Chapter XXXVII: Mining (1)

The industry of mining, touching as it does the boundaries of nearly every field of human activity, necessarily presents itself under so many and such different aspects, that the complete study of the risks to life, limb, and health to which those engaged in it are exposed, involves an unusually large number of diversified considerations. It is here proposed to examine only the risks that are more directly incidental to mining proper, and these again only in so far as they affect the miners themselves, leaving out of consideration entirely the dangers to which mining operations may expose the population in whose midst they have to be carried on, although these are far from unimportant, including, for example, such accidents as a fall down an unfenced shaft, the destruction caused by the explosion of a dynamite magazine, the possibility of being struck by a stone projected by a blast, the injurious effects of fumes arising from smouldering waste heaps, or from the calcination of pyritic ores, and extending in extreme cases to the collapse of entire districts, as, for instance, in the salt-mining area of Cheshire.[109]

The entire subject of mining is generally looked upon as divisible into three main branches, namely, “prospecting,” or the search for mineral deposits; “mining” properly so called, or the exploitation of these deposits; and “dressing,” or the preparation for the market of the minerals produced.

Of these three branches the risks incidental to the last named are practically those to which workers in any ordinary factory are exposed, and need not be further considered here; whilst minor accidents, such as cuts and bruises, are common enough, especially when mineral is broken by hand, serious casualties, on the other hand, are fortunately rare. The only precautions needed are those indicated in all cases where men, and in the case of dressing works, often boys, girls, and women also are at work in the midst of machinery in motion. It may just be mentioned that, in certain branches of gold mining, a solution of cyanide of potassium is used as a solvent for extracting the gold; this solution is not only extremely poisonous when taken internally, but also produces in many instances painful sores on the hands and arms of the men working with it.

The life of the prospector is necessarily a most arduous one, and for which men of exceptionally good physique and sound health are alone suitable. The typical prospector starts off, generally by himself, sometimes with a mate, to examine an unknown and at times uninhabited district; or worse still, the inhabitants may be uncivilised races, hostile to the white man, and thus their presence only introduces another and a serious danger to the prospector. At the best he can only carry a limited amount of food with him, and has often to depend on his gun for a great part of his supplies. He has, therefore, to time his journeys accurately, so as to enable him to get back to civilisation before his stock of provisions or ammunition is exhausted, and many a poor fellow has paid with his life for the rash eagerness that has led him too far afield in his search for valuable minerals. In some countries, such as Western Australia, not only has food to be arranged for, but drink also, great areas being absolutely without potable water; there is no doubt that many an explorer in this great auriferous continent has perished of thirst[110] in his search for the precious metal.

When mining operations have to be undertaken by the prospector, these usually take the form of sinking small shafts, less rarely of driving levels. In either case the timbering is of the crudest character, any branch of a tree, piece of bamboo, or similar weak support being generally looked upon as sufficient. The windlass is usually a rough concern, made entirely, or almost entirely, of wood, and the writer was once a witness of the remarkably narrow escape of a prospector who was being hoisted up a shaft by a couple of natives with the aid of such a rudimentary windlass, after having lit a couple of shots in the shaft bottom, when one of the rough wooden handles of the windlass suddenly broke. To the risks incidental to working with imperfect appliances must be added those due to the fact that only native labour, always utterly inexperienced in mining and often unused to work of any kind, is available, whilst the prospector has to undertake, single-handed, the task of both instruction and supervision.

It but rarely happens that the prospector is fortunate enough to find a healthy climate at the scene of his operations, although such is the case in some parts of Australia, South Africa, etc. As the greater portion of the temperate zone habitable by civilised man has been pretty well ransacked for minerals, the prospector is generally compelled to resort to tropical regions for his hunting ground, and is, therefore, often subject to all the risks of an unhealthy climate, amongst which malarial fever in its various forms is perhaps the most formidable. Prospecting in Central America, the northern half of South America, West Africa, and Central Africa, parts of India, Siam, Burma, the Malay Archipelago and Peninsula, and some parts of Australia means in each case the strong probability, amounting almost to a certainty, of being attacked by malaria, which, though not necessarily fatal, only too often undermines the strongest constitution. Finally, it must be remembered that whenever a rich “strike” has been made and a rush sets in to any small area, the townships that spring up thus suddenly are invariably unhealthy at first, even in the healthiest climates. “What is everybody’s business is nobody’s business,” and the most elementary rules of sanitation are disregarded with the most frightful recklessness, until the number of victims becomes so serious as to compel attention. In this way Kimberley, Johannesburg, Coolgardie, Menzies, etc., have all been visited by epidemics of typhoid or enteric fever.

That the Polar regions are no more favourable to the prospector than are the Tropics is only too clearly shown by the death-roll of those who have been seeking their fortunes of recent years in the Yukon and other similar parts of far North-Western America. Statistics of the mortality of prospectors, whether by disease or by accident, are, of course, not available in any form, but no one who has had much to do with prospecting can fail to recognise that there are few more dangerous, just as there are few more fascinating, occupations.

