Chapter VI: German Literature Since Goethe (1832-1906) (3)

To the east the Thuringian Forest is connected by the plateau of the
Frankenwald with the Fichtelgebirge. This group of mountains,
occupying what may be regarded as ethnologically the centre of
Germany, forms a hydrographical centre, whence the Naab flows
southward to the Danube, the Main westward to the Rhine, the Eger
eastward to the Elbe, and the Saale northward, also into the Elbe. In
the north-east the Fichtelgebirge connects itself directly with the
Erzgebirge, which forms the northern boundary of Bohemia. The southern
sides of this range are comparatively steep; on the north it slopes
gently down to the plains of Leipzig, but is intersected by the deep
valleys of the Elster and Mulde. Although by no means fertile, the
Erzgebirge is very thickly peopled, as various branches of industry
have taken root there in numerous small places. Around Zwickau there
are productive coal-fields, and mining for metals is carried on near
Freiberg. In the east a tableland of sandstone, called Saxon
Switzerland, from the picturesque outlines into which it has been
eroded, adjoins the Erzgebirge; one of its most notable features is
the deep ravine by which the Elbe escapes from it. Numerous quarries,
which supply the North German cities with stone for buildings and
monuments, have been opened along the valley. The sandstone range of
the Elbe unites in the east with the low Lusatian group, along the
east of which runs the best road from northern Germany to Bohemia.
Then comes a range of lesser hills clustering together to form the
frontier between Silesia and Bohemia. The most western group is the
Isergebirge, and the next the Riesengebirge, a narrow ridge of about
20 miles' length, with bare summits. Excluding the Alps, the
Schneekoppe (5266 ft.) is the highest peak in Germany; and the
southern declivities of this range contain the sources of the Elbe.
The hills north and north-east of it are termed the Silesian
Mountains. Here one of the minor coal-fields gives employment to a
population grouped round a number of comparatively small centres. One
of the main roads into Bohemia (the pass of Landshut) runs along the
eastern base of the Riesengebirge. Still farther to the east the
mountains are grouped around the hollow of Glatz, whence the Neisse
forces its way towards the north. This hollow is shut in on the east
by the Sudetic group, in which the Altvater rises to almost 4900 ft.
The eastern portion of the group, called the Gesenke, slopes gently
away to the valley of the Oder, which affords an open route for the
international traffic, like that through the Mulhausen Gate in Alsace.
Geographers style this the Moravian Gate.

The North German plain presents little variety, yet is not absolutely
uniform. A row of low hills runs generally parallel to the mountain
ranges already noticed, at a distance of 20 to 30 m. to the north. To
these belongs the upper Silesian coal-basin, which occupies a
considerable area in south-eastern Silesia. North of the middle
districts of the Elbe country the heights are called the Flaming
hills. Westward lies as the last link of this series the Luneburger
Heide or Heath, between the Weser and Elbe, north of Hanover. A second
tract, of moderate elevation, sweeps round the Baltic, without,
however, approaching its shores. This plateau contains a considerable
number of lakes, and is divided into three portions by the Vistula and
the Oder. The most eastward is the so-called Prussian Seenplatte.
Spirdingsee (430 ft. above sea-level and 46 sq. m. in area) and
Mauersee are the largest lakes; they are situated in the centre of the
plateau, and give rise to the Pregel. Some peaks near the Russian
frontier attain to 1000 ft. The Pomeranian Seenplatte, between the
Vistula and the Oder, extends from S.W. to N.E., its greatest
elevation being in the neighbourhood of Danzig (Turmberg, 1086 ft.).
The Seenplatte of Mecklenburg, on the other hand, stretches from S.E.
to N.W., and most of its lakes, of which the Muritz is the largest,
send their waters towards the Elbe. The finely wooded heights which
surround the bays of the east coast of Holstein and Schleswig may be
regarded as a continuation of these Baltic elevations. The lowest
parts, therefore, of the North German plain, excluding the sea-coasts,
are the central districts from about 52 deg. to 53 deg. N. lat., where
the Vistula, Netze, Warthe, Oder, Spree and Havel form vast swampy
lowlands (in German called _Bruche_), which have been considerably
reduced by the construction of canals and by cultivation, improvements
due in large measure to Frederick the Great. The Spreewald, to the
S.E. of Berlin, is one of the most remarkable districts of Germany. As
the Spree divides itself there into innumerable branches, enclosing
thickly wooded islands, boats form the only means of communication.
West of Berlin the Havel widens into what are called the Havel lakes,
to which the environs of Potsdam owe their charms. In general the soil
of the North German plain cannot be termed fertile, the cultivation
nearly everywhere requiring severe and constant labour. Long stretches
of ground are covered by moors, and there turf-cutting forms the
principal occupation of the inhabitants. The greatest extent of
moorland is found in the westernmost parts of the plain, in Oldenburg
and East Frisia. The plain contains, however, a few districts of the
utmost fertility, particularly the tracts on the central Elbe, and the
marsh lands on the west coast of Holstein and the north coast of
Hanover, Oldenburg and East Frisia, which, within the last two
centuries, the inhabitants have reclaimed from the sea by means of
immense dikes.

