84 |
| 7.4 | 74 | 70.5 | 81.5 |
| 7.65 | 75 | 71.5 | 81.5 |
| 7.7 | 76 | 72 | 79 |
| 8.0 | 77 | 73 | 79 |
| 8.0 | 78 | 73.5 | 77 |
| 8.25 | 79 | 74.5 | 77.5 |
| 8.55 | 80 | 75.5 | 77.5 |
| 8.6 | 81 | 76 | 76 |
| 8.65 | 82 | 76.5 | 74 |
| 8.85 | 83 | 77.5 | 74 |
| 8.9 | 84 | 78 | 72 |
| 9.2 | 85 | 79 | 72 |
| 9.5 | 86 | 80 | 72 |
| 9.55 | 87 | 80.5 | 71 |
| 9.9 | 88 | 81.5 | 71 |
| 10.25 | 89 | 82.5 | 71 |
| 10.3 | 90 | 83 | 69 |
| 10.35 | 91 | 83.5 | 68 |
| 10.7 | 92 | 84.5 | 68 |
| 11.0 | 93 | 85.5 | 68 |
| 11.1 | 94 | 86 | 66 |
| 11.5 | 95 | 87 | 66 |
+-------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+

The only other section of much importance was one which made it necessary to supply 600 cubic feet of fresh air per person per hour. This Act, although it produced great improvement, did not satisfy the Weavers’ Associations, and a further attempt was made to bring about the total abolition of steaming. The Government in consequence appointed a Committee consisting of Sir H. Roscoe, Sir Wm. Roberts, and Dr Ransome, to inquire into the working of the Act. A very extensive inquiry was made, and the resulting report is one of extreme value. The report was made in 1897, and many of its chief recommendations were embodied in a Statutory Order of the Home Secretary in the year 1898. This Order, although not altering in any way the amount of moisture allowed, contained very important provisions with regard to ventilation, purity of steam, and temperature, etc. It is of such interest and importance, being in many respects a new departure in factory legislation, as to be well worth quoting in full here.

_Order of the Secretary of State, dated 2nd February 1898, making regulations for the protection of health in Cotton Cloth Factories._

(1) In every cotton cloth factory to which the Cotton Cloth
Factories Act, 1889, applies, the occupier or manager or person
for the time being in charge of the factory shall, in addition
to taking the two readings of the thermometers required by
section 7 of that Act, read each of the thermometers every
day between seven o’clock and eight o’clock in the forenoon,
and record the reading of each thermometer in the form and in
accordance with the regulations in Schedule B. of the said Act
as amended by this Order.

(2) Schedules B. and C. of the Act of 1889 shall be altered, and
shall be as set out in the schedule to this Order.

(3) In every such cotton cloth factory, when artificial humidity
is produced, the water used for the purpose shall either be
taken from a public supply of drinking water or other source of
pure water, or shall be effectively purified to the satisfaction
of the Inspector before being introduced in the form of steam
into the factory, and all ducts for the introduction of
humidified air shall be kept clean.

(4) The pipes used for the introduction of steam into a cotton
cloth factory in which the temperature is 70 degrees Fahrenheit
or over shall, so far as they are within the shed, be as small
both in diameter and length as is reasonably practicable, and
shall be effectively covered with non-conducting material to the
satisfaction of the Inspector, so as to minimise the amount of
heat thrown off by them into the shed.

(5) The arrangements for ventilation shall be such that during
working hours in no part of the cotton cloth factory shall the
proportion of carbonic acid (carbon dioxide) in the air be
greater than nine volumes of carbonic acid to every ten thousand
volumes of air.

(6) Unless some other method, certified by the Inspector to
be equally satisfactory, is adopted, the outside of the roof
of every cotton cloth factory shall be whitewashed every
year before the 31st day of May, and such whitewash shall be
effectively maintained until the 31st day of August.

(7) In every cotton cloth factory erected after the date of this
Order, a sufficient and suitable cloak-room, or cloakrooms,
shall be provided for the use of all persons employed therein,
and shall be ventilated and kept at a suitable temperature.

