Chapter V: Part 5

The most common of the fruits are dates, of which there are nearly
thirty varieties, which are sold half-ripe, ripe, dried, and pressed
in their fresh moist state in mats or skins. The pressed dates of Siwa
are among the most esteemed. The Fayum is celebrated for its grapes,
and chiefly supplies the market of Cairo. The most common grape is
white, of which there is a small kind far superior to the ordinary
sort. The black grapes are large, but comparatively tasteless. The
vines are trailed on trelliswork, and form agreeable avenues in the
gardens of Cairo. The best-known fruits, besides dates and grapes, are
figs, sycamore-figs and pomegranates, apricots and peaches, oranges
and citrons, lemons and limes, bananas, which are believed to be of
the fruits of Paradise (being always in season), different kinds of
melons (including some of aromatic flavour, and the refreshing
water-melon), mulberries, Indian figs or prickly pears, the fruit of
the lotus and olives. Among the more usual cultivated flowers are the
rose (which has ever been a favourite among the Arabs), the jasmine,
narcissus, lily, oleander, chrysanthemum, convolvulus, geranium,
dahlia, basil, the henna plant (_Lawsonia alba_, or Egyptian privet,
which is said to be a flower of Paradise), the helianthus and the
violet. Of wild flowers the most common are yellow daisies, poppies,
irises, asphodels and ranunculuses. The _Poinsettia pulcherrima_ is a
bushy tree with leaves of brilliant red.

Many kinds of reeds are found in Egypt, though they were formerly much
more common. The famous byblus or papyrus no longer exists in the
country, but other kinds of _cyperi_ are found. The lotus, greatly
prized for its flowers by the ancient inhabitants, is still found in
the Delta, though never in the Nile itself. There are two varieties of
this water-lily, one with white flowers, the other with blue.

_Fauna._--The chief quadrupeds are all domestic animals. Of these the
camel and the ass are the most common. The ass, often a tall and
handsome creature, is indigenous. When the camel was first introduced
into Egypt is uncertain--it is not pictured on the ancient monuments.
Neither is the buffalo, which with the sheep is very numerous in
Egypt. The horses are of indifferent breed, apparently of a type much
inferior to that possessed by the ancient Egyptians. Wild animals are
few. The principal are the hyena, jackal and fox. The wild boar is
found in the Delta. Wolves are rare. Numerous gazelles inhabit the
deserts. The ibex is found in the Sinaitic peninsula and the hills
between the Nile and the Red Sea, and the mouflon, or maned sheep, is
occasionally seen in the same regions. The desert hare is abundant in
parts of the Fayum, and a wild cat, or lynx, frequents the marshy
regions of the Delta. The ichneumon (Pharaoh's rat) is common and
often tame; the coney and jerboa are found in the eastern mountains.
Bats are very numerous. The crocodile is no longer found in Egypt, nor
the hippopotamus, in ancient days a frequenter of the Nile. The common
or pariah dog is generally of sandy colour; in Upper Egypt there is a
breed of wiry rough-haired black dogs, noted for their fierceness.
Among reptiles are several kinds of venomous snakes--the horned viper,
the hooded snake and the echis. Lizards of many kinds are found,
including the monitor. There are many varieties of beetle, including a
number of species representing the scarabaeus of the ancients. Locusts
are comparatively rare. The scorpion, whose sting is sometimes fatal,
is common. There are many large and poisonous spiders and flies; fleas
and mosquitoes abound. Fish are plentiful in the Nile, both scaled and
without scales. The scaly fish include members of the carp and perch
kind. The _bayad_, a scaleless fish commonly eaten, reaches sometimes
3-1/2 ft. in length. A somewhat rare fish is the _Polypterus_, which
has thick bony scales and 16 to 18 long dorsal fins. The _Tetrodon_,
or ball fish, is found in the Red Sea, as well as in the Nile.

Some 300 species of birds are found in Egypt, and one of the most
striking features of a journey up the Nile is the abundance of bird
life. Many of the species are sedentary, others are winter visitants,
while others again simply pass through Egypt on their way to or from
warmer or colder regions. Birds of prey are very numerous, including
several varieties of eagles--the osprey, the spotted, the golden and
the imperial. Of vultures the black and white Egyptian variety
(_Neophron percnopterus_) is most common. The griffon and the black
vulture are also frequently seen. There are many kinds of kites,
falcons and hawks, kestrel being numerous. The long-legged buzzard is
found throughout Egypt, as are owls. The so-called Egyptian eagle owl
(_Bubo ascalaphus_) is rather rare, but the barn owl is common. The
kingfisher is found beside every watercourse, a black and white
species (_Ceryle rudis_) being much more numerous than the common
kingfisher. Pigeons and hoopoes abound in every village. There are
various kinds of plovers--the black-headed species (_Pluvianus
Aegyptius_) is most numerous in Upper Egypt; the golden plover and the
white-tailed species are found chiefly in the Delta. The spurwing is
supposed to be the bird mentioned by Herodotus as eating the parasites
covering the inside of the mouth of the crocodile. Of game-birds the
most plentiful are sandgrouse, quail (a bird of passage) and snipe.
Red-legged and other partridges are found in the eastern desert and
the Sinai hills. Of aquatic birds there is a great variety. Three
species of pelican exist, including the large Dalmatian pelican.
Storks, cranes, herons and spoonbills are common. The sacred ibis is
not found in Egypt, but the buff-backed heron, the constant companion
of the buffalo, is usually called an ibis. The glossy ibis is
occasionally seen. The flamingo, common in the lakes of Lower Egypt,
is not found on the Nile. Geese, duck and teal are abundant. The most
common goose is the white-fronted variety; the Egyptian goose is more
rare. Both varieties are depicted on the ancient monuments; the
white-fronted goose being commonly shown. Several birds of gorgeous
plumage come north into Egypt in the spring, among others the golden
oriole, the sun-bird, the roller and the blue-cheeked bee-eater.