_Rivers._--Nine independent river-systems may be distinguished: those
of the Memel, Pregel, Vistula (Weichsel), Oder, Elbe, Weser, Ems,
Rhine and Danube. Of these the Pregel, Weser and Ems belong entirely,
and the Oder mostly, to the German empire. The Danube has its sources
on German soil; but only a fifth part of its course is German. Its
total length is 1750 m., and the Bavarian frontier at Passau, where
the Inn joins it, is only 350 m. distant from its sources. It is
navigable as far as Ulm, 220 m. above Passau; and its tributaries the
Lech, Isar, Inn and Altmuhl are also navigable. The Rhine is the most
important river of Germany, although neither its sources nor its
mouths are within the limits of the empire. From the Lake of Constance
to Basel (122 m.) the Rhine forms the boundary between the German
empire and Switzerland; the canton of Schaffhausen, however, is
situated on the northern bank of the river. From Basel to below
Emmerich the Rhine belongs to the German empire--about 470 m. or
four-sevenths of its whole course. It is navigable all this distance
as are also the Neckar from Esslingen, the Main from Bamberg, the
Lahn, the Lippe, the Ruhr, the Mosel from Metz, with its affluents the
Saar and Sauer. Sea-going vessels sail up the Ems as far as Halte, and
river craft as far as Greven, and the river is connected with a widely
branching system of canals, as the Ems-Jade and Dortmund-Ems canals.
The Fulda, navigable for 63 m., and the Werra, 38 m., above the point
where they unite, form by their junction the Weser, which has a course
of 271 m., and receives as navigable tributaries the Aller, the Leine
from Hanover, and some smaller streams. Ocean-going steamers, however,
cannot get as far as Bremen, and unload at Bremerhaven. The Elbe,
after a course of 250 m., enters German territory near Bodenbach, 490
m. from its mouth. It is navigable above this point through its
tributary, the Moldau, to Prague. Hamburg may be reached by vessels of
17 ft. draught. The navigable tributaries of the Elbe are the Saale
(below Naumburg), the Havel, Spree, Elde, Sude and some others. The
Oder begins to be navigable almost on the frontier at Ratibor, 480 m.
from its mouth, receiving as navigable tributaries the Glatz Neisse
and the Warthe. Only the lower course of the Vistula belongs to the
German empire, within which it is a broad, navigable stream of
considerable volume. On the Pregel ships of 3000 tons reach
Konigsberg, and river barges reach Insterburg; the Alle, its
tributary, may also be navigated. The Memel is navigable in its course
of 113 m. from the Russian frontier. Germany is thus a country
abounding in natural waterways, the total length of them being
estimated at 7000 m. But it is only the Rhine, in its middle course,
that has at all times sufficient volume of water to meet the
requirements of a good navigable river.

_Lakes._--The regions which abound in lakes have already been pointed
out. The Lake of Constance or Bodensee (204-3/4 sq. m.) is on the
frontier of the empire, portions of the northern banks belonging
severally to Bavaria, Wurttemberg and Baden. In the south the largest
lakes are the Chiemsee (33 sq. m.); the Ammersee and the Wurmsee. A
good many smaller lakes are to be found in the Bavarian Alps. The
North German plain is dotted with upwards of 500 lakes, covering an
area of about 2500 sq. m. The largest of these are the three
Haffs--the Oder Haff covering 370 sq. m., the Frische Haff, 332, and
the Kurische Haff, 626. The lakes in the Prussian and Pomeranian
provinces, in Mecklenburg and in Holstein, and those of the Havel,
have already been mentioned. In the west the only lakes of importance
are the Steinhuder Meer, 14 m. north-west of Hanover, and the
Dummersee on the southern frontier of Oldenburg. (P. A. A.)

_Geology._--Germany consists of a floor of folded Palaeozoic rocks
upon which rest unconformably the comparatively little disturbed beds
of the Mesozoic system, while in the North German plain a covering of
modern deposits conceals the whole of the older strata from view,
excepting some scattered and isolated outcrops of Cretaceous and
Tertiary beds. The rocks which compose the ancient floor are thrown
into folds which run approximately from W.S.W. to E.N.E. They are
exposed on the one hand in the neighbourhood of the Rhine and on the
other hand in the Bohemian _massif_. With the latter must be included
the Frankenwald, the Thuringerwald, and even the Harz. The oldest
rocks, belonging to the Archaean system, occur in the south, forming
the Vosges and the Black Forest in the west, and the greater part of
the Bohemian _massif_, including the Erzgebirge, in the east. They
consist chiefly of gneiss and schist, with granite and other eruptive
rocks. Farther north, in the Hunsruck, the Taunus, the Eifel and
Westerwald, the Harz and the Frankenwald, the ancient floor is
composed mainly of Devonian beds. Other Palaeozoic systems are,
however, included in the folds. The Cambrian, for example, is exposed
at Leimitz near Hof in the Frankenwald, and the important coal-field
of the Saar lies on the southern side of the Hunsruck, while
Ordovician and Silurian beds have been found in several localities.
Along the northern border of the folded belt lies the coal basin of
the Ruhr in Westphalia, which is the continuation of the Belgian
coal-field, and bears much the same relation to the Rhenish Devonian
area that the coal basin of Liege bears to the Ardennes. Carboniferous
and Devonian beds are also found south-east of the Bohemian _massif_,
where lies the extensive coal-field of Silesia. The Permian, as in
England, is not involved in the folds which have affected the older
beds, and in general lies unconformably upon them. It occurs chiefly
around the masses of ancient rock, and one of the largest areas is
that of the Saar.