Turning next to mining proper, as carried on in civilised countries, it becomes necessary to investigate separately the accidents and the diseases incidental to the miners’ calling. Careful statistics of mining accidents are kept by many countries, notably Germany, France, Belgium, and Great Britain, and a comparison of these statistics would, no doubt, enable us to deduce results of the highest importance if these statistics were at all comparable. Unfortunately, however, the definitions of what constitutes a mining accident on the one hand, and of what constitutes a fatal mining accident on the other, are either extremely vague, or else will be found to differ in each country. In Great Britain we have no legal definition at all. The Coal Mines Regulations Act, section 35, merely says that “loss of life” or “serious personal injury” due to an accident must be reported, unless the accident be due to “any explosion of gas, or of any explosive, or of any steam-boiler,” when every personal injury whatever, whether serious or not, has to be reported. The Act, construed literally, seems to require only the reporting of any accident that is instantly fatal, or of a serious accident that terminates fatally under the head of “Loss of Life.” If a trivial accident, such as would not need reporting under the Act, happens to end fatally, as, _e.g._, when a slight cut or scratch causes blood-poisoning and ultimately death, the Act seems to deliberately exclude such accidents from the list of fatalities. In the absence of clear legal guidance, most inspectors seem to include in their list of fatal accidents all accidents of any kind whatever that terminate fatally within a year and a day from the date of the occurrence of the accident. This may not be law, but it is certainly common sense. The term “serious personal injury” is interpreted very differently in different places, the ultimate decision resting with the colliery manager and the colliery doctor. Thus one doctor may hold that a simple fracture is not a “serious” accident, and need not be reported; whilst another may consider a bad cut or bruise, perhaps not sufficient even to lay a man off for a day, as a “serious” accident, though the majority rather incline to the view that no accident is “serious” unless there is rather more than a possibility that it will end fatally. This wide discrepancy of opinion makes it very difficult to compare fairly the accident statistics of different parts of the Kingdom, and, as the sequel will show, the British official non-fatal accident statistics are practically worthless.

In Germany each state or kingdom has its own mining law. The Prussian law, which is the most important by far of any, and which all the others follow more or less closely, merely says, that any accident that has caused death or serious injury to one or more persons must be at once reported. The accident statistics based upon these reports are, therefore, even less satisfactory than our own; it would appear as though the law contemplated only the inclusion of cases of instantaneous death in the list of fatal accidents, whilst non-fatal accidents are quite undefined. The Prussian official statistics record only fatal accidents in mines, except in the case of explosions of fire-damp, when injuries are also recorded. Fortunately, however, accurate statistics have been kept for some time past of all mining accidents by the Official Miners’ Permanent Relief Fund of the German Empire. This assurance association defines a fatal accident as one that causes death, whether instantaneously or after any length of time. Non-fatal accidents are divided into such as incapacitate the injured person from working for either a longer or a shorter period, the limit between these two classes being fixed at thirteen weeks. A distinction is also made between accidents that permanently, and those that temporarily, disable a miner, and again between those that cause total, and those that cause partial, disablement. As this Insurance Fund of Germany is under the direct supervision of the Governmental authorities, the statistics published by it have all the character of official documents.

In France mining accidents are simply divided into those that cause injuries merely and those that cause death, there being apparently no precise definitions of either.

In Belgium a mining accident is one that has for its consequences the death or severe injury of one or more persons--severe injury being defined as an injury of such a nature as to cause the ultimate death or to interfere with the regular work of the victim. Apparently the Belgian law, strictly interpreted, would include amongst the fatal accidents only those where the injured person is killed on the spot, but in the published statistics, a fatal accident is understood to be one that causes death within thirty days of its occurrence. Obviously this definition is much narrower than that used in Great Britain, a fact that must not be lost sight of when statistics of the two countries are compared.

Perhaps the most exhaustive analysis of mining accidents is to be found in a work published in 1897 by the above-mentioned Official Miners’ Permanent Relief Fund of the German Empire,[111] which covers the period from 1st October 1885 up to 1st January 1895. This Relief Fund, administered under Government supervision, deals with all accidents that incapacitate the victims from work for a longer period than thirteen weeks, all accidents of lesser importance, here called minor accidents, being dealt with by a separate fund worked in conjunction with the former. The total number of persons insured for one year during the period covered by this work was 3,623,175; the total number of accidents of all kinds notified was 278,371, distributed as follows:--

Per 1000
Persons
Numbers. Employed.

Fatal accidents 7,721 2.13
Accidents causing total permanent
disablement 1,427 0.39
Accidents causing partial permanent
disablement 14,367 3.97
Accidents causing temporary disablement 8,164 2.25
---- 8.74
Minor accidents 246,692 68.09
------- -----
Total 273,371 76.83
======= =====

Although, as will be seen subsequently, the ratio of fatal accidents is slowly but steadily decreasing in all the more important mining countries, the ratios between the various classes of accident appear to remain approximately constant. It is, however, notorious that ever since the laws providing compensation for accidents have received their present form, the number of non-fatal accidents reported in Germany has been steadily increasing year by year, there being no satisfactory explanation that can be assigned for this fact. The serious accidents are classified in various ways, the most interesting of which are those that refer to the causes of the accidents. Thus, of the above serious accidents, it is shown that the distribution was as follows amongst the various branches of mining:--

+--------------------------+---------+-----------------+-----------------+ | | | Fatal Accidents.| Serious | | | | | Accidents. | | | No. of +-------+---------+-------+---------+ | | Persons | |Per 1000 | |Per 1000 | | |Employed.|Number.| Persons |Number.| Persons | | | | |Employed.| |Employed.| +--------------------------+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------+ |(_a_) Coal Mines |2,378,673| 6020 | 2.53 |19,130 | 8.04 | |(_b_) Lignite Mines | 331,522| 617 | 1.86 | 1,354 | 4.08 | |(_c_) Metalliferous Mines | | | | | | | and Smelting Works | 58,853| 870 | 1.14 | 2,750 | 3.62 | |(_d_) Salt Mines and Brine| | | | | | | Works | 95,423| 143 | 1.50 | 450 | 4.71 | |(_e_) Other forms of | | | | | | | Mining | 58,704| 71 | 1.21 | 274 | 4.66 | +--------------------------+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------+

It is interesting to note that the ratio of accidents above ground to those below was as follows in the various branches of mining:--

Below Ground. Above Ground.