_Egypt as a Health Resort._--The country is largely resorted to during
the winter months by Europeans in search of health as well as
pleasure. Upper Egypt is healthier than Lower Egypt, where, especially
near the coast, malarial fevers and diseases of the respiratory organs
are not uncommon. The least healthy time of the year is the latter
part of autumn, when the inundated soil is drying. In the desert, at a
very short distance from the cultivable land, the climate is uniformly
dry and unvaryingly healthy. The most suitable places for the
residence of invalids are Helwan, where there are natural mineral
springs, in the desert, 14 m. S. of Cairo, and Luxor and Assuan in
Upper Egypt.

The diseases from which Egyptians suffer are very largely the result
of insanitary surroundings. In this respect a great improvement has
taken place since the British occupation in 1882. Plague, formerly one
of the great scourges of the country, seems to have been stamped out,
the last visitation having been in 1844, but cholera epidemics
occasionally occur.[2] Cholera rarely extends south of Cairo. In 1848
it is believed that over 200,000 persons died from cholera, but later
epidemics have been much less fatal. Smallpox is not uncommon, and
skin diseases are numerous, but the two most prevalent diseases among
the Egyptians are dysentery and ophthalmia. The objection entertained
by many natives to entering hospitals or to altering their traditional
methods of "cure" renders these diseases much more malignant and fatal
than they would be in other circumstances. The government, however,
enforces certain health regulations, and the sanitary service is under
the direction of a European official.

_Chief Towns._--Cairo (q.v.) the capital, a city of Arab foundation, is built on the east bank of the Nile, about 12 m, above the point where the river divides, and in reference to its situation at the head of the Delta has been called by the Arabs "the diamond stud in the handle of the fan of Egypt." It has a population (1907) of 654,476 and is the largest city in Africa. Next in importance of the cities of Egypt and the chief seaport is Alexandria (q.v.), pop. (with Ramleh) 370,009, on the shore of the Mediterranean at the western end of the Delta. Port Said (q.v.), pop. 49,884, at the eastern end of the Delta, and at the north entrance to the Suez Canal, is the second seaport. Between Alexandria and Port Said are the towns of Rosetta (q.v.), pop. 16,810, and Damietta (q.v.), pop. 29,354, each built a few miles above the mouth of the branch of the Nile of the same name. In the middle ages, when Alexandria was in decay, these two towns were busy ports; with the revival of Alexandria under Mehemet Ali and the foundation of Port Said (c. 1860), their trade declined. The other ports of Egypt are Suez (q.v.), pop. 18,347, at the south entrance of the canal, Kosseir (794) on the Red Sea, the seat of the trade carried on between Upper Egypt and Arabia, Mersa Matruh, near the Tripolitan frontier, and El-Arish, pop. 5897, on the Mediterranean, near the frontier of Palestine, and a halting-place on the caravan route from Egypt to Syria. In the interior of the Delta are many flourishing towns, the largest being Tanta, pop. 54,437, which occupies a central position. Damanhur (38,752) lies on the railway between Tanta and Alexandria; Mansura (40,279) is on the Damietta branch of the Nile, to the N.E. of Tanta; Zagazig (34,999) is the largest town in the Delta east of the Damietta branch; Bilbeis (13,485) lies N.N.E. of Cairo, on the edge of the desert and in the ancient Land of Goshen. Ismailia (10,373) is situated midway on the Suez Canal. All these towns, which depend largely on the cotton industry, are separately noticed.

Other towns in Lower Egypt are: Mehallet el-Kubra, pop. 47,955, 16 m. by rail N.E. of Tanta, with manufactories of silk and cottons; Salihia (6100), E.N.E. of and terminus of a railway from Zagazig, on the edge of the desert south of Lake Menzala, and the starting-point of the caravans to Syria; Mataria (15,142) on Lake Menzala and headquarters of the fishing industry; Zifta (15,850) on the Damietta branch and the site of a barrage; Samanud (14,408), also on the Damietta branch, noted for its pottery, and Fua (14,515), where large quantities of tarbushes are made, on the Rosetta branch. Shibin el-Kom (21,576), 16 m. S. of Tanta, is a cotton centre, and Menuf (22,316), 8 m. S.W. of Shibin, in the fork between the branches of the Nile, is the chief town of a rich agricultural district. There are many other towns in the Delta with populations between 10,000 and 20,000.

In Upper Egypt the chief towns are nearly all in the narrow valley of the Nile. The exceptions are the towns in the oases comparatively unimportant, and those in the Fayum province. The capital of the Fayum, Medinet el-Fayum, has a population (1907) of 37,320. The chief towns on the Nile, taking them in their order in ascending the river from Cairo, are Beni Suef, Minia, Assiut, Akhmim, Suhag, Girga, Kena, Luxor, Esna, Edfu, Assuan and Korosko. Beni Suef (23,357) is 77 m. from Cairo by rail. It is on the west bank of the river, is the capital of a _mudiria_ and a centre for the manufacture of woollen goods. Minia (27,221) is 77 m. by rail farther south. It is also the capital of a mudiria, has a considerable European colony, possesses a large sugar factory and some cotton mills. It is the starting-point of a road to the Baharia oasis. Assiut (q.v.), pop. 39,442, is 235 m. S. of Cairo by rail, and is the most important commercial centre in Upper Egypt. At this point a barrage is built across the river. Suhag (17,514) is 56 m. by rail S. of Assiut and is the headquarters of Girga mudiria. The ancient and celebrated Coptic monasteries El Abiad (the white) and El Ahmar (the red) are 3 to 4 m. W. and N.W. respectively of Suhag. A few miles above Suhag, on the opposite (east) side of the Nile is Akhmim (q.v.) or Ekhmim (23,795), where silk and cotton goods are made. Girga (q.v.), pop. 19,893, is 22 m. S. by rail of Suhag, and on the same (the west) side of the river. It is noted for its pottery. Kena (q.v.), pop. 20,069, is on the east bank of the Nile, 145 m. by rail from Assiut. It is the chief seat of the manufacture of the porous earthenware water-bottles used all over Egypt. Luxor (q.v.), pop. (with Karnak) 25,229, marks the site of Thebes. It is 418 m. from Cairo, and here the gauge of the railway is altered from broad to narrow. Esna (q.v.), pop. 19,103, is another place where pottery is made in large quantities. It is on the west bank of the Nile, 36 m. by rail S. of Luxor. Edfu (q.v.), pop. 19,262, is also on the west side of the river, 30 m. farther south. It is chiefly famous for its ancient temple. Assuan (q.v.), pop. 12,618, is at the foot of the First Cataract and 551 m. S. of Cairo by rail. Three miles farther south, at Shellal, the Egyptian railway terminates. Korosko, 118 m. by river above Assuan, is a small place notable as the northern terminus of the caravan route from the Sudan across the Nubian desert. Since the building of the railway--which starts 96 m. higher up, at Wadi Halfa--to Khartum, this route is little used, and Korosko has lost what importance it had.