Between the old rocks of the Rhine on the west and the ancient
_massif_ of Bohemia on the east a vast area of Triassic beds extends
from Hanover to Basel and from Metz to Bayreuth. Over the greater part
of this region the Triassic beds are free from folding and are nearly
horizontal, but faulting is by no means absent, especially along the
margins of the Bohemian and Rhenish hills. The Triassic beds must
indeed have covered a large part of these old rock masses, but they
have been preserved only where they were faulted down to a lower
level. Along the southern margin of the Triassic area there is a long
band of Jurassic beds dipping towards the Danube; and at its eastern
extremity this band is continuous with a synclinal of Jurassic beds,
running parallel to the western border of the Bohemian _massif_, but
separated from it by a narrow strip of Triassic beds. Towards the
north, in Hanover and Westphalia, the Triassic beds are followed by
Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits, the latter being here the more
important. As in the south of England, the lower beds of the
Cretaceous are of estuarine origin and the Upper Cretaceous overlaps
the Lower, lying in the valley of the Ruhr directly upon the
Palaeozoic rocks. In Saxony also the upper Cretaceous beds rest
directly upon the Palaeozoic or Archaean rocks. Still more to the
east, in the province of Silesia, both Jurassic and Cretaceous beds
are again met with, but they are to a large extent concealed by the
recent accumulations of the great plain. The Eocene system is unknown
in Germany except in the foothills of the Alps; but the Oligocene and
Miocene are widely spread, especially in the great plain and in the
depression of the Danube. The Oligocene is generally marine. Marine
Miocene occurs in N.W. Germany and the Miocene of the Danube valley is
also in part marine, but in central Germany it is of fluviatile or
lacustrine origin. The lignites of Hesse, Cassel, &c., are
interstratified with basaltic lava-flows which form the greater part
of the Vogelsberg and other hills. The trachytes of the Siebengebirge
are probably of slightly earlier date. The precise age of the
volcanoes of the Eifel, many of which are in a very perfect state of
preservation, is not clear, but they are certainly Tertiary or
Post-tertiary. Leucite and nepheline lavas are here abundant. In the
Siebengebirge the little crater of Roderberg, with its lavas and
scoriae of leucite-basalt, is posterior to some of the Pleistocene
river deposits.

A glance at a geological map of Germany will show that the greater
part of Prussia and of German Poland is covered by Quaternary
deposits. These are in part of glacial origin, and contain
Scandinavian boulders; but fluviatile and aeolian deposits also occur.
Quaternary beds also cover the floor of the broad depression through
which the Rhine meanders from Basel to Mainz, and occupy a large part
of the plain of the Danube. The depression of the Rhine is a trough
lying between two faults or system of faults. The very much broader
depression of the Danube is associated with the formation of the Alps,
and was flooded by the sea during a part of the Miocene period.
(P. La.)

_Climate._--The climate of Germany is to be regarded as intermediate
between the oceanic and continental climates of western and eastern
Europe respectively. It has nothing in common with the Mediterranean
climate of southern Europe, Germany being separated from that region
by the lofty barrier of the Alps. Although there are very considerable
differences in the range of temperature and the amount of rainfall
throughout Germany, these are not so great as they would be were it
not that the elevated plateaus and mountain chains are in the south,
while the north is occupied by low-lying plains. In the west no chain
of hills intercepts the warmer and moister winds which blow from the
Atlantic, and these accordingly influence at times even the eastern
regions of Germany. The mean annual temperature of south-western
Germany, or the Rhine and Danube basins, is about 52 deg. to 54 deg.
F., that of central Germany 48 deg. to 50 deg., and that of the
northern plain 46 deg. to 48 deg. In Pomerania and West Prussia it is
only 44 deg. to 45 deg., and in East Prussia 42 deg. to 44 deg. The
mean January temperature varies between 22 deg. and 34 deg. (in
Masuren and Cologne respectively); the mean July temperature, between
61 deg. in north Schleswig and 68 deg. at Cologne. The extremes of
cold and heat are, as recorded in the ten years 1895-1905, 7 deg. in
Konigsberg and 93 deg. in Heidelberg (the hottest place in Germany).
The difference in the mean annual temperature between the south-west
and north-west of Germany amounts to about 3 deg. The contrasts of
heat and cold are furnished by the valley of the Rhine above Mainz,
which has the greatest mean heat, the mildest winter and the highest
summer temperature, and the lake plateau of East Prussia, where Arys
on the Spirdingsee has a like winter temperature to the Brocken at
3200 ft. The Baltic has the lowest spring temperature, and the autumn
there is also not characterized by an appreciably higher degree of
warmth. In central Germany the high plateaus of the Erz and
Fichtelgebirge are the coldest regions. In south Germany the upper
Bavarian plain experiences an inclement winter and a cold summer. In
Alsace-Lorraine the Vosges and the plateau of Lorraine are also
remarkable for low temperatures. The warmest districts of the German
empire are the northern parts of the Rhine plain, from Karlsruhe
downwards, especially the Rheintal; these are scarcely 300 ft. above
the sea-level, and are protected by mountainous tracts of land. The
same holds true of the valleys of the Neckar, Main and Mosel. Hence
the vine is everywhere cultivated in these districts. The mean summer
temperature there is 66 deg. and upwards, while the average
temperature of January does not descend to the freezing point (32
deg.). The climate of north-western Germany (west of the Elbe) shows a
predominating oceanic character, the summers not being too hot (mean
summer temperature 60 deg. to 62 deg.), and snow in winter remaining
but a short time on the ground. West of the Weser the average
temperature of January exceeds 32 deg.; to the east it sinks to 30
deg., and therefore the Elbe is generally covered with ice for some
months of the year, as are also its tributaries. The farther one
proceeds to the east the greater are the contrasts of summer and
winter. While the average summer warmth of Germany is 60 deg. to 62
deg., the January temperature falls as low as 26 deg. to 28 deg. in
West Prussia, Posen and Silesia, and 22 deg. to 26 deg. in East
Prussia and upper Silesia. The navigation of the rivers is regularly
interrupted by frost. Similarly the upper basin of the Danube, or the
Bavarian plain, has a rather inclement climate in winter, the average
for January being 25 deg. to 26 deg.