(_a_) Coal Mines 84.7 per cent. 15.3 per cent.
(_b_) Lignite Mines 45.1 „ 54.9 „
(_c_) Metalliferous Mines and
Smelting Works 73.5 „ 26.5 „
(_d_) Salt Mines and Brine Works 51.4 „ 48.6 „
(_e_) Other forms of Mining 42.3 „ 57.7 „

The information is unfortunately not complete, as the relative numbers of the workers above and below ground are not given, so that no idea can be formed from these data of the relative degree of risk of work above and below ground.

As regards the time at which accidents occur, there are a few more in the forenoon than in the afternoon, as might well be expected, seeing that the average number of men at work is greater in the former than in the latter period. As regards the days of the week, the percentage of accidents occurring on the respective days is as follows:--

Sunday 2.2 per cent.
Monday 15.1 „
Tuesday 16.2 „
Wednesday 16.6 „
Thursday 15.9 „
Friday 16.7 „
Saturday 17.0 „

Excluding, of course, Sunday, it is noteworthy that the number of accidents in the second half of the week is notably greater than in the first half; apparently the only cause that can be suggested for this circumstance is that the men, being more fatigued towards the latter end of the week, are on that account more liable to accidents. It may well be, however, that the facts here noted are themselves merely accidental, and that observations extended over a larger period would tend to equalise the numbers.

Two highly interesting series of tables give an objective and a subjective division of the causes of the accidents, showing in what manner and by whose fault these originated. The former table may be summarised as follows:--

KEY:

A: Falls of Rock, Coal, Falling Bodies, etc.

B: Transport, Haulage, Winding, Loading, etc.

C: Falls from Ladders, Steps, or other Heights.

D: Explosions.

E: Machinery in Motion, Motors, etc.

F: Molten Metal, Hot and Corrosive Liquids, Poisonous Gases.

G: Miscellaneous.
+-----------------------------+--------------------------------+
| | Causes of Accident per cent. |
| Branch of Mining. +----+----+----+----+---+---+----+
| | A | B | C | D | E | F | G |
+-----------------------------+----+----+----+----+---+---+----+
|(_a_) Coal Mines |41.1|26.2| 9.1| 9.2|5.7|1.0| 7.7|
|(_b_) Lignite Mines |35.9|28.7|14.8| 3.5|7.9|3.4| 5.8|
|(_c_) Metalliferous Mines and| | | | | | | |
| Smelting Works |34.4|20.8|13.1|10.2|5.6|1.9|14.0|
|(_d_) Salt Mines and Brine | | | | | | | |
| Works |13.7|31.5|23.6| 7.9|7.3|7.6| 8.4|
|(_e_) Other forms of Mining |31.9|25.2|12.2| 9.6|2.9|...|18.2|
|All Mines |39.4|25.8|10.2| 9.0|5.9|1.3| 8.5|
+-----------------------------+----+----+----+----+---+---+----+

The accidents due to these various causes calculated per 1000 people employed in the whole mining industry were as follows:--

Falls of Rock, Coal, Falling Bodies, etc. 3.44
Transport, Haulage, Winding, Loading, etc. 2.26
Falls from Ladders, Steps, or other Heights 0.89
Explosions 0.78
Machinery in Motion, Motors, etc. 0.51
Molten Metal, Hot and Corrosive Fluids, Poisonous Gases 0.12
Miscellaneous 0.74
----
Total (Fatal and Serious Accidents) 8.74
====

There were no less than 3.42 accidents per 1000 workers due to falls of rock and coal in the workings, whilst those due to explosions of fire-damp were only 0.31 per mil. It will be seen in the sequel that accidents due to falls of ground of various kinds play by far the most important part in mining casualties everywhere.

In distributing the blame for these accidents, four main groups are distinguished, accidents being either apparently unavoidable and therefore put down to the intrinsic danger of the occupation, or else due to some fault of omission or commission either of the mine owners or managers, of the victims themselves or of their fellow-workers. The numbers for the entire mining industry are given as follows:--

Per cent.
Inherent danger of the occupation 58.2
Per cent.
Defects in or absence of safety appliances 0.2
Insufficient regulations 0.1
Other faults of management 0.9
Faults of the mine owners --- 1.2
Neglect of fellow-workers to use safety appliances 0.1
Contravention of regulations by fellow-workers 1.1
Unskilfulness of fellow-workers 0.3
Carelessness of fellow-workers 2.4
Ignorance of danger on the part of fellow-workers 0.1
Gross negligence of fellow-workers 0.5
Faults of fellow-workers --- 4.5
Neglect of victims to use safety appliances 0.9
Contravention of regulations by victims 6.4
Unskilfulness of victims 4.8
Carelessness of victims 20.3
Ignorance of danger on the part of victims 2.0
Gross negligence of victims 1.5
Fault of victims --- 35.9
Unknown causes 0.2
-----
100.0
=====

This table shows, in the first place, that 41.6 per cent. or two-fifths of all the accidents could have been avoided by proper care and intelligent thought on the part of all concerned; and in the second place, that fully one-third of the accidents can be ascribed to the faults of the victims themselves. This means that whilst the occupation is not necessarily much more than half as hazardous as the accident statistics make it appear, there is but little room for improvement either in the appliances used or in the regulations framed for the safety of the miners, and that the remedy lies largely within their own grasp, the better education of the miner and the development of his thinking powers being the best protection that can be offered him against accident. This view is further supported by the fact that in coal-mining the unavoidable accidents are as high as 61.7 per cent., whilst the avoidable accidents fall to 28.2 per cent. (0.1 per cent. being ascribed to unknown causes). It may be taken as fairly well known that the coal miners are amongst the better educated and the more highly trained of all classes of miners, the effect of their higher intelligence being indicated in these figures.