_Ancient Cities and Monuments._--Many of the modern cities of Egypt are built on the sites of ancient cities, and they generally contain some monuments of the time of the Pharaohs, Greeks or Romans. The sites of other ancient cities now in complete ruin may be indicated. Memphis, the Pharaonic capital, was on the west bank of the Nile, some 14 m. above Cairo, and Heliopolis lay some 5 m. N.N.E. of Cairo. The pyramids of Giza or Gizeh, on the edge of the desert, 8 m. west of Cairo, are the largest of the many pyramids and other monuments, including the famous Sphinx, built in the neighbourhood of Memphis. The site of Thebes has already been indicated. Syene stood near to where the town of Assuan now is; opposite, on an island in the Nile, are scanty ruins of the city of Elephantine, and a little above, on another island, is the temple of Philae. The ancient Coptos (Keft) is represented by the village of Kuft, between Luxor and Kena. A few miles north of Kena is Dendera, with a famous temple. The ruins of Abydos, one of the oldest places in Egypt, are 8 m. S.W. of Balliana, a small town in Girga mudiria. The ruined temples of Abu Simbel are on the west side of the Nile, 56 m. above Korosko. On the Red Sea, south of Kosseir, are the ruins of Myos Hormos and Berenice. Of the ancient cities in the Delta there are remains, among others, of Sais, Iseum, Tanis, Bubastis, Onion, Sebennytus, Pithom, Pelusium, and of the Greek cities Naucratis and Daphnae. There are, besides the more ancient cities and monuments, a number of Coptic towns, monasteries and churches in almost every part of Egypt, dating from the early centuries of Christianity. The monasteries, or _ders_, are generally fort-like buildings and are often built in the desert. Tombs of Mahommedan saints are also numerous, and are often placed on the summit of the cliffs overlooking the Nile. The traveller in Egypt thus views, side by side with the activities of the present day, where occident and orient meet and clash, memorials of every race and civilization which has flourished in the valley of the Nile.

_Trade Routes and Communications._--Its geographical position gives Egypt command of one of the most important trade routes in the world. It is, as it were, the fort which commands the way from Europe to the East. This has been the case from time immemorial, and the provision, in 1869, of direct maritime communication between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, by the completion of the Suez Canal, ensured for the Egyptian route the supremacy in sea-borne traffic to Asia, which the discovery of the passage to India by way of the Cape of Good Hope had menaced for three and a half centuries. The Suez Canal is 87 m. long, 66 actual canal and 21 lakes. It has sufficient depth to allow vessels drawing 27 ft. of water to pass through. It is administered by a company whose headquarters are in Paris, and no part of its revenue reaches the Egyptian exchequer (see SUEZ CANAL). Besides the many steamship lines which use the Suez Canal, other steamers run direct from European ports to Alexandria. There is also a direct mail service between Suez and Port Sudan.

The chief means of internal communication are, in the Delta the
railways, in Upper Egypt the railway and the river. The railways are
of two kinds: (1) those state-owned and state-worked, (2) agricultural
light railways owned and worked by private companies. Railway
construction dates from 1852, when the line from Alexandria to Cairo
was begun, by order of Abbas I. The state railways, unless otherwise
indicated, have a gauge of 4 ft. 8-1/2 in. The main system is
extremely simple. Trunk lines from Alexandria (via Damanhur and Tanta)
and from Port Said (via Ismailia) traverse the Delta and join at
Cairo. From Cairo the railway is continued south up the valley of the
Nile and close to the river. At first it follows the west bank,
crossing the stream at Nag Hamadi, 354 m. from Cairo, by an iron
bridge 437 yds. long. Thence it continues on the east bank to Luxor,
where the broad gauge ceases. From Luxor the line continues on the
standard African gauge (3 ft. 6 in.) to Shellal, 3 m. above Assuan and
685 m. from Alexandria. This main line service is supplemented by a
steamer service on the Nile from Shellal to Wadi Halfa, on the
northern frontier of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, whence there is direct
railway communication with Khartum and the Red Sea (see SUDAN).

Branch lines connect Cairo and Alexandria with Suez and with almost
every town in the Delta. From Cairo to Suez via Ismailia is a distance
of 160 m. Before the Suez Canal was opened passengers and goods were
taken to Suez from Cairo by a railway 84 m. long which ran across the
desert. This line, now disused, had itself superseded the "overland
route" organized by Lieut. Thomas Waghorn, R.N., c. 1830, for the
conveyance of passengers and mails to India. In Upper Egypt a line, 40
m. long, runs west from Wasta, a station 56 m. S. of Cairo, to Abuksa
in the Fayum mudiria. Another railway goes from Kharga Junction, a
station on the main line 24 m. S. of Girga, to the oasis of Kharga.
These lines are privately owned.