As regards rainfall, Germany belongs to those regions where
precipitation takes place at all seasons, but chiefly in the form of
summer rains. In respect to the quantity of rain the empire takes a
middle position between the humidity of north-western Europe and the
aridity of the east. There are considerable differences between
particular places. The rainfall is greatest in the Bavarian tableland
and the hilly regions of western Germany. For the Eifel, Sauerland,
Harz, Thuringian Forest, Rhon, Vogelsberg, Spessart, the Black Forest,
the Vosges, &c., the annual average may be stated at 34 in. or more,
while in the lower terraces of south-western Germany, as in the
Erzgebirge and the Sudetic range, it is estimated at 30 to 32 in.
only. The same average obtains also on the humid north-west coast of
Germany as far as Bremen and Hamburg. In the remaining parts of
western Germany, on the shores of farther Pomerania, and in East
Prussia, it amounts to upwards of 24 in. In western Germany there is a
district famous for the scarcity of rain and for producing the best
kind of wine: in the valley of the Rhine below Strassburg, in the
Palatinate, and also in the valley of the Main, no more than from 16
to 20 in. fall. Mecklenburg, Brandenburg and Lusatia, Saxony and the
plateau of Thuringia, West Prussia, Posen and lower Silesia are also
to be classed among the more arid regions of Germany, the annual
rainfall being 16 to 20 in. Thunderstorms are most frequent in July,
and vary between fifteen and twenty-five in the central districts,
descending in the eastern provinces of Prussia to ten annually.

_Flora._--The flora of Germany comprises 3413 species of phanerogamic
and 4306 cryptogamic plants. The country forms a section of the
central European zone, and its flora is largely under the influence of
the Baltic and Alpine elements, which to a great degree here coalesce.
All plants peculiar to the temperate zone abound. Wheat, rye, barley
and oats are cultivated everywhere, but spelt only in the south and
buckwheat in the north and north-west. Maize only ripens in the south.
Potatoes grow in every part of the country, those of the sandy plains
in the north being of excellent quality. All the commoner sorts of
fruit--apples, pears, cherries, &c.--grow everywhere, but the more
delicate kinds, such as figs, apricots and peaches, are confined to
the warmer districts. The vine flourishes as far as the 51 deg. N.,
but only yields good wine in the districts of the Rhine and Danube.
Flax is grown in the north, and hemp more particularly in the central
districts. Rape can be produced everywhere when the soil permits.
Tobacco is cultivated on the upper Rhine and in the valley of the
Oder. The northern plain, especially in the province of Saxony,
produces beet (for sugar), and hops are largely grown in Bavaria,
Wurttemberg, Alsace, Baden and the Prussian province of Posen.

Forests.

Speaking generally, northern Germany is not nearly so well wooded as
central and southern Germany, where indeed most of the lower mountains
are covered with timber, as is indicated by the frequent use of the
termination _wald_ affixed to the names of the mountain ranges (as
Schwarzwald, Thuringerwald, &c.). The "Seenplatten" are less wooded
than the hill country, but the eastern portion of the northern
lowlands is well provided with timber. A narrow strip along the shores
of the Baltic is covered with oaks and beeches; farther inland, and
especially east of the Elbe, coniferous trees are the most prevalent,
particularly the Scotch fir; birches are also abundant. The mountain
forests consist chiefly of firs, pines and larches, but contain also
silver firs, beeches and oaks. Chestnuts and walnuts appear on the
terraces of the Rhine valley and in Swabia and Franconia. The whole
north-west of Germany is destitute of wood, but to compensate for
this the people have ample supplies of fuel in the extensive stretches
of turf.

_Fauna._--The number of wild animals in Germany is not very great.
Foxes, martens, weasels, badgers and otters are to be found
everywhere; bears are found in the Alps, wolves are rare, but they
find their way sometimes from French territory to the western
provinces, or from Poland to Prussia and Posen. Among the rodents the
hamster and the field-mouse are a scourge to agriculture. Of game
there are the roe, stag, boar and hare; the fallow deer and the wild
rabbit are less common. The elk is to be found in the forests of East
Prussia. The feathered tribes are everywhere abundant in the fields,
woods and marshes. Wild geese and ducks, grouse, partridges, snipe,
woodcock, quails, widgeons and teal are plentiful all over the
country, and in recent years preserves have been largely stocked with
pheasants. The length of time that birds of passage remain in Germany
differs considerably with the different species. The stork is seen for
about 170 days, the house-swallow 160, the snow-goose 260, the snipe
220. In northern Germany these birds arrive from twenty to thirty days
later than in the south.

The waters of Germany abound with fish; but the genera and species are
few. The carp and salmon tribes are the most abundant; after them rank
the pike, the eel, the shad, the roach, the perch and the lamprey. The
Oder and some of the tributaries of the Elbe abound in crayfish, and
in the stagnant lakes of East Prussia leeches are bred. In addition to
frogs, Germany has few varieties of Amphibia. Of serpents there are
only two poisonous kinds, the common viper and the adder
(_Kreuzotter_).

_Population._--Until comparatively recent times no estimate of the population of Germany was precise enough to be of any value. At the beginning of the 19th century the country was divided into some hundred states, but there was no central agency for instituting an exact census on a uniform plan. The formation of the German Confederation in 1815 effected but little change in this respect, and it was left to the different states to arrange in what manner the census should be taken. On the foundation, however, of the German customs union, or _Zollverein_, between certain German states, the necessity for accurate statistics became apparent and care was taken to compile trustworthy tables. Researches show the population of the German empire, as at present constituted, to have been: (1816) 24,833,396; (1855) 36,113,644; and (1871) 41,058,792. The following table shows the population and area of each of the states included in the empire for the years 1871, 1875, 1900 and 1905:--