Having briefly described the steps by which the present conditions have been arrived at, we may now consider these conditions in detail. The humidity of the air has, rightly or wrongly, been thought to be the chief factor in the healthiness of weaving-sheds. Moisture is usually added to the air of sheds by means of a number of steam jets. Steam introduced in this manner is known in the trade as “live steam.” The moisture becomes visible almost immediately after escaping from the pipe, and again disappears at a distance of two or three feet. Many other methods of moistening the air of weaving-sheds have been tried. Some of these depend upon the evaporation of water in the shed; others upon evaporation of water outside the shed, the air so moistened being forced in; and others again upon steam being mixed with fresh air, which are forced into the shed together. It is obvious that any system which depends upon the evaporation of water, if efficient in other ways, has a distinct advantage in the summer months, in that it will tend to lower rather than raise the temperature. There are, however, very distinct drawbacks to most of the methods of humidifying by evaporation, and the crude method of watering the floor is probably the most harmful of all forms. The method of humidifying which depends on evaporating water outside and forcing air so moistened into the shed has a very limited application, but it might with benefit be extended in order to lessen the temperature in summer. The way in which moisture is added to the air of a shed is of little consequence except so far as it affects the temperature, and this is affected far more by the length and size of the steam-pipes than by the amount of steam infused. Previous to the Cotton Cloth Factories Act, 1889, there was no legal restriction to the amount of humidity. The writer has no personal knowledge of the condition of the sheds at this time, and he has found it difficult to form a correct opinion. It is certain, however, that sometimes steam was introduced to such an extent that it condensed very freely on the walls, pillars, and floors. The air of the shed became over-saturated and consequently hazy. This raising of humidity was done in a very unworkmanlike manner. No attempt was made to find out what conditions were favourable to weaving. It was known that a very dry air was unfavourable, and if a dry east wind was blowing, a large amount of moisture was introduced. When a favourable condition was reached there was no means of recording what this condition was, for such a thing as a hygrometer was practically unknown in a weaving-shed. It seems strange, considering that the degree of dampness of the atmosphere is so important with regard to weaving, that the use of hygrometers had to be forced upon the manufacturers by an Act of Parliament.

The introduction of moisture artificially does not necessarily mean that the relative humidity of the atmosphere of the shed is being raised above that of the outside air. The temperature of a shed is usually many degrees above the temperature outside, and consequently the air of the shed without any addition of moisture would be much dryer than the air outside. It is not easy to appreciate exactly what the amount of moisture specified by the Act means. It is quite commonly said, on the one hand, that the amount of moisture allowed by it is frequently exceeded under natural conditions in Lancashire, and, on the other hand, that the moisture allowed is greatly in excess of what can possibly be healthy. It may give a clearer idea to compare the average moisture of the air at various temperatures with the moisture allowed by the schedule. For this purpose the readings taken at the Blackburn Observatory for the years 1898 and 1899 have been averaged at the various temperatures.

+-------------+----------------------+-----------------------------------------------+ | | |Figures obtained from the Daily Records of the | | | | Blackburn Observatory for the years 1898 | | | | and 1899. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+ | |Percentage of Moisture| | | | | allowed by law in | Average percentage of | Maximum amount of | |Temperatures.| Weaving Sheds at | Moisture at the | Moisture at the | | | these Temperatures. |different Temperatures.|different Temperatures.| +-------------+----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Degrees. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | | 50–55 | 86 | 82.1 | 100 | | 55–60 | 87 | 81.1 | 100 | | 60–65 | 88 | 77.4 | 97 | | 65–70 | 88 | 65.1 | 83 | | 70–75 | 84.6 | 59.9 | 66.5 | +-------------+----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+

For practical purposes temperatures below 60° may be neglected, as that temperature is generally exceeded in weaving-sheds. At higher temperatures the moisture allowed in weaving-sheds is considerably in excess of the average moisture of the atmosphere outside, and above 65° the legal limit is very considerably in excess of the highest recorded observation.