In the Delta the light railways supplement the ordinary lines and
connect the villages with the towns and seaports. There are over 700
m. of these lines. The railway development of Egypt has not been very
rapid. In 1880 944 m. of state lines were open; in 1900 the figure was
1393, and in 1905, 1688. For several years before 1904 the
administration of the railways was carried on by an international or
mixed board for the security of foreign creditors. In the year named
the railways came directly under the control of the Egyptian
government, which during the next four years spent LE.3,000,000 on
improving and developing the lines. In the five years 1902-1906 the
capital value of the state railways increased from LE.20,383,000 to
LE.23,200,000 and the net earnings from LE.1,059,000 to LE. 1,475,000.
The number of passengers carried in the same period rose from 12-1/2
to over 22 millions, and the weight of goods from slightly under
3,000,000 to nearly 6,750,000 tons. In 1906 the light railways carried
nearly a million tons of goods and over 6,800,000 passengers.

Westward from Alexandria a railway, begun in 1904 by the khedive,
Abbas II., runs parallel with the coast, and is intended to be
continued to Tripoli. The line forms the eastern end of the great
railway system which will eventually extend from Tangier to
Alexandria.

The Nile is navigable throughout its course in Egypt, and is largely
used as a means of cheap transit of heavy goods. Lock and bridge tolls
were abolished in 1899 and 1901 respectively. As a result, river
traffic greatly increased. Above Cairo the Nile is the favourite
tourist route, while between Shellal (Assuan) and the Sudan frontier
it is the only means of communication. Among the craft using the river
the dahabiya is a characteristic native sailing vessel, somewhat
resembling a house-boat. From the Nile, caravan routes lead westward
to the various oases and eastward to the Red Sea, the shortest (120
m.) and most used of the eastern routes being that from Kena to
Kosseir. Roads suitable for wheeled vehicles are found in Lower Egypt,
but the majority of the tracks are bridle-paths, goods being conveyed
on the backs of donkeys, mules and camels.

_Posts and Telegraphs._--The Egyptian postal system is highly
organized and efficient, and in striking contrast with its condition
in 1870, when there were but nineteen post-offices in the country. All
the branches of business transacted in European post-offices are
carried on by the Egyptian service, Egypt being a member of the Postal
Union. It was the first foreign country to establish a penny postage
with Great Britain, the reduction from 2-1/2d. being made in 1905. The
inland letters and packages carried yearly exceed 20,000,000 and
foreign letters (30% to England) number over 4,000,000. Over
L17,000,000 passes yearly through the post. A feature of the service
are the travelling post-offices, of which there are some 200.

All the important towns are connected by telegraph, the telegraphs
being state-owned and worked by the railway administration. Egypt is
also connected by cables and land-lines with the outside world. One
land-line connects at El-Arish with the line through Syria and Asia
Minor to Constantinople. Another line connects at Wadi Halfa with the
Sudan system, affording direct telegraphic communication via Khartum
and Gondokoro with Uganda and Mombasa. The Eastern Telegraph Company,
by concessions, have telegraph lines across Egypt from Alexandria via
Cairo to Suez, and from Port Said to Suez, connecting their cables to
Europe and the East. The principal cables are from Alexandria to
Malta, Gibraltar and England; from Alexandria to Crete and Brindisi;
from Suez to Aden, Bombay, China and Australia.

The telephone is largely used in the big towns, and there is a trunk
telephone line connecting Alexandria and Cairo.

_Standard Time._--The standard time adopted in Egypt is that of the
longitude of Alexandria, 30 deg. E., i.e. two hours earlier than
Greenwich time. It thus corresponds with the standard time of British
South Africa.

_Agriculture and Land Tenure._--The chief industry of Egypt is agriculture. The proportions of the industry depend upon the area of land capable of cultivation. This again depends upon the fertilizing sediment brought down by the Nile and the measure in which lands beyond the natural reach of the flood water can be rendered productive by irrigation. By means of canals, "basins," dams and barrages, the Nile flood is now utilized to a greater extent than ever before (see IRRIGATION: _Egypt_). The result has been a great increase in the area of cultivated or cultivable land.

At the time of the French occupation of Egypt in 1798, it was found that the cultivable soil covered 4,429,400 acres, but the quantity actually under cultivation did not exceed 3,520,000 acres, or six-elevenths of the entire surface. Under improved conditions the area of cultivated land, or land in process of reclamation, had risen in 1906 to 5,750,000 acres, while another 500,000 acres of waste land awaited reclamation.

Throughout Egypt the cultivable soil does not present any very great difference, being always the deposit of the river; it contains, however, more sand near the river than at a distance from it. Towards the Mediterranean its quality is injured by the salt with which the air is impregnated, and therefore it is not so favourable to vegetation. Of the cultivated land, some three-fourths is held, theoretically, in life tenancy. The state, as ultimate proprietor, imposes a tax which is the equivalent of rent. These lands are _Kharaji_ lands, in distinction from the _Ushuri_ or tithe-paying lands. The _Ushuri_ lands were originally granted in fee, and are subject to a quit-rent. All tenants are under obligation to guard or repair the banks of the Nile in times of flood, or in any case of sudden emergency. Only to this extent does the _corvee_ now prevail. The land-tax is proportionate, i.e. land under perennial irrigation pays higher taxes than land not so irrigated (see below, _Finance_). The unit of land is the _feddan_, which equals 1.03 acre. Out of 1,153,759 proprietors of land in 1905, 1,005,705 owned less than 5 _feddans_. The number of proprietors owning over 50 _feddans_ was 12,475. The acreage held by the first class was 1,264,084, that by the second class, 2,356,602. Over 1,600,000 _feddans_ were held in holdings of from 5 to 50 _feddans_. The state domains cover over 240,000 _feddans_, and about 600,000 _feddans_ are owned by foreigners. The policy of the government is to maintain the small proprietors, and to do nothing tending to oust the native in favour of European landowners.