It is interesting to compare the above data with the results given in a recent paper by Mr B. M’Laren on “Preventible Colliery Fatalities,”[112] in which that gentleman analyses the fatal accidents in Great Britain during the years 1896–98, and points out that 35 per cent. of the total number of underground fatal accidents were preventible. In coming to this conclusion, he has included “all fatalities stated to have been brought about by carelessness or neglect; those in which a deficiency of props, sprags, bars, chocks, packs, etc., are mentioned; cases of want of judgment; a moment’s forgetfulness on the part of some one; acts contrary to the Coal Mines Regulation Act, special rules, and ordinary regulations; want of care, etc.; and those which present themselves as possibly preventible; while all apparently doubtful cases are omitted.” It may be added that this writer, like most others on this subject, concurs in the view that “the best preventive for colliery accidents is technical education.”[113]

These German figures have been dealt with at considerable length because they give the most complete picture anywhere obtainable of the liability of miners to serious or fatal accidents. Although the tables in the work dealt with extend only up to the year 1895, they are still perfectly applicable to the present day; this is perhaps best seen by taking the proportion of fatal accidents for the decade 1890 to 1899, when it will be seen that though these fluctuate considerably about the average for the period under consideration, yet their general average agrees pretty well with that of the period covered by the work quoted, namely, 1885 to 1895:--

Death-rate
Year. per 1000 Persons.
1890 2.19
1891 2.44
1892 2.05
1893 2.27
1894 1.91
1895 2.16
1896 2.21
1897 2.05
1898 2.53
1899 2.03
----
Average 2.18
====

No other equally complete data are available for any other country. In addition to the special report that has been here summarised, this official Relief Fund publishes annual statistics,[114] and these can be compared with the official statistics published annually by the Government from the returns collected by the Inspectors of Mines; it is true that these latter do not refer to the German Empire as a whole, but are published separately for the principal mining states, namely Prussia[115] and Saxony[116]; the Prussian statistics are especially useful, because, out of the total number of miners employed in the German Empire, no less than nine-tenths are included in the kingdom of Prussia.

* * * * *

The following table shows the proportion of Fatal Accidents as given in the above quoted Prussian statistics for 1899:--

+-------+---------------------------------------------------+
| | Fatal Accidents per 1000 Persons Employed in |
| +-----------+-------+-------------+--------+--------+
| Year. |Bituminous |Lignite|Metalliferous| Other | All |
| |Coal Mines.| Mines.| Mines. | Mines. | Mines. |
+-------+-----------+-------+-------------+--------+--------+
| 1891 | 2.889 | 1.825 | 1.035 | 1.018 | 2.395 |
| 1892 | 2.208 | 1.710 | 1.081 | 2.224 | 1.963 |
| 1893 | 2.619 | 2.089 | 0.794 | 2.298 | 2.245 |
| 1894 | 2.209 | 1.986 | 1.005 | 1.935 | 1.983 |
| 1895 | 2.540 | 2.103 | 1.002 | 1.917 | 2.229 |
| 1896 | 2.577 | 1.664 | 1.137 | 1.649 | 2.241 |
| 1897 | 2.353 | 2.362 | 1.046 | 1.611 | 2.124 |
| 1898 | 2.864 | 1.992 | 0.994 | 1.956 | 2.485 |
| 1899 | 2.314 | 1.945 | 1.393 | 1.231 | 2.114 |
|Decade | | | | | |
|1890–99| 2.518 | 1.946 | 1.079 | 1.708 | 2.204 |
+-------+-----------+-------+-------------+--------+--------+

These figures refer to the total number of workers both below and above ground; an analysis for the year 1899 gives the following results:--

Per 1000 Persons
Employed Underground.
Fatal accidents due to explosions 0.079
„ „ haulage and winding 0.874
„ „ falls of coal and stone 1.191
„ „ after-damp 0.112
„ „ blasting 0.121
„ „ miscellaneous causes 0.142
-----
Total fatal accidents underground 2.519
=====
Per 1000 Persons
Employed Above Ground.
Total fatal accidents above ground 1.082

Per 1000 Persons
Employed in Open Workings.
Total fatal accidents in open workings 1.455

It will be seen that the death-rate per 1000 persons employed is very nearly the same as that given by the Relief Fund Association, an agreement that goes far to confirm the belief above expressed in the general reliability of these statistics. It is important to note that metal-mining is in Germany a far safer occupation than coal-mining, a state of affairs that would naturally be expected to obtain, having regard to the conditions of safety of these two classes of work, and bearing in mind that in Germany the educational level of both classes of miners is more nearly the same, and that the legislation for both is practically identical. It should be added that the above statistics refer only to persons regularly employed in mines, and excludes fatal accidents that may occur in or about any mine, to persons not comprised in the category of regular mine employés; the inclusion of such cases would increase the above total figure by about 2.5 per cent.

In Belgium, careful statistics of accidents are published,[117] and in spite of the fact that her coal mines present circumstances of special difficulty, the recorded death-rate is a low one, due partly to the fact already pointed out, that only deaths within thirty days of the accident are reported. Moreover, in Belgium, deaths due indirectly to mine accidents are excluded from the lists. Coal-mining being the chief mineral industry of Belgium, the mineral statistics of that kingdom are more particularly devoted to it. The death-rate has been as follows in the Belgian coal mines from the year 1895 to 1899:--

+-------+---------------------------------------+
| | Death-rate per 1000 Persons Employed. |
| Year. +-----------------+---------------------+
| | At Surface and | Underground only. |
| | Underground. | |
+-------+-----------------+---------------------+
| 1895 | 1.33 | 1.58 |
| 1896 | 1.14 | 1.38 |
| 1897 | 1.03 | 1.31 |
| 1898 | 1.40 | 1.71 |
| 1899 | 0.97 | 1.09 |
+-------+-----------------+---------------------+

In 1899 there were 241 separate accidents underground, causing 101 deaths, and 151 serious injuries; of these, 85 accidents, killing 48 and injuring 43 workmen, were due to falls of rock or coal; accidents due to haulage produced 63 casualties, of which 19 were fatal, the majority, or 39 accidents, occurring in roads which were approximately level. There was only one explosion of fire-damp, causing 4 deaths, but there are 6 fatal accidents recorded as due to choke-damp. An interesting table shows that the number of accidents due to falls of rock or coal has produced an annual average of 0.73 deaths per 1000 men employed, the year 1899 happening to be considerably below the average in this particular category.