It is somewhat difficult to estimate the effect upon health of raising the amount of moisture in the air one breathes. In the case before us the problem is complicated by the fact that the humidified air is only breathed during ten hours of the day, and that the workpeople frequently pass from the artificial to the natural atmosphere. Knowledge gained from the distribution of disease in dry and moist climates must be applied with great caution. The dampness of a locality is frequently due to the damp and waterlogged condition of the soil, in which case there are causes of unhealthiness not in the least comparable with the high humidity of a shed produced by the introduction of steam. Speaking generally, however, there can be no doubt that a dry air is invigorating and a moist air enervating. Probably partly for this reason tubercular diseases, which are dependent so much in their spread upon the loss of vigour of those attacked, flourish more in damp climates. The other class of diseases, which presumably would be increased by excessive humidity, are the different forms of rheumatism and their complications. In the various inquiries that have been made into the health of cotton operatives rheumatism has been complained of as the chief ailment produced by artificial humidity. Frequent changes from a warm, moist atmosphere to a dry, cold one without proper precautions are quite sufficient to account for an excessive amount of rheumatism. This danger is greatly enhanced by the unsuitable and inadequate clothes worn by the operatives. There is little or no reason to suppose that working in an atmosphere which, although moist, is considerably removed from saturation, would of itself conduce to rheumatism.

One of the chief complaints of the operatives in these sheds is that their clothes become damp. It is quite impossible that any moisture can condense on their clothes if the law with regard to steaming is observed. There is, however, the possibility that clothes which have been worn for a long time in weaving-sheds may become permeated with size dust. This dust contains a considerable proportion of deliquescent salts, and clothes upon which it has been deposited would become damp on exposure to a moist atmosphere. Whether or not this is a matter of much practical importance could be settled by a few careful experiments. If clothes do absorb moisture in this way to any extent, it is one more argument in favour of cloakrooms. It also suggests the advisability of the careful brushing of clothes, in order to free them from shed dust as much as possible. Where no cloak-room is provided, clothes are usually hung against walls or pillars. If the walls are outside-walls, and if the pillars act, as they frequently do, as rain-water pipes, the clothes become wet from the condensation of water on these walls and pillars. The absorption of moisture by clothes, due to the hygroscopic nature of wool, is small in amount, and may probably with safety be left out of account. For all these reasons it is extremely desirable that all cotton factories in which the air is artificially moistened should be provided with suitable cloak-room accommodation. The cloakrooms should of course be of adequate size, and properly heated and ventilated.

In considering artificial humidity, it must be borne in mind that the steam is frequently raised from very impure water. It is possible that this fact accounts to some extent for the strong feeling against steaming amongst a considerable section of the operatives. Steam raised from filthy water undoubtedly gives a very disagreeable odour to a shed, and there can be no doubt that it is injurious to the health of the workpeople. This matter has, however, been dealt with, so far as legislation is concerned, by Clause 3 of the Order of 1898, and it only remains now to enforce the Order.

Closely associated with the humidity of the atmosphere of the shed is its temperature and impurity. Particularly is it difficult to separate the effects of high temperatures from those of excessive humidity. The peculiar construction of a shed, with its roof exposed the whole day through to the direct rays of the sun, is of itself sufficient in summer to cause a high temperature. To this must be added the heat developed by the friction of the machinery. It is not then to be wondered at that the temperature becomes sometimes almost unbearable when it is still further raised by the infusion of steam, and by the heat from steam-pipes. It is very probable that most of the complaints of steaming have arisen from the excessive temperature that has been at the same time produced. The effect of the heat of a shed cannot be gauged absolutely by the temperature, but the temperature and the humidity must be considered together. The principal reason why working in a hot, moist atmosphere is uncomfortable and oppressive, is that evaporation of perspiration is checked, and one of the chief means of cooling is lessened. What under other conditions would be insensible perspiration becomes sensible, and general discomfort ensues. An operative in this condition going out into a dry, cool air feels a chill at once. It cannot, however, be said that this condition is brought about solely by excessive humidity, as at the lower temperatures no discomfort is felt. Whatever conclusion is come to with regard to the desirability of allowing the introduction of moisture, there can be no question that every reasonable means should be taken to prevent the temperature being unduly raised in summer.