The kind of crops cultivated depends largely on whether the land is under perennial, flood or "basin" irrigation. Perennial irrigation is possible where there are canals which can be supplied with water all the year round from the Nile. This condition exists throughout the Delta and Middle Egypt, but only in parts of Upper Egypt. Altogether some 4,000,000 acres are under perennial irrigation. In these regions two and sometimes three crops can be harvested yearly. In places where perennial irrigation is impossible, the land is divided by rectangular dikes into "basins." Into these basins--which vary in area from 600 to 50,000 acres--water is led by shallow canals when the Nile is in flood. The water is let in about the middle of August and the basins are begun to be emptied about the 1st of October. The land under basin irrigation covers about 1,750,000 acres. In the basins only one crop can be grown in the year. This basin system is of immemorial use in Egypt, and it was not until the time of Mehemet Ali (c. 1820) that perennial irrigation began. High land near the banks of the Nile which cannot be reached by canals is irrigated by raising water from the Nile by steam-pumps, water-wheels (_sakias_) worked by buffaloes, or water-lifts (_shadufs_) worked by hand. There are several thousand steam-pumps and over 100,000 _sakias_ or _shadufs_ in Egypt. The _fellah_ divides his land into little square plots by ridges of earth, and from the small canal which serves his holding he lets the water into each plot as needed. The same system obtains on large estates (see further IRRIGATION: _Egypt_). There are three agricultural seasons: (1) summer (_sefi_), 1st of April to 31st of July, when crops are grown only on land under perennial irrigation; (2) flood (_Nili_), 1st of August to 30th of November; and (3) winter (_shetwi_), 1st of December to 31st of March. Cotton, sugar and rice are the chief summer crops; wheat, barley, flax and vegetables are chiefly winter crops; maize, millet and "flood" rice are _Nili_ crops; millet and vegetables are also, but in a less degree, summer crops. The approximate areas under cultivation in the various seasons are, in summer, 2,050,000 acres; in flood, 1,500,000 acres; in winter, 4,300,000 acres. The double-cropped area is over 2,000,000 acres. Although on the large farms iron ploughs, and threshing and grain-cleaning machines, have been introduced, the small cultivator prefers the simple native plough made of wood. Corn is threshed by a _norag_, a machine resembling a chair, which moves on small iron wheels or thin circular plates fixed to axle-trees, and is drawn in a circle by oxen.

_Crops._--Egypt is third among the cotton-producing countries of the
world. Its production per acre is the greatest of any country but,
owing to the restricted area available, the bulk raised is not more
than one-tenth of that of the United States and about half that of
India. Some 1,600,000 acres of land, five-sixths being in Lower Egypt,
are devoted to cotton growing. The climate of Lower Egypt being very
suitable to the growth of the plant, the cotton produced there is of
excellent quality. The seed is sown at the end of February or
beginning of March and the crop is picked in September and October.
The cotton crop increased from 1,700,000 _kantars_[3] in 1878 to
4,100,000 in 1890, had reached 5,434,000 in 1900, and was 6,750,000 in
1905. Its average value, 1897-1905, was over L14,000,000 a year. The
cotton exported was valued in 1907 at LE.23,598,000, in 1908 at
LE.17,091,612.

While cotton is grown chiefly in the Delta, the sugar plantations,
which cover about 100,000 acres, are mainly in Upper Egypt. The canes
are planted in March and are cut in the following January or February.
Although since 1884 the production of sugar has largely increased,
there has not been a corresponding increase in its value, owing to the
low price obtained in the markets of the world. Beetroot is also grown
to a limited extent for the manufacture of sugar. The sugar exported
varied in annual value in the period 1884-1905 from L400,000 to
L765,000.

A coarse and strong tobacco was formerly extensively grown, but its
cultivation was prohibited in 1890. Flax and hemp are grown in a few
places.

Maize in Lower Egypt and millet (of which there are several varieties)
in Upper Egypt are largely grown for home consumption, these grains
forming a staple food of the peasantry. The stalk of the maize is also
a very useful article. It is used in the building of the houses of the
fellahin, as fuel, and, when green, as food for cattle. Wheat and
barley are important crops, and some 2,000,000 acres are sown with
them yearly. The barley in general is not of good quality, but the
desert or "Mariut" barley, grown by the Bedouins in the coast region
west of Alexandria, is highly prized for the making of beer. Beans and
lentils are extensively sown, and form an important article of export.
The annual value of the crops is over L3,000,000. Rice is largely
grown in the northern part of the Delta, where the soil is very wet.
Two kinds are cultivated: _Sultani_, a summer crop, and _Sabaini_, a
flood crop. _Sabaini_ is a favourite food of the fellahin, while
_Sultani_ rice is largely exported. In the absence of grass, the chief
green food for cattle and horses is clover, grown largely in the basin
lands of Upper Egypt. To a less extent vetches are grown for the same
purpose.

_Vegetables and Fruit._--Vegetables grow readily, and their
cultivation is an important part of the work of the fellahin. The
onion is grown in great quantities along the Nile banks in Upper
Egypt, largely for export. Among other vegetables commonly raised are
tomatoes (the bulk of which are exported), potatoes (of poor quality),
leeks, marrows, cucumbers, cauliflowers, lettuce, asparagus and
spinach.

The common fruits are the date, orange, citron, fig, grape, apricot,
peach and banana. Olives, melons, mulberries and strawberries are also
grown, though not in very large numbers. The olive tree flourishes
only in the Fayum and the oases. The Fayum also possesses extensive
vineyards. The date is a valuable economic asset. There are some
6,000,000 date-palms in the country, 4,000,000 being in Upper Egypt.
The fruit is one of the chief foods of the people. The value of the
crop is about L1,500,000 a year.

_Roses and Dyes._--There are fields of roses in the Fayum, which
supply the market with rose-water. Of plants used for dyeing, the
principal are bastard saffron, madder, woad and the indigo plant. The
leaves of the henna plant are used to impart a bright red colour to
the palms of the hands, the soles of the feet, and the nails of both
hands and feet, of women and children, the hair of old ladies and the
tails of horses. Indigo is very extensively employed to dye the
shirts of the natives of the poorer classes; and is, when very dark,
the colour of mourning; therefore, women at funerals, and generally
after a death, smear themselves with it.