In France also, great attention is paid to conditions affecting the security of the miner. Great care is exercised by the Inspectors of Mines, and the accident death-rate appears to be decreasing steadily and satisfactorily, but, in comparing the French statistics with these of other countries, it must be remembered that the former include only accidents that result fatally within a few days of their occurrence, there being no rule at all on the subject. The following table shows the death-rates per thousand since 1894[118]:--

+-----+--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | | Death-rate per 1000 Persons Employed. | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | | In Coal Mines. | In other Mines. | In all Mines. | |Year.+-------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+ | |Under- | Above | |Under- | Above | |Under- | Above | | | |ground.|ground.|Total.|ground.|ground.|Total.|ground.|ground.|Total.| +-----+-------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+ |1894 | 0.97 | 0.55 | 0.85 | 0.92 | 0.54 | 0.81 | 0.96 | 0.55 | 0.84 | |1895 | 1.41 | 0.68 | 1.19 | 1.73 | 0.31 | 1.32 | 1.43 | 0.65 | 1.20 | |1896 | 1.62 | 0.50 | 1.30 | 1.97 | 0.90 | 1.67 | 1.65 | 0.53 | 1.33 | |1897 | 1.34 | 0.41 | 1.07 | 2.52 | 0.84 | 2.06 | 1.44 | 0.44 | 1.10 | |1898 | 1.26 | 0.60 | 1.07 | 3.06 | 2.00 | 2.75 | 1.41 | 0.72 | 1.21 | |1899 | 1.62 | 0.66 | 1.29 | 2.11 | 1.02 | 1.78 | 1.67 | 0.70 | 1.39 | +-----+-------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+

Coal-mining forms the principal portion of the French mining industry, over 90 per cent. of those engaged in mining being employed in collieries of various kinds. Metal-mining is comparatively unimportant, and is generally carried on upon a small scale, a fact that in part no doubt accounts for the relatively high accident death-rate. In coal-mining, on the other hand, the rate is a very low one. Many French collieries are controlled by large corporations, and in these large and well-managed concerns all work is done with the greatest care, and carried on in the most approved style.

Italy is rarely looked upon as a mining country, yet there are over 60,000 persons annually engaged in mining proper in the kingdom of Italy, the mining being practically all metalliferous mining. The following are the recent Italian accident statistics[119]:--

+-----+--------------------------------------------------+
| | Per 1000 Persons Employed. |
| +----------------+----------------+----------------+
|Year.| Underground. | Above ground. | Total. |
| +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+
| |Killed.|Injured.|Killed.|Injured.|Killed.|Injured.|
+-----+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+
|1897 | 2.77 | 3.23 | 0.78 | 0.86 | 2.31 | 2.67 |
|1898 | 1.75 | 3.50 | 0.46 | 1.39 | 1.41 | 2.95 |
|1899 | 2.10 | 3.29 | 0.42 | 1.08 | 1.66 | 2.72 |
+-----+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+

It is worth noting that about two-thirds of the fatal and one-half of the non-fatal accidents underground are due to falls of stone, this being here, as elsewhere, the most prolific cause of disaster. The comparatively high death-rate in Italy cannot well be due to any of the conditions of mining, none of the mines being particularly deep, or presenting any conditions of abnormal danger or difficulty. It is more than probable that the high rate is due to the low educational level of the Italian miner. Whilst not less naturally intelligent or skilful than his fellow-worker in Britain, Germany, or France, his technical training is far inferior, and to this deficiency the higher accident death-rate in Italy may fairly be ascribed.

In the United States it is only within quite recent years that any attempt has been made to obtain accurate statistics of mining accidents, and these are still mainly confined to coal mines; even now the inspection of these leaves a good deal to be desired. The following figures are given for miners other than coal miners in an article by F. L. Hoffman,[120] from which most of the following information is derived:--

+------------------------------------------------+-------------------+ | |Accident Death-rate| | Occupation, Locality, and Year. | per 1000 | | | Persons Employed. | +------------------------------------------------+-------------------+ |Iron Ore Miners, Michigan (1892–96) | 5.14 | | „ „ (1899–1900) | 3.62 | |Copper Mines, Lake Superior (1892–96) | 3.57 | | „ „ (1898–99) | 2.07 | |Metal Miners, Colorado (1896–97) | 3.89 | |Metal Miners (Lead and Zinc), Missouri (1892–97)| 2.59 | +------------------------------------------------+-------------------+

It is obvious that the collection of accurate statistics in the Western States, where the mines are much scattered and there is practically no inspection, is quite out of the question.