Although the agitation against steaming has not led to its abolition, it has brought about one of the greatest advances in our factories and workshops legislation of recent years.

The Cotton Cloth Factories Act, 1889, insisted that 600 cubic feet of fresh air should be supplied for each operative per hour. The fact that it was made compulsory to supply a definite quantity of fresh air was in itself an advance, but the amount of air specified by the Act fell far short of what was necessary. Not only was the amount of air supplied insufficient, but no adequate steps were taken to ensure that the fresh air was properly diffused. Moreover, there can be no doubt, that in the form of ventilation most commonly in use, viz., extraction by fans through the roof, there is a large amount of short circuiting. The Committee previously mentioned, which was appointed to inquire into the working of the Cotton Cloth Factories Act, investigated this matter very thoroughly. They found that the mechanical ventilation of sheds under this Act had been productive of some good, although not to the extent expected. Mr Williams, H.M. Inspector of Factories, who acted as secretary to the Committee, and to whom I am indebted for much information, examined seventy-two samples of air taken from weaving-sheds for the amount of carbonic acid contained in them. Thirty-four were taken from “dry” sheds, that is, sheds where steam is not infused, and not as a rule mechanically ventilated; thirty-eight were taken from “moist” sheds, which were ventilated according to the Act. The carbonic acid in the air of the dry sheds varied from .55 to 1.94 parts per thousand, the average being 1.168; that of the moist sheds varied from .68 to 1.59, the average being 1.021. Many anemometer tests were also made, and it was found that there was little correspondence between the amount of air supplied and the purity of the air of the shed at the breathing level. From these experiments, two facts were readily deduced, viz., that the amount of air supplied was too small, and that the anemometer test was not to be relied upon as a test of ventilation. The Committee consequently took a new departure, and made a recommendation, that as a measure of respiratory impurity the carbonic acid gas contained in 10,000 volumes of air in humidified sheds should not exceed 9 volumes. This recommendation was embodied in its main feature in the Order previously quoted. It is difficult to over-estimate the importance of this step. It applies a scientific test to the ventilation of the factory, and at the same time it allows the utmost freedom to the manufacturer in selecting means to attain this standard. Hitherto, openings of certain sizes have been specified for the purpose of ventilation, or the introduction of a certain amount of air has been made compulsory, but no legal notice has been taken of the actual condition of the atmosphere. In this order, then, the most satisfactory and the only scientific method of estimating ventilation has been adopted. The difficulties in the way of carrying it out seem to be gradually being surmounted, and already a standard much higher than the legal one has been attained in many factories.[154] .9 parts per thousand may not appear to some a sufficiently high standard. It certainly is not perfect, but it is probably as high a standard as it is practicable to adopt at present. It has been found in practice that it is generally necessary to introduce more than 2000 cubic feet per head per hour to maintain this standard. On account of considerable variation in the amount of carbonic acid in the air of towns, the administration of the Order has been varied to this extent, that .5 parts of carbonic acid are allowed in the air of a shed in excess of that contained in the air outside at the same time.

Although this regulation with regard to ventilation has only been applied to weaving-sheds into which moisture is artificially introduced, there seems to be no good reason why it should not be applied to all weaving-sheds and to other departments of cotton manufacture. A regulation of this kind can only be carried out in buildings where power is available, but in the near future electric power will be available for every workshop, and then the universal enforcement of some similar regulation will be possible, and would be productive of much good. It seems likely that an indirect advantage will also be gained by the greatly increased knowledge of the efficiency of the various systems of artificial ventilation. The useless and inefficient methods of ventilation will be rapidly weeded out, only the good methods will remain, and a truer perception of the principles of ventilation will be produced. The stimulus given by these Acts to ventilating engineers has already brought about great advances. One extremely ingenious apparatus will deliver enormous quantities of fresh air (250,000 cubic feet per hour), warmed and moistened as required, into a room at one single point, and diffuse it over an area of 8000 square feet without causing a draught. By this means one of the principal objections to all other methods of ventilation on the plenum system is overcome, for the air is introduced directly without the interposition of distributing ducts.