_Area and Population of the German States._

+-----------------------------+--------+-----------------------------------------------+-------+
| | Area | Population. |Density|
| States of the Empire. |English +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ per |
| | Sq. m. | 1871. | 1875. | 1900. | 1905. | Sq. m.|
+-----------------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-------+
| Kingdoms-- | | | | | | |
| Prussia |134,616 |24,691,433 |25,742,404 |34,472,509 |37,293,324 | 277.3 |
| Bavaria | 29,292 | 4,863,450 | 5,022,390 | 6,176,057 | 6,524,372 | 222.7 |
| Saxony | 5,789 | 2,556,244 | 2,760,586 | 4,202,216 | 4,508,601 | 778.8 |
| Wurttemberg | 7,534 | 1,818,539 | 1,881,505 | 2,169,480 | 2,302,179 | 305.5 |
| Grand-Duchies-- | | | | | | |
| Baden | 5,823 | 1,461,562 | 1,507,179 | 1,867,944 | 2,010,728 | 345.3 |
| Hesse | 2,966 | 852,894 | 884,218 | 1,119,893 | 1,209,175 | 407.6 |
| Mecklenburg-Schwerin | 5,068 | 557,897 | 553,785 | 607,770 | 625,045 | 123.3 |
| Saxe-Weimar | 1,397 | 286,183 | 292,933 | 362,873 | 388,095 | 277.8 |
| Mecklenburg-Strelitz | 1,131 | 96,982 | 95,673 | 102,602 | 103,451 | 91.5 |
| Oldenburg | 2,482 | 314,459 | 319,314 | 399,180 | 438,856 | 176.8 |
| Duchies-- | | | | | | |
| Brunswick | 1,418 | 311,764 | 327,493 | 464,333 | 485,958 | 342.5 |
| Saxe-Meiningen | 953 | 187,957 | 194,494 | 250,731 | 268,916 | 282.2 |
| Saxe-Altenburg | 511 | 142,122 | 145,844 | 194,914 | 206,508 | 404.1 |
| Saxe-Coburg-Gotha | 764 | 174,339 | 182,599 | 229,550 | 242,432 | 317.3 |
| Anhalt | 888 | 203,437 | 213,565 | 316,085 | 328,029 | 369.4 |
| Principalities-- | | | | | | |
| Schwartzburg-Sondershausen| 333 | 75,523 | 76,676 | 80,898 | 85,152 | 255.7 |
| Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt | 363 | 67,191 | 67,480 | 93,059 | 96,835 | 266.7 |
| Waldeck | 433 | 56,224 | 54,743 | 57,918 | 59,127 | 136.5 |
| Reuss-Greiz | 122 | 45,094 | 46,985 | 68,396 | 70,603 | 578.7 |
| Reuss-Schleiz | 319 | 89,032 | 92,375 | 139,210 | 144,584 | 453.2 |
| Schaumburg-Lippe | 131 | 32,059 | 33,133 | 43,132 | 44,992 | 343.4 |
| Lippe | 469 | 111,135 | 112,452 | 138,952 | 145,577 | 310.4 |
| Free Towns-- | | | | | | |
| Lubeck | 115 | 52,158 | 56,912 | 96,775 | 105,857 | 920.5 |
| Bremen | 99 | 122,402 | 142,200 | 224,882 | 263,440 |2661.0 |
| Hamburg | 160 | 338,974 | 388,618 | 768,349 | 874,878 |5467.9 |
| Imperial Territory-- | | | | | | |
| Alsace-Lorraine | 5,604 | 1,549,738 | 1,531,804 | 1,719,470 | 1,814,564 | 323.8 |
| +--------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-------+
| German Empire |208,780 |41,058,792 |42,727,360 |56,367,178 |60,641,278 | 290.4 |
+-----------------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-------+

The population of the empire has thus increased, since 1871, by
19,582,486 or 47.6%. The increase of population during 1895-1900 was
greatest in Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck, Saxony, Prussia and Baden, and
least in Mecklenburg-Strelitz and Waldeck. Of the total population in
1900, 54.3% was urban (i.e. living in towns of 2000 inhabitants and
above), leaving 45.7% to be classified as rural. On the 1st of
December 1905, of the total population 29,884,681 were males and
30,756,597 females; and it is noticeable that the male population
shows of late years a larger relative increase than the female, the
male population having in five years increased by 2,147,434 and the
female by only 2,126,666. The greater increase in the male population
is attributable to diminished emigration and to the large increase in
immigrants, who are mostly males. In 1905, 485,906 marriages were
contracted in Germany, being at the rate of 8.0 per thousand
inhabitants. In the same year the total number of births was
2,048,453. Of these, 61,300 were stillborn and 174,494 illegitimate,
being at the rate, respectively, of 3% and 8.5% of the total.
Illegitimacy is highest in Bavaria (about 15%), Berlin (14%), and over
12% in Saxony, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Saxe-Meiningen. It is lowest
in the Rhine Province and Westphalia (3.9 and 2.6 respectively).
Divorce is steadily on the increase, being in 1904, 11.1 per 10,000
marriages, as against 8.1, 8.1, 9.3 and 10.1 for the four preceding
years. The average deaths for the years 1901-1905 amounted to
1,227,903; the rate was thus 20.2 per thousand inhabitants, but the
death-rate has materially decreased, the total number of deaths in
1907 standing at 1,178,349; the births for the same year were
2,060,974. In connexion with suicides, it is interesting to observe
that the highest rates prevail in some of the smaller and more
prosperous states of the empire--for example, in Saxe-Weimar,
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and Saxe-Altenburg (on a three years' average of
figures), while the Roman Catholic country Bavaria, and the
impoverished Prussian province of Posen show the most favourable
statistics. For Prussia the rate is 20, and for Saxony it is as high
as 31 per 100,000 inhabitants. The large cities, notably Berlin,
Hamburg, Breslau and Dresden, show, however, relatively the largest
proportion.