_Domestic Animals._--The Egyptians are not particularly a pastoral
people, though the wealth of the Bedouin in the Eastern or Arabian
Desert consists in their camels, horses, sheep and goats. In the Nile
valley the chief domestic animals are the camel, donkey, mule, ox,
buffalo, sheep and goat. Horses are comparatively few, and are seldom
seen outside the large towns, the camel and donkey being the principal
beasts of burden. The cattle are short-horned, rather small and well
formed. They are quiet in disposition, and much valued for
agricultural labour by the people, who therefore very rarely slaughter
them for meat. Buffaloes of an uncouth appearance and of a dark slaty
colour, strikingly contrasting with the neat cattle, abound in Egypt.
They are very docile, and the little children of the villagers often
ride them to or from the river. The buffaloes are largely employed for
turning the _sakias_. Sheep (of which the greater number are black)
and goats are abundant, and mutton is the ordinary butcher's meat. The
wool is coarse and short. Swine are very rarely kept, and then almost
wholly for the European inhabitants, the Copts generally abstaining
from eating their meat. Poultry is plentiful and eggs form a
considerable item in the exports. Pigeons are kept in every village
and their flesh is a common article of food.

_Fishing._--The chief fishing-ground is Lake Menzala, where some 4000
persons are engaged in the industry, but fish abound in the Nile also,
and are caught in large quantities along the coast of the Delta. The
salting and curing of the fish is done chiefly at Mataria, on Lake
Menzala, and at Damietta. Dried and salted fish eggs, called
_batarekh_, command a ready market. The average annual value of the
fisheries is about L200,000.

_Canals._--The irrigation canals, which are also navigable by small
craft, are of especial importance in a country where the rainfall is
very slight. The Delta is intersected by numerous canals which derive
their supply from four main channels. The Rayya Behera, known in its
lower courses first as the Khatatba and afterwards as the Rosetta
canal, follows the west bank of the Rosetta branch of the Nile and has
numerous offshoots. The most important is the Mahmudia (50 m. long),
which connects Alexandria with the Rosetta branch, taking a similar
direction to that of the ancient canal which it succeeded. This canal
supplies Alexandria with fresh water.

The Rayya Menufia, or Menuf canal, connects the two branches of the
Nile and supplies water to the large number of canals in the central
part of the Delta. Following the right (eastern) bank of the Damietta
branch is the Rayya Tewfiki, known below Benha as the Mansuria, and
below Mansura as the Fareskur, canal. This canal has many branches.
Farther east are other canals, of which the most remarkable occupy in
part the beds of the Tanitic and Pelusiac branches. That following the
old Tanitic channel is called the canal of Al-Mo'izz, the first
Fatimite caliph who ruled in Egypt, having been dug by his orders, and
the latter bears the name of the canal of Abu-l-Muneggi, a Jew who
executed this work, under the caliph Al-Amir, in order to water the
province called the Sharkia. From this circumstance this canal is also
known as the Sharkawia. From a town on its bank it is called in its
lower course the Shibini canal. The superfluous water from all the
Delta canals is drained off by _bahrs_ (rivers) into the coast lakes.
The Ismailia or Fresh-water canal branches from the Nile at Cairo and
follows, in the main, the course of the canal which anciently joined
the Nile and the Red Sea. It dates from Pharaonic times, having been
begun by "Sesostris," continued by Necho II. and by Darius Hystaspes,
and at length finished by Ptolemy Philadelphus. This canal, having
fallen into disrepair, was restored in the 7th century A.D. by the
Arabs who conquered Egypt, but appears not long afterwards to have
again become unserviceable. The existing canal was dug in 1863 to
supply fresh water to the towns on the Suez Canal. Although designed
for irrigation purposes, the Delta canals are also used for the
transport of passengers and goods.

In Upper Egypt the most important canals are the Ibrahimia and the
Bahr Yusuf (the River of Joseph). They are both on the west side of
the Nile. The Ibrahimia takes its water from the Nile at Assiut, and
runs south to below Beni Suef. It now supplies the Bahr Yusuf, which
runs parallel with and west of the Ibrahimia, until it diverges to
supply the Fayum--a distance of some 350 m. It leaves the Ibrahimia at
Derut near its original point of departure from the Nile. Although the
Joseph whence it takes its name is the celebrated Saladin, it is
related that he merely repaired it, and it is not doubted to be of a
much earlier period. Most probably it was executed under the Pharaohs.
By some authorities it is believed to be a natural channel canalized.
Besides supplying the canals of the Fayum with summer water, it fills
many of the "basins" of Upper Egypt with water in flood time.

_Manufactures and Native Industries._--Although essentially an agricultural country, Egypt possesses several manufactures. In connexion with the cotton industry there are a few mills where calico is made or oil crushed, and ginning-mills are numerous. In Upper Egypt there are a number of factories for sugar-crushing and refining, and one or two towns of the Delta possess rice mills. Flour mills are found in every part of the country, the maize and other grains being ground for home consumption. Soap-making and leather-tanning are carried on, and there are breweries at Alexandria and Cairo. The manufacture of tobacco into cigarettes, carried on largely at Alexandria and Cairo, is another important industry. Native industries include the weaving of silk, woollen, linen and cotton goods, the hand-woven silk shawls and draperies being often rich and elegant. The silk looms are chiefly at Mehallet el-Kubra, Cairo and Damietta. The Egyptians are noted for the making of pottery of the commoner kinds, especially water-jars. There is at Cairo and in other towns a considerable industry in ornamental wood and metal work, inlaying with ivory and pearl, brass trays, copper vessels, gold and silver ornaments, &c. At Cairo and in the Fayum, attar of roses and other perfumes are manufactured. Boat-building is an important trade.