The following table, taken from the paper above quoted, shows the accident death-rate in coal mines in the various States of the Union during the period 1886–1897, as far as such statistics are available:--

States and Accident Death-rate
Territories. per 1000
Persons Employed.
Alabama 1.63
Colorado 4.72
Illinois 1.82
Indiana 2.32
Indian Territory 3.76
Iowa 2.28
Kansas 1.62
Kentucky 1.50
Maryland 1.63
Missouri 2.19
New Mexico 9.42
Ohio 1.53
Pennsylvania (Anthracite) 3.15
Pennsylvania (Bituminous) 1.88
Tennessee 4.16
Washington 10.70
West Virginia 3.30

In all bituminous coal mines (average) 2.12
In all anthracite mines (average) 3.15
In all coal mines (average) 2.53

The first point that is brought out by this table is that anthracite mining is evidently more dangerous than bituminous coal-mining, and this is the more striking seeing that anthracite coal does not give off fire-damp, so that the dangers of gas explosions are here excluded. The general conditions of anthracite mining, and more particularly the steep inclination and great thickness of many of the seams, are sources of danger that are not met with in ordinary coal-mining. Although, as has been already pointed out, comparisons between the statistics of different countries must be made with the utmost caution, it seems certain that the accident death-rate in the bituminous mines of the United States is higher than in the more important European coal-producing countries. There seems to be nothing in the nature of the bituminous coal mines of America to account for this fact, which is no doubt largely due to the circumstance that the American coalfields do not as yet possess a settled coal-mining population properly so called, and that experienced coal miners are therefore rare, any working man taking casually to coal-mining for a while, as he might to any other temporary occupation. Such men can of course never gain the experience and almost intuitive knowledge of coal-mining that is acquired by coal miners in the older continent, who are generally born and bred on the coalfields and imbibe knowledge about coal-mining matters from their earliest childhood. Another equally potent factor is the extraordinary mixture of nationalities to be found in most American coal mines, which seem to be the first refuge for the immigrant labourer from Eastern or South Eastern Europe. The result, of course, is that regulations or orders are only half understood, and are therefore not properly obeyed. Attention has recently been directed to this source of danger in various parts of the world; for example, the employment underground of persons who are not acquainted with the German language has recently been forbidden in the Westphalian coalfield. It is worth while noting that the States in which machine coal-cutting is most largely employed, such as Ohio and Illinois, show death-rates well below the average of the United States as a whole.

Turning now to Great Britain, there is a large mass of statistical material available by which the liability to accident of the British miner may be gauged. Each of H.M. Inspectors of Mines in charge of a district issues an annual report, a great portion of which is devoted to mining accidents and their causes, and these district reports are summarised in the General Report and Statistics, Part II., Labour, whilst an advance proof is also published early in each year. It may be as well to point out first of all that the death-rate due to accidents has been steadily diminishing during the last half century,[121] as is well shown by the following table, worked out for quinquennial periods from 1851 to 1899:--

+------------+------------------------------------------------------------+ | | Average Annual Death-rate per 1000 Persons | | | Employed in all Mines in Great Britain. | | +--------------------------------------------+-------+-------+ |Quinquennial| | Above | | | Period. | Underground. |ground.| Total.| | +-----------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | | Due to | Due to | In | Misc- |Due to |Due to |Due to | | |Explosions.|falls of|Shafts.| ellan-| all | all | all | | | | Ground.| | eous. |Causes.|Causes.|Causes.| +------------+-----------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | 1851–1855 | 1.280 | 2.016 | 1.296 | 0.556 | 5.149 | 1.012 | 4.301 | | 1856–1860 | 1.234 | 1.846 | 0.899 | 0.648 | 4.628 | 0.994 | 3.883 | | 1861–1865 | 0.618 | 1.714 | 0.668 | 0.790 | 3.791 | 1.105 | 3.240 | | 1866–1870 | 1.158 | 1.578 | 0.528 | 0.730 | 3.995 | 1.256 | 3.433 | | 1871–1875 | 0.516 | 1.210 | 0.437 | 0.572 | 2.736 | 0.899 | 2.342 | | 1876–1880 | 0.811 | 1.132 | 0.317 | 0.449 | 2.709 | 0.847 | 2.306 | | 1881–1885 | 0.408 | 1.108 | 0.263 | 0.532 | 2.312 | 0.848 | 2.007 | | 1886–1890 | 0.312 | 1.015 | 0.196 | 0.517 | 2.042 | 0.913 | 1.806 | | 1891–1895 | 0.244 | 0.798 | 0.188 | 0.470 | 1.704 | 0.820 | 1.524 | | 1896–1899 | 0.117 | 0.783 | 0.122 | 0.457 | 1.479 | 0.798 | 1.338 | +------------+-----------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

This table shows that as far as comparisons with other countries are at all possible, mining in Great Britain has reached a level of safety with which but few other nations can compare favourably; it also brings out the very satisfactory fact that the accident death-rate is steadily decreasing, although further investigation will show that all branches of the mining industry do not share equally in the decrease. Great Britain is essentially a coal-mining country, its metal-mining having been for years constantly diminishing until it is now almost a negligible quantity; it must, however, be remarked that by one of those curious legislative freaks that are so familiar to the miner in this country, the only remaining important branch of metal-mining, namely, ironstone-mining, is for legal purposes included under the head of coal-mining, and figures as such in all these statistics. About 95 or 96 per cent. of all persons employed in mining work in the coal mines as thus legally defined, over 93 per cent. being employed in coal-mining properly so called. The following table shows the death-rates for quinquennial periods from 1875 to the end of 1899 for coal and metal miners, taken separately, using these words in their official sense:--

+------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| | Average Annual Death-rate in Great Britain |
| | per 1000 Persons Employed. |
| +-----------------------+-----------------------+
|Quinquennial| | |
| Periods. | In Coal Mines. | In Metal Mines. |
| +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| |Under- | Above | Total.|Under- | Above | Total.|
| |ground.|ground.| |ground.|ground.| |
+------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 1876–1880 | 2.752 | 0.936 | 2.396 | 2.170 | 0.432 | 1.472 |
| 1881–1885 | 2.310 | 0.962 | 2.046 | 2.338 | 0.461 | 1.600 |
| 1886–1890 | 2.038 | 0.970 | 1.834 | 2.116 | 0.318 | 1.428 |
| 1891–1895 | 1.686 | 0.874 | 1.526 | 2.250 | 0.392 | 1.482 |
| 1896–1899 | 1.462 | 0.816 | 1.340 | 1.898 | 0.468 | 1.305 |
+------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