In 1900 the German-speaking population of the empire amounted to
51,883,131. Of the inhabitants speaking other languages there were:
Polish, 3,086,489; French (mostly in Lorraine), 211,679; Masurian,
142,049; Danish, 141,061; Lithuanian, 106,305; Cassubian, 100,213;
Wendish, 93,032; Dutch, 80,361; Italian, 65,961; Moravian, 64,382;
Czech, 43,016; Frisian, 20,677; English, 20,217; Walloon, 11,841. In
1905 there were resident within the empire 1,028,560 subjects of
foreign states, as compared with 778,698 in 1900. Of these 17,293 were
subjects of Great Britain and Ireland, 17,184 of the United States of
America and 20,584 of France. The bulk of the other foreigners
residing in the country belonged to countries lying contiguous, such
as Austria, which claimed nearly the half, Russia and Italy.

_Languages._--The German-speaking nations in their various branches
and dialects, if we include the Dutch and the Walloons, extend in a
compact mass along the shores of the Baltic and of the North Sea, from
Memel in the east to a point between Gravelines and Calais near the
Straits of Dover. On this northern line the Germans come in contact
with the Danes who inhabit the northern parts of Schleswig within the
limits of the German empire. A line from Flensburg south-westward to
Joldelund and thence northwestward to Hoyer will nearly give the
boundary between the two idioms.[2] The German-French frontier
traverses Belgium from west to east, touching the towns of St Omer,
Courtrai and Maastricht. Near Eupen, south of Aix-la-Chapelle, it
turns southward, and near Arlon south-east as far as the crest of the
Vosges mountains, which it follows up to Belfort, traversing there the
watershed of the Rhine and the Doubs. In the Swiss territory the line
of demarcation passes through Bienne, Fribourg, Saanen, Leuk and Monte
Rosa. In the south the Germans come into contact with Rhaeto-Romans
and Italians, the former inhabiting the valley of the Vorder-Rhein and
the Engadine, while the latter have settled on the southern slopes of
the Alps, and are continually advancing up the valley of the Adige.
Carinthia and Styria are inhabited by German people, except the valley
of the Drave towards Klagenfurt. Their eastern neighbours there are
first the Magyars, then the northern Slavs and the Poles. The whole
eastern frontier is very much broken, and cannot be described in a few
words. Besides detached German colonies in Hungary proper, there is a
considerable and compact German (Saxon) population in Transylvania.
The river March is the frontier north of the Danube from Pressburg as
far as Brunn, to the north of which the German regions begin near
Olmutz, the interior of Bohemia and Moravia being occupied by Czechs
and Moravians. In these countries the Slav language has been steadily
superseding the German. In the Prussian provinces of Silesia and Posen
the eastern parts are mixed territories, the German language
progressing very slowly among the Poles. In Bromberg and Thorn, in the
valley of the Vistula, German is prevalent. In West Prussia some parts
of the interior, and in East Prussia a small region along the Russian
frontier, are occupied by Poles (Cassubians in West Prussia, Masurians
in East Prussia). The total number of German-speaking people, within
the boundaries wherein they constitute the compact mass of the
population, may be estimated, if the Dutch and Walloons be included,
at 65 millions.

The geographical limits of the German language thus do not quite
coincide with the German frontiers. The empire contains about 3-1/3
millions of persons who do not make use of German in everyday life,
not counting the resident foreigners.

Apart from the foreigners above mentioned, German subjects speaking a
tongue other than German are found only in Prussia, Saxony and
Alsace-Lorraine. The following table shows roughly the distribution of
German-speaking people in the world outside the German empire:--

Austria-Hungary 12,000,000 | Other European
Netherlands (Dutch) 5,200,000 | Countries 2,300,000
Belgium (Walloon) 4,000,000 | America 13,000,000
Luxemburg 200,000 | Asia 100,000
Switzerland 2,300,000 | Africa 600,000
France 500,000 | Australia 150,000

According to the census of the 1st of December 1900 there were
51,634,757 persons speaking commonly one language and 248,374 speaking
two languages. In the kingdom of Saxony, according to the census of
1900, there were 48,000 Wends, mostly in Lusatia. With respect to
Alsace-Lorraine, detailed estimates (but no census) gave the number of
French in the territory of Lorraine at about 170,000, and in that of
Alsace at about 46,000.

The Poles have increased very much, owing to a greater surplus of
births than in the case of the German people in the eastern provinces
of Prussia, to immigration from Russia, and to the Polonization of
many Germans through clerical and other influences (see _History_).
The Poles are in the majority in upper Silesia (Government district of
Oppeln; 55%) and the province of Posen (60%). They are numerous in
West Prussia (34%) and East Prussia (14%).

The Wends are decreasing in number, as are also the Lithuanians on the
eastern border of East Prussia, Czechs are only found in Silesia on
the confines of Bohemia.

Russians flocked to Germany in thousands after the Russo-Japanese War
and the insurrections in Russia, and the figures given for 1900 had
been doubled in 1907. Males preponderate among the various
nationalities, with the exception of the British, the larger
proportion of whom are females either in domestic service or engaged
in tuition.