_Commerce._--The trade of Egypt has developed enormously since the
British occupation in 1882 ensured to all classes of the community the
enjoyment of the profit of their labour. The total value of the
exterior trade increased in the 20 years 1882 to 1902 from L19,000,000
to L32,400,000. The wealth of Egypt lying in the cultivation of its
soil, almost all the exports are agricultural produce, while the
imports are mostly manufactured goods, minerals and hardware. The
chief exports in order of importance are: raw cotton, cotton seed,
sugar, beans, cigarettes, onions, rice and gum-arabic. The gum is not
of native produce, being in transit from the Sudan. Of less importance
are the exports of hides and skins, eggs, wheat and other grains,
wool, quails, lentils, dates and Sudan produce in transit. The
principal articles imported are: cotton goods and other textiles,
coal, iron and steel, timber, tobacco, machinery, flour, alcoholic
liquors, petroleum, fruits, coffee and live animals. There is an _ad
valorem_ duty of 8% on imports and of about 1% on exports. Tobacco and
precious stones and metals pay heavier duties. The tobacco is imported
chiefly from Turkey and Greece, is made into cigarettes in Egypt, and
in this form exported to the value of about L500,000 yearly.

In comparison with cotton, all other exports are of minor account. The
cotton exported, of which Great Britain takes more than half, is worth
over three-fourths of the total value of goods sent abroad. Next to
cotton, sugar is the most important article exported. A large
proportion of the sugar manufactured is, however, consumed in the
country and does not figure in the trade returns. Of the imports the
largest single item is cotton goods, nearly all being sent from
England. Woollen goods come chiefly from England, Austria and Germany,
silk goods from France. Large quantities of ready-made clothes and
fezes are imported from Austria. Iron and steel goods, machinery,
locomotives, &c., come chiefly from England, Belgium and Germany, coal
from England, live stock from Turkey and the Red Sea ports, coffee
from Brazil, timber from Russia, Turkey and Sweden.

A British consular report (No. 3121, annual series), issued in 1904,
shows that in the period 1887-1902 the import trade of Egypt nearly
doubled. In the same period the proportion of imports from the United
Kingdom fell from 39.63 to 36.76%. Though the percentage decreased,
the value of imports from Great Britain increased in the same period
from L2,500,000 to L4,500,000. In addition to imports from the United
Kingdom, British possessions took 6.0% of the import trade. Next to
Great Britain, Turkey had the largest share of the import trade, but
it had declined in the sixteen years from 19 to 15%. France about 10%,
and Austria 6.72%, came next, but their import trade was declining,
while that of Germany had risen from less than 1 to over 3%, and
Belgium imports from 1.74 to 4.27%.

In the same period (1887-1902) Egyptian exports to Great Britain
decreased from 63.25 to 52.30%, Germany and the United States showing
each an increase of over 6.0%. Exports to Germany had increased from
0.13 to 6.75%, to the United States from 0.26 to 6.70%. Exports to
France had remained practically stationary at 8.0%; those to Austria
had dropped from 6.3% to 4.0%, to Russia from 9.11 to 8.43%.

For the quinquennial period 1901-1905, the average annual value of the
exterior trade was:--imports L17,787,296; exports L18,811,588; total
L36,598,884. In 1907 the total value of the merchandise imported and
exported, exclusive of transit, re-exportation and specie, was
LE.54,134,000--constituting a record trade return. The value of the
imports was LE.26,121,000, of the exports LE.28,013,000.

_Shipping._--More than 90% of the external trade passes through the
port of Alexandria. Port Said, which in consequence of its position at
the northern entrance of the Suez Canal has more frequent and regular
communication with Europe, is increasing in importance and is the port
where mails and passengers are landed. Over 3000 ships enter and clear
harbour at Alexandria every year. The total tonnage entering the port
increased in the five years 1901-1905 from 2,555,259 to 3,591,281. In
the same period the percentage of British shipping, which before 1900
was nearly 50, varied from 40 to 45. No other nation had more than 12%
of the tonnage, Italy, France, Austria and Turkey each having 9 to
12%. The tonnage of German ships increased in the five years mentioned
from 3 to 7%. In number of steamships entering the harbour Great
Britain is first, with some 800 yearly, or about 50% of all steamers
entering. The sailing boats entering the harbour are almost entirely
Turkish. They are vessels of small tonnage.

The transit trade with the East, which formerly passed overland
through Egypt, has been diverted to the Suez Canal, the traffic
through which has little to do with the trade or shipping of Egypt.
The number of ships using the canal increased in the 20 years
1880-1900 from 2000 to 4000, while in the same period the tonnage rose
from 4,300,000 to 14,000,000. In 1905 the figures were:--Number of
ships that passed through the canal, 4116 (2484 being British and 600
German), net tonnage 13,134,105 (8,356,940 British and 2,113,484
German). Next to British and German the nationality of ships using the
canal in order of importance is French, Dutch, Austrian, Italian and
Russian. About 250,000 passengers (including some 40,000 pilgrims to
Mecca) pass through the canal in a year (see further SUEZ).

_Currency._--The monetary system in force dates from 1885, when
through the efforts of Sir Edgar Vincent the currency was placed on a
sound basis. The system is based on the single gold standard. The unit
is a gold coin called a pound and equal to L1, 0s. 6d. in English
currency. The Egyptian pound (LE.) is divided into 100 piastres, of
which there are coins in silver of 20, 10, 5 and 2 piastres. One, 1/2,
1/5 and 1/10 piastre pieces are coined in nickel and 1/20 and 1/40
piastre pieces in bronze. The one piastre piece is worth a fraction
over 2-1/2d. The 1/40 of a piastre is popularly called a para and the
native population generally reckon in paras. The legal piastre is
called the piastre tariff (P.T.), to distinguish it from the 1/2
piastre, which in local usage in Cairo and Alexandria is called a
piastre. Officially the 1/2 piastre is known as 5 milliemes, and so
with the coins of lower denomination, the para being 1/4 millieme. The
old terms _kis_ or "purse" (500 piastres) and _khazna_ or "treasury"
(1000 purses) are still occasionally used. Formerly European coins of
all kinds were in general circulation, now the only foreign coins
current are the English sovereign, the French 20 franc piece and the
Turkish mejidie, a gold coin worth 18 shillings. For several years no
Egyptian gold pieces have been coined. Egyptian silver money is minted
at Birmingham, and nickel and bronze money at Vienna. Bank-notes, of
the National Bank, are issued for LE.100, LE.50, LE.10, LE.5 and LE.1,
and for 50 piastres. The notes are not legal tender, but are accepted
by the government in payment of taxes.