An examination of this table shows very clearly that practically all the improvement has been confined to coal-mining. Leaving surface labour out of question for the moment, it is seen that the death-rate amongst coal miners for the period 1896–99 is little more than half of what it was in 1876–80, whilst in metal-mining there has only been a somewhat doubtful improvement of about 12½ per cent. Contrary to the popular opinion, coal-mining in this country is obviously now a very much safer employment than metal-mining, and has been so for about the last twenty years. The death-rates of surface workers have in both cases remained about stationary during the last twenty-five years. It is evidently nearly double as high at collieries as it is at metal mines, the reason for this being undoubtedly the greater complexity of surface machinery, the far more intensive rate of work at the former, and above all the fact that the surface works of the vast majority of collieries are connected by a network of railway lines and sidings. That these are a grave source of danger needs hardly any proof, but such is easily obtainable, seeing that the accident death-rate of all males in Great Britain is about 0.87[122] per 1000, whilst that of railway employés, such as pointsmen, porters, guards, etc., is no less than 2.286[122] per 1000. It is evident that the higher death-rate at the surface of collieries as compared with metalliferous mines is easily enough accounted for, and the fact is, moreover, indicated in the statistics themselves. For example, in 1899, nearly 60 per cent. of the total number of surface accidents at collieries were returned as due to this cause. The suggestion of a remedy is unfortunately a far more difficult matter; this necessarily lies largely in the hands of the men themselves, and whilst it must be admitted that working about and amongst railway trucks is a dangerous occupation, it is a danger that can be considerably lessened by the care and attention of the workers themselves.

An analysis of the causes of fatalities in coal mines leads to several important conclusions. In the first place it is obvious that the danger which is most prominently connected in the public mind with coal mines, that, namely, of explosions, is now one of the least formidable.

The death-rate from explosions within the last five years has been as follows in all the collieries of the United Kingdom:--

Death-rate
Year. per 1000 Persons
due to Explosions.
1895 0.10
1896 0.31
1897 0.03
1898 0.05
1899 0.09

These figures have now become so small that they are necessarily irregular, an accident of any magnitude, causing even a dozen deaths, being sufficient to affect the rate very greatly. The improvement within the last twenty years is extremely marked, and is due to various causes, among which may be enumerated better ventilation, the far more extended use of safety lamps, the substitution in all dangerous mines of safer explosives for the once universally used black powder, and above all, of some better method of firing for the highly dangerous “squib.” It is highly probable that further improvements may be looked for with every prospect of success in this latter direction, and that the general adoption of electric firing would be a distinctly valuable safeguard. The recognition of the fact that coal-dust is an explosive agent but little less dangerous than fire-damp, due largely to the labours of Professor W. Galloway and Mr H. Hall, and the precautions in the form of watering now adopted, have also played an important part in reducing the death-rate. It need hardly be added that most of these precautions would have been of little value, even if their introduction had been possible, unless the scientific training of managers, officials, and men alike had concurrently made considerable advances. It is scarcely possible to enforce in a coal mine laws or regulations of which the more intelligent, at any rate, amongst the miners themselves do not see the use, and legislation alone could do but little, unless there existed a general feeling in the mining community that it was tending in the right direction. It needs a certain amount of technical and scientific training, however, to enable the average coal miner to realise such a fact, and that he has been brought to realise it is one of the main factors in the increased security that men enjoy nowadays.

The main cause of disaster underground has always been, and still remains, that classed as “falls of ground,” to which considerably over half of the deaths underground are due. Explosions have now been so far brought under control that an explosion has come to be looked upon as an abnormal accident, due to a fault of omission or commission on the part of somebody, and therefore requiring careful investigation, whilst falls of ground are unfortunately still regarded as normal risks incident to the miner’s calling. These falls may be subdivided according as they are falls at the working face, when they are either falls of roof or falls of the coal face, or they are “backbye” accidents, that is to say, falls of roof in the roadways of the mine. Falls at the face are accountable for over 70 per cent. of the total number of deaths due to falls, but unfortunately our statistics do not discriminate between falls of coal and falls of roof at the face. In the absence of definite information on this important point, it is difficult to suggest what remedies should be applied, but these must depend greatly upon what may be found to be the most fertile causes of accident; falls of the roof, properly speaking, can only be avoided by setting more props, or by setting them better; falls of coal may be due to bad “spragging,” or to the undercut mass of coal falling forward, or to its coming away at one of the natural cleavage joints of the coal. In Germany a Government Commission has been appointed to inquire into the whole question of falls of ground, and no doubt the report, when issued, will throw much light upon this difficult subject. It is obvious that the two kinds of falls require entirely different treatment; systematic timbering, _i.e._, the setting of props at regular uniform distances apart, whether the roof seems to need it or not, is being advocated in several quarters, and it should certainly do something to reduce the number of accidents due to falls of roof. Falls of coal can hardly be treated in the same way; systematic spragging might do something, but would probably not of itself be sufficient. A very obvious mode of reducing the accident rate at the working face should be found in the more extensive use of coal-cutting machinery; in the first place the number of men necessary to be employed at the coal face for a given output would be very considerably reduced, and hence the number of men exposed to this danger would be proportionally diminished. Furthermore, as the machine cuts rapidly, and must be kept moving constantly if it is to be economically successful, the men working it will always be under a comparatively fresh roof, which is far less liable to sudden falls than a roof that has been laid bare for some time, the same being true also of a freshly-cut face of coal, which should never, under these conditions, be left standing long enough for the weight of the roof to affect it. Finally, a man working with a machine has a far better chance of looking about him and seeing what is going on than has a miner lying on his side, half under the coal, engaged in “kirving his holing,” that is to say, in hewing out with his pick a narrow strip of coal along the floor of the seam, an operation that has to be performed preparatory to breaking down the mass of coal.