_Chief Towns._--According to the results of the census of the 1st of
December 1905 there were within the empire 41 towns with populations
exceeding 100,000, viz.:--

+--------------------+----------------+-----------+
| | State. |Population.|
+--------------------+----------------+-----------+
| Berlin | Prussia |2,040,148 |
| Hamburg | Hamburg | 802,793 |
| Munich | Bavaria | 538,393 |
| Dresden | Saxony | 516,996 |
| Leipzig | " | 502,570 |
| Breslau | Prussia | 470,751 |
| Cologne | " | 428,503 |
| Frankfort-on-Main | " | 334,951 |
| Nuremberg | Bavaria | 294,344 |
| Dusseldorf | Prussia | 253,099 |
| Hanover | " | 250,032 |
| Stuttgart | Wurttemberg | 249,443 |
| Chemnitz | Saxony | 244,405 |
| Magdeburg | Prussia | 240,661 |
| Charlottenburg | " | 239,512 |
| Essen | " | 231,396 |
| Stettin | " | 224,078 |
| Konigsberg | " | 219,862 |
| Bremen | Bremen | 214,953 |
| Duisburg | Prussia | 192,227 |
| Dortmund | " | 175,575 |
| Halle | " | 169,899 |
| Altona | " | 168,301 |
| Strassburg | Alsace-Lorraine| 167,342 |
| Kiel | Prussia | 163,710 |
| Elberfeld | " | 162,682 |
| Mannheim | Baden | 162,607 |
| Danzig | Prussia | 159,685 |
| Barmen | " | 156,148 |
| Rixdorf | " | 153,650 |
| Gelsenkirchen | " | 147,037 |
| Aix-la-Chapelle | " | 143,906 |
| Schoneberg | " | 140,992 |
| Brunswick | Brunswick | 136,423 |
| Posen | Prussia | 137,067 |
| Cassel | " | 120,446 |
| Bochum | " | 118,455 |
| Karlsruhe | Baden | 111,200 |
| Crefeld | Prussia | 110,347 |
| Plauen | Saxony | 105,182 |
| Wiesbaden | Prussia | 100,953 |
+--------------------+----------------+-----------+

_Density of Population._--In respect of density of population,
Germany with (1900) 269.9 and (1905) 290.4 inhabitants to the
square mile is exceeded in Europe only by Belgium, Holland and
England. Apart from the free cities, Hamburg, Bremen and
Lubeck, the kingdom of Saxony is the most, and Mecklenburg-Strelitz
the least, closely peopled state of the empire. The most
thinly populated districts are found, not as might be expected in
the mountain regions, but in some parts of the plains. Leaving out
of account the small centres, Germany may be roughly divided into
two thinly and two densely populated parts. In the former division
has to be classed all the North German plain. There it is only in the
valleys of the larger navigable rivers and on the southern border
of the plain that the density exceeds 200 inhabitants per square mile.
In some places, indeed, it is far greater, e.g. at the mouths of the
Elbe and the Weser, in East Holstein, in the delta of the Memel and
the environs of Hamburg. This region is bordered on the south by
a densely peopled district, the northern boundary of which may be
defined by a line from Coburg via Cassel to Munster, for in this part
there are not only very fertile districts, such as the _Goldene Aue_ in
Thuringia, but also centres of industry. The population is thickest
in upper Silesia around Beuthen (coal-fields), around Ratibor, Neisse
and Waldenburg (coal-fields), around Zittau (kingdom of Saxony),
in the Elbe valley around Dresden, in the districts of Zwickau and
Leipzig as far as the Saale, on the northern slopes of the Harz and
around Bielefeld in Westphalia. In all these the density exceeds
400 inhabitants to the square mile, and in the case of Saxony rises
to 750. The third division of Germany comprises the basin of the
Danube and Franconia, where around Nuremberg, Bamberg and
Wurzburg the population is thickly clustered. The fourth division
embraces the valleys of the upper Rhine and Neckar and the district
of Dusseldorf on the lower Rhine. In this last the proportion exceeds
1200 inhabitants to the square mile.

_Emigration._--There have been great oscillations in the actual
emigration by sea. It first exceeded 100,000 soon after the Franco-German
War (1872, 126,000), and this occurred again in the years
1880 to 1892. Germany lost during these thirteen years more than
1,700,000 inhabitants by emigration. The total number of those
who sailed for the United States from 1820 to 1900 may be estimated
at more than 4,500,000. The number of German emigrants to
Brazil between 1870 and 1900 was about 52,000. The greater
number of the more recent emigrants was from the agricultural
provinces of northern Germany--West Prussia, Posen, Pomerania,
Mecklenburg, Schleswig-Holstein and Hanover, and sometimes the
emigration reached 1% of the total population of these provinces.
In subsequent years the emigration of native Germans greatly
decreased and, in 1905, amounted only to 28,075. But to this
number must be added 284,787 foreigners who in that year were
shipped from German ports (notably Hamburg and Bremen) to
distant parts. Of the above given numbers of purely German
emigrants 26,007 sailed for the United States of America; 243 to
Canada; 333 to Brazil; 674 to the Argentine Republic; 7 to other
parts of America; 57 to Africa; and 84 to Australia.

_Agriculture._--Despite the enormous development of industries and commerce, agriculture and cattle-rearing still represent in Germany a considerable portion of its economic wealth. Almost two-thirds of the soil is occupied by arable land, pastures and meadows, and of the whole area, in 1900, 91% was classed as productive. Of the total area 47.67% was occupied by land under tillage, 0.89% by gardens, 11.02% by meadow-land, 5.01% by pastures, and 0.25% by vineyards. The largest estates are found in the Prussian provinces of Pomerania, Posen and Saxony, and in East and West Prussia, while in the Prussian Rhine province, in Baden and Wurttemberg small farms are the rule.

The same kinds of cereal crops are cultivated in all parts of the
empire, but in the south and west wheat is predominant, and in the
north and east rye, oats and barley. To these in some districts are
added spelt, buckwheat, millet, rice-wheat, lesser spelt and maize.
In general the soil is remarkably well cultivated. The three years'
rotation formerly in use, where autumn and spring-sown grain and
fallow succeeded each other, has now been abandoned, except in
some districts, where the system has been modified and improved.
In south Germany the so-called _Fruchtwechsel_ is practised, the fields
being sown with grain crops every second year, and with pease or
beans, grasses, potatoes, turnips, &c., in the intermediate years.
In north Germany the mixed _Koppelwirthschaft_ is the rule, by which
system, after several years of grain crops, the ground is for two or
three seasons in pasture.