The history of the currency reform in Egypt is interesting as
affording a practical example of a system much discussed in connexion
with the currency question in India, namely, a gold standard without a
gold coinage. The Egyptian pound is practically nonexistent, nearly
all that were coined having been withdrawn from circulation. Their
place has been taken by foreign gold, principally the English
sovereign, which circulates at a value of 97-1/2 piastres. In practice
the system works perfectly smoothly, the gold flowing in and out of
the country through the agency of private banking establishments in
proportion to the requirements of the circulation. It is, moreover,
very economical for the government. As in most agricultural countries,
there is a great expansion of the circulation in the autumn and winter
months in order to move the crops, followed by a long period of
contracted circulation throughout the rest of the year. Under the
existing system the fluctuating requirements of the currency are met
without the expense of alternately minting and melting down.

_Weights and Measures._--The metrical system of weights and measures
is in official but not in popular use, except in the foreign quarters
of Cairo, Alexandria, &c. The most common Egyptian measures are the
_fitr_, or space measured by the extension of the thumb and first
finger; the _shibr_, or span; and the cubit (of three kinds = 22-2/3,
25 and 26-1/2 in.). The measure of land is the _feddan_, equal to 1.03
acres, subdivided into 24 _kirats_. The _ardeb_ is equal to about 5
bushels, and is divided into 6 _waybas_, and each _wayba_ into 24
_rubas_. The _okieh_ equals 1.32 oz., the _rotl_ .99 lb., the _oke_
2.75 lb., the _kantar_ (or 100 _rotls_ or 36 _okes_) 99.04 lb.

_Constitution and Administration._--Egypt is a tributary state of the Turkish empire, and is ruled by an hereditary prince with the style of khedive, a Persian title regarded as the equivalent of king. The succession to the throne is by primogeniture. The central administration is carried on by a council of ministers, appointed by the khedive, one of whom acts as prime minister. To these is added a British financial adviser, who attends all meetings of the council of ministers, but has not a vote; on the other hand, no financial decision may be taken without his consent. The ministries are those of the interior, finance, public works, justice, war, foreign affairs and public instruction,[4] and in each of these are prepared the drafts of decrees, which are then submitted to the council of ministers for approval, and on being signed by the khedive become law. No important decision, however, has been taken since 1882 without the concurrence of the British minister plenipotentiary. With a few exceptions, laws cannot, owing to the Capitulations, be enforced against foreigners except with the consent of the powers.

While the council of ministers with the khedive forms the legislative authority, there are various representative bodies with strictly limited powers. The legislative council is a consultative body, partly elective, partly nominative. It examines the budget and all proposed administrative laws, but cannot initiate legislation, nor is the government bound to adopt its suggestions. The general assembly consists of the legislative council and the ministers of state, together with popularly elected members, who form a majority of the whole assembly. It has no legislative functions, but no new direct personal tax nor land tax can be imposed without its consent. It must meet at least once in every two years.

For purposes of local government the chief towns constitute governorships (_moafzas_), the rest of the country being divided into _mudirias_ or provinces. The governors and _mudirs_ (heads of provinces) are responsible to the ministry of the interior. The provinces are further divided into districts, each of which is under a _mamur_, who in his turn supervises and controls the _omda_, mayor or head-man, of each village in his district.

The governorships are: Cairo; Alexandria, which includes an area of 70 sq. m.; Suez Canal, including Port Said and Ismailia; Suez and El-Arish. Lower Egypt is divided into the provinces of: Behera, Gharbia, Menufia, Dakahlia, Kaliubia, Sharkia. The oasis of Siwa and the country to the Tripolitan frontier are dependent on the province of Behera. Upper Egypt: Giza, Beni Suef, Fayum, Minia, Assiut, Girga, Kena, Assuan. The peninsula of Sinai is administered by the war office.

_Justice._--There are four judicial systems in Egypt: two applicable to Egyptian subjects only, one applicable to foreigners only, and one applicable to foreigners and, to a certain extent, natives also. This multiplicity of tribunals arises from the fact that, owing to the Capitulations, which apply to Egypt as part of the Turkish empire, foreigners are almost entirely exempt from the jurisdiction of the native courts. It will be convenient to state first the law as regards foreigners, and secondly the law which concerns Egyptians. Criminal jurisdiction over foreigners is exercised by the consuls of the fifteen powers possessing such right by treaty, according to the law of the country of the offender. These consular courts also judge civil cases between foreigners of the same nationality.

Jurisdiction in civil matters between natives and foreigners and between foreigners of different nationalities is no longer exercised by the consular courts. The grave abuse to which the consular system was subject led to the establishment, in February 1876, at the instance of Nubar Pasha and after eight years of negotiation, of International or "Mixed" Tribunals to supersede consular jurisdiction to the extent indicated. The Mixed Tribunals employ a code based on the _Code Napoleon_ with such additions from Mahommedan law as are applicable. There are three tribunals of first instance, and an appeal court at Alexandria. These courts have both foreign and Egyptian judges--the foreign judges forming the majority of the bench. In certain designated matters they enjoy criminal jurisdiction, including, since 1900, offences against the bankruptcy laws. Cases have to be conducted in Arabic, French, Italian and English, English having been admitted as a "judicial language" by khedivial decree of the 17th of April 1905. Besides their judicial duties, the courts practically exercise legislative functions, as no important law can be made applicable to Europeans without the consent of the powers, and the powers are mainly guided by the opinions of the judges of the Mixed Courts.