It is highly probable that one of the conditions that has contributed very largely to the prevention of colliery explosions, namely, the extended use of safety lamps, has at the same time been a contributary cause of the non-diminution in the number of accidents due to falls of ground. Among the conditions that have been laid down from time to time by Royal Commissions and others as essential to a good safety lamp, that of giving a sufficient amount of light has been very generally overlooked, and most of the safety lamps in use give a very poor light, especially after they have been burning for a few hours. Their shape, moreover, prevents their giving a top light, so that it is scarcely possible for a miner to adequately examine the roof of his working with a safety lamp, so as to see whether it is dangerous or not. Much was hoped from the introduction of portable electric lamps, but so far these have not come up to expectations, partly because no entirely satisfactory electric lamp has yet been devised, partly because the ordinary electric lamp does not, like the ordinary safety lamp, indicate the presence of gas, and thus allows the miner to continue his work without giving him warning that he is in an atmosphere in which he ought not to remain. A really good safety lamp, giving a light all round at least equal to that of an ordinary candle, is a great desideratum at the present moment.

Of the remaining causes of accidents underground, the most serious are those connected with the transport of the coal; the various systems of mechanical or self-acting haulage in use in all collieries of any importance must always give rise to a certain number of accidents, but it can only be said that the number of these could be greatly diminished by a stricter attention to colliery regulations. A large number are due annually to men and lads riding upon the tubs, so as to save themselves the exertion of walking to or from the shaft bottom. Shaft accidents have fortunately diminished considerably within the last twenty years, having come down to about one-third of what they were; much of the improvement is no doubt due to the greater attention now being paid to the quality and condition of the winding ropes. A notable proportion of the accidents classified under this head occurs not in regular mining, but during the sinking of shafts, an operation that always of necessity involves a good deal of risk.

Turning next to metal-mining, the most striking fact is that the conditions of safety have undergone such small improvement; the figures of course fluctuate a good deal from year to year, because the total number of men engaged is so small that a very few accidents more or less affect the ratios very considerably. It should be noted that metalliferous mines, as defined by law, include a large number of mines in which no metallic minerals are wrought, and should more properly be described as all mines not included under coal mines; the metalliferous mines properly so called show a far higher death-rate than is returned for the miscellaneous mines legally described as metalliferous. Here again, as in coal mines, the largest number of casualties is due to falls of ground, by which nearly two-thirds of the total number of deaths is caused. In metal-mining, the miner’s safety must depend far more than in coal-mining upon the worker’s own judgment, experience, and carefulness; it can only be suggested that mine managers should see to it that an ample supply of suitable timber is kept close to all the working places, and that the timbering of all levels, etc., should be constantly inspected by special officials appointed for this purpose.

The most interesting problem that presents itself for solution is, however, the question why the form of mining that was the safer of the two twenty-five years ago in this country, and which is still far the safer in Germany, is now the more dangerous, and why the death-rate in one should have been reduced 50 per cent., whilst in the other it has remained practically stationary. The only salient point of difference to be found between the present regulations affecting the two forms of mining is, that whilst the Coal Mines Regulation Acts insist that no man shall be allowed to act as either manager or under-manager of a colliery unless he has passed certain prescribed examinations, any one is at liberty to manage a metalliferous mine, whether he be qualified to do so or not. The result has been that the educational level of coal miners as a whole has been raised; every intelligent coal miner knows that the only road to ultimate promotion lies through these examinations, and therefore applies himself to the scientific study of his work. There are thus growing up in every coalfield in Great Britain numbers of technically well-educated young men, from whom colliery managers can select their colliery officials, and the higher educational standard thus attained by the officials is slowly but surely affecting both the working miner on the one hand, and the manager on the other, as it is obvious that the latter dare not remain on an intellectually lower plane than his subordinates. It is probable this educational development has played a leading part in the improved conditions of safety in coal mines, not only directly, by increasing the knowledge and thinking powers of the miners, but indirectly, as already said, by rendering legislation easy that would scarcely have been possible without it, all of which merely amounts to another repetition of the statement, that improved education is the best safeguard of the miner against accident. It will be remembered that the same conclusion was already drawn from the comparison of the accident death-rates of various countries, the highest death-rates being found in the most ignorant nations. Although much has been done in this country within the last twenty-five years, very much still remains to be done in order to bring up the educational level of all connected with mining to the high standard of scientific technology that is to be found in some other countries.

It should here be pointed out that mining, and more especially coal-mining, is really not the highly dangerous occupation that it is usually thought to be. The annual average accident death-rate[123] for all males in Great Britain is 0.870 per 1000, with which the present rate for coal miners underground of 1.462 per 1000 does not compare very unfavourably. The true accident risk of the miner is perhaps best seen by comparing it with a few of the other trades that are usually classed as dangerous:--

Average Annual Accident
Occupation. Death-rate per 1000
in the years 1891–93.

Bargeman, Lighterman, etc. 3.765
Seaman, Merchant Service 3.219
Dock Labourer, etc. 2.411
Railway Guard, Porter, Pointsman, etc. 2.286
Railway Engine Driver, Stoker 1.340
General Labourer 1.155

As regards non-fatal accidents, it has already been pointed out that the official statistics of this country are of practically no value, owing to the absence of any standard or definition of what constitutes an accident to be reported. The following table shows the number of persons injured in mines (non-fatal accident cases) _according to the official statistics_:--

+------+------------------------------+
| |Number of Persons Injured per |
| | 1000 Persons Employed. |
| Year.+--------------+---------------+
| |In Coal Mines.|In Metal Mines.|
+------+--------------+---------------+
| 1895 | 7.49 | 6.96 |
| 1896 | 8.29 | 9.89 |
| 1897 | 6.42 | 8.29 |
| 1898 | 5.74 | 9.75 |
| 1899 | 5.66 | 10.10 |
+------+--------------+---------------+