Compared with the workrooms of most other trades, cotton-weaving-sheds must be considered to be well ventilated, and when the regulations have been thoroughly enforced, these sheds will have few equals amongst workrooms judged by the amount of respiratory impurity. There are, however, other atmospheric impurities that are not dealt with in so satisfactory a manner. It is found to be quite impossible, with any of the apparatus at present in use, to keep the amount of carbonic acid within the legal limits when the shed is lighted with gas. To do this it would be necessary to increase the amount of fresh air introduced to an enormous extent. The only practical solution of this difficulty, and one that is urgently called for, is the substitution of electricity for gas for lighting purposes. Such a substitution frequently leads to a positive saving of money.

There is one form of atmospheric contamination that mechanical ventilation has in some instances made worse. The sanitary conveniences are frequently built so as to be in direct connection with the shed, and any system of ventilation depending on extraction increases the amount of air supplied to the shed through these offices. The remedy in all such cases is complete disconnection of the sanitary conveniences by means of an open space.

No ventilation is satisfactory which does not reduce the amount of dust as well as the gaseous impurities in the atmosphere. The dust floating in the air of a weaving shed is very variable both in its quantity and in its composition. In a shed where no size is used (very rare) the dust consists entirely of cotton fibre. On the other hand, where size is used, it enters very considerably into the composition of the dust floating in the atmosphere. Size consists mainly of starch, china clay, tallow, and various deliquescent salts, the principal one being magnesium chloride. A certain amount of zinc chloride is put into the size to delay or prevent the growth of mildew. One would anticipate that the different constituents of size would vary considerably in the readiness with which they diffuse through the atmosphere, and this is so to some extent. For instance, analyses made by Dr Dupré showed that zinc chloride, although largely used in sizing, is not found in the dust of sheds. This is of considerable importance, as chloride of zinc is the only constituent of size which is chemically irritating. On the other hand, contrary to expectation, it was found that the insoluble mineral matter (china clay) was present in as large a proportion on the shafting at considerable heights as in the dust on the floor. The composition of the dust examined by Dr Dupré varied somewhat, but roughly speaking, 50 per cent. of the dried dust was insoluble mineral matter (china clay), 30 per cent. insoluble organic matter (cotton), 15 per cent. soluble organic matter (starch), and 5 per cent. soluble mineral matter (principally chloride and sulphate of magnesium).

The amount of dust in the atmosphere of a shed is determined partly by the amount of size used and the quality of the cotton, but also to a great extent on the efficiency of the ventilation and the degree of moisture in the air. That the infusion of steam would lessen the amount of dust in the air was first inferred and afterwards proved by experiment. A large amount of moisture in the air may cause a more ready precipitation of dust, but its principal action is probably in preventing the liberation of dust from the yarn during the process of weaving. Mr Osborn, in his evidence before the Parliamentary Committee previously referred to, said that sheds are now freer from dust than they were, and this he attributed to more careful sizing. Mr Williams made several comparative tests of the amount of dust in sheds when moisture was being introduced and when not. He found invariably that the infusion of steam lessened the amount of dust. The following are the averages of his experiments:

+----------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ | |No. 1 |No. 2 |No. 3 |No. 4 |No. 5 | | |Position.|Position.|Position.|Position.|Position.| +----------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ |With infusion of steam|26¹¹⁄₁₈ | 25 | 25 | 26½ | 38¼ | |Without „ „ | 43⅙ | 40⅓ | 36½ | 45½ | 43½ | +----------------------+---------+---------+---------|---------+---------+

These figures represent the number of particles of dust deposited on six square millimetres in five minutes.

The dust in the atmosphere is undoubtedly lessened by ventilation, unless this is of such a nature as to disturb the dust that has already settled. The most efficient method of ventilation for reducing the dust in the air would certainly be extraction from beneath the looms. The dust of a weaving-shed is not, however, of a specially irritating nature, and although injurious, is not of sufficient importance for the whole system of ventilation to be devoted to its removal. Apart from the extraction of air downwards, so that the dust is drawn directly away from the breathing level, there does not seem much to choose between the various forms of ventilation in this respect.

The cleanliness of the floors and shed generally must have a considerable effect upon the amount of floating atmospheric impurity. As a general rule, the floors are very dirty. They are never washed (with a few rare but very pleasing exceptions), and are seldom brushed thoroughly. Such a condition of things lends itself readily to the spread of infectious diseases. It seems particularly serious with regard to phthisis. Phthisical sputum must often remain on these floors undestroyed until much of it has become pulverised, and distributed in the air of the shed. It would undoubtedly greatly improve the health conditions of weaving-sheds if proper steps were taken to keep the floors clean. An improvement of this kind is not limited in its benefits to the direct results, but it has a very distinct influence upon the habits of the persons employed.

There is, as the evidence given before the various inquiries shows, a great difference of opinion as to the healthiness of cotton manufacture. It is difficult to come to any absolute conclusion from examination of these opinions, and by examination of the physical conditions to which the workpeople are subjected. One therefore turns naturally to the vital statistics bearing on this question, in the hope that they will afford some absolute and indisputable indications. It must, however, be acknowledged that when all the available statistics have been examined, the inferences that can be drawn are not by any means definite. There are many reasons for looking on trade statistics with some suspicion. Most of these reasons are very carefully reviewed, and allowed for as far as possible by Dr Tatham in the supplement to the Fifty-fifth Annual Report of the Registrar-General. It is only necessary to see the enormous death-rate of the persons classified as unemployed to understand how this class is probably greatly swollen by those who have broken down in their various occupations. It is very doubtful if under any circumstances trade mortality statistics can be altogether relied on. There is always the possibility that the occupation followed at the time of death is not the one that has really hastened or caused death. A person after some years working in an unhealthy trade finds it necessary to change his occupation because his health is failing. At death he is classed in the trade he was last engaged in, although this trade has had no effect in causing his death. Again, arduous and unhealthy occupations act as a selective agency, none but those of a certain physical fitness engaging in them. It is difficult, too, to separate the influence of a trade from that of its surroundings. Whether a trade is carried on in crowded, badly built towns, or in the country, will modify the trade statistics considerably. These facts make it desirable in gauging the healthiness of a trade to look outside trade statistics. It is sometimes possible, where a large proportion of the inhabitants of a district are engaged in one particular branch of industry, to gauge the healthiness of this industry by examining the health statistics of the district as a whole. If the persons employed in this industry have a peculiar age distribution it is possible to get a more accurate estimate. These conditions are fulfilled to a peculiar degree in the town of Blackburn. Out of a population of 120,064 at the 1891 census, no less than 37,755, or 31 per cent., were employed in the cotton industry. Any marked unhealthiness of the trade should show itself, although perhaps not very distinctly, in the general mortality. This of itself would be of little help but for the peculiar distribution of the cotton operatives in age periods. The accompanying table illustrates this point clearly:--

DEATH-RATE FOR ENGLAND AND BLACKBURN, 1889–1898.

+---------+-------------------+------------+-------------------+
| | Males. |Differences | Females. |
| Age +--------+----------+expressed as+--------+----------+
| Period. |England.|Blackburn.|percentages.|England.|Blackburn.|
| | | | | | |
+---------+--------+----------+------------+--------+----------+
| | | | Per cent. | | |
| 15–25 | 4.72 | 5.14 | + 8.9 | 4.42 | 4.72 |
| 25–35 | 7.05 | 6.71 | - 4.8 | 6.48 | 6.96 |
| 35–45 | 11.89 | 14.60 | + 23.6 | 10.03 | 13.05 |
| 45–55 | 19.32 | 26.05 | + 34.8 | 14.89 | 18.82 |
| 55–65 | 35.47 | 51.42 | + 44.9 | 28.83 | 43.46 |
| 65 | | | | | |
|& upwards| 98.56 | 117.22 | + 18.9 | 88.88 | 95.08 |
+---------+--------+----------+------------+--------+----------+
| At all }| | | | | |
| Ages }| 20.58 | 23.82 | + 15.7 | 18.20 | 19.51 |
+---------+--------+----------+------------+--------+----------+