Taking the average of the six years 1900-1905, the crop of wheat
amounted to 3,550,033 tons (metric), rye to 9,296,616 tons, barley to
3,102,883 tons, and oats to 7,160,883 tons. But, in spite of this
considerable yield in cereals, Germany cannot cover her home
consumption, and imported on the average of the six years 1900-1905
about 4-1/2 million tons of cereals to supply the deficiency. The
potato is largely cultivated, not merely for food, but for
distillation into spirits. This manufacture is prosecuted especially
in eastern Germany. The number of distilleries throughout the German
empire was, in 1905-1906, 68,405. The common beet (_Beta vulgaris_)
is largely grown in some districts for the production of sugar, which
has greatly increased of recent years. There are two centres of the
beet sugar production: Magdeburg for the districts Prussian Saxony,
Hanover, Brunswick, Anhalt and Thuringia, and Frankfort-on-Oder at the
centre of the group Silesia, Brandenburg and Pomerania. Flax and hemp
are cultivated, though not so much as formerly, for manufacture into
linen and canvas, and also rape seed for the production of oil. The
home supply of the former no longer suffices for the native demand.
The cultivation of hops is in a very thriving condition in the
southern states of Germany. The soil occupied by hops was estimated in
1905 at 98,000 acres--a larger area than in Great Britain, which had
in the same year about 48,000 acres. The total production of hops was
29,000 tons in 1905, and of this over 25,000 were grown in Bavaria,
Wurttemberg, Baden and Alsace-Lorraine. Almost the whole yield in hops
is consumed in the country by the great breweries.

Tobacco forms a most productive and profitable object of culture in
many districts. The total extent under this crop in 1905 was about
35,000 acres, of which 45% was in Baden, 12% in Bavaria, 30% in
Prussia, and the rest in Alsace and Hesse-Darmstadt. In the north the
plant is cultivated principally in Pomerania, Brandenburg and East and
West Prussia. Of late years the production has somewhat diminished,
owing to the extensive tobacco manufacturing industries of Bremen and
Hamburg, which import almost exclusively foreign leaves.

Ulm, Nuremberg, Quedlinburg, Erfurt, Strassburg and Guben are famed
for their vegetables and garden seeds. Berlin is noted for its flower
nurseries, the Rhine valley, Wurttemberg and the Elbe valley below
Dresden for fruit, and Frankfort-on-main for cider.

Vine.

The culture of the vine is almost confined to southern and western
Germany, and especially to the Rhine district. The northern limits of
its growth extend from Bonn in a north-easterly direction through
Cassel to the southern foot of the Harz, crossing 52 deg. N. on the
Elbe, running then east some miles to the north of that parallel, and
finally turning sharply towards the south-west on the Warthe. In the
valley of the Saale and Elbe (near Dresden), and in lower Silesia
(between Guben and Grunberg), the number of vineyards is small, and
the wines of inferior quality; but along the Rhine from Basel to
Coblenz, in Alsace, Baden, the Palatinate and Hesse, and above all in
the province of Nassau, the lower slopes of the hills are literally
covered with vines. Here are produced the celebrated Rudesheimer,
Hochheimer and Johannisberger. The vines of the lower Main,
particularly those of Wurzburg, are the best kinds; those of the upper
Main and the valley of the Neckar are rather inferior. The Moselle
wines are lighter and more acid than those of the Rhine. The total
amount produced in Germany is estimated at 1000 million gallons, of a
value of L4,000,000; Alsace-Lorraine turning out 400 millions; Baden,
175; Bavaria, Wurttemberg and Hesse together, 300; while the
remainder, which though small in quantity is in quality the best, is
produced by Prussia.

Live stock.

The cultivation of grazing lands in Germany has been greatly improved
in recent times and is in a highly prosperous condition. The provinces
of Schleswig-Holstein, Pomerania, Hanover (especially the marsh-lands
near the sea) and the grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin are
particularly remarkable in this respect. The best meadow-lands of
Bavaria are in the province of Franconia and in the outer range of the
Alps, and those of Saxony in the Erzgebirge. Wurttemberg, Hesse and
Thuringia also yield cattle of excellent quality. These large
cattle-rearing centres not only supply the home markets but export
live stock in considerable quantities to England and France. Butter is
also largely exported to England from the North Sea districts and from
Schleswig-Holstein and Mecklenburg. The breeding of horses has
attained a great perfection. The main centre is in East and West
Prussia, then follow the marsh districts on the Elbe and Weser, some
parts of Westphalia, Oldenburg, Lippe, Saxony and upper Silesia, lower
Bavaria and Alsace-Lorraine. Of the stud farms Trakehnen in East
Prussia and Graditz in the Prussian province of Saxony enjoy a
European reputation. The aggregate number of sheep has shown a
considerable falling off, and the rearing of them is mostly carried on
only on large estates, the number showing only 9,692,501 in 1900, and
7,907,200 in 1904, as against 28,000,000 in 1860. As a rule,
sheep-farming is resorted to where the soil is of inferior quality and
unsuitable for tillage and the breeding of cattle. Far more attention
is accordingly given to sheep-farming in northern and north-eastern
Germany than in Schleswig-Holstein, Westphalia, the Rhineland and
south Germany. The native demand for wool is not covered by the home
production, and in this article the export from the United Kingdom to
Germany is steadily rising, having amounted in 1905 to a value of
L1,691,035, as against L742,632 in 1900. The largest stock of pigs is
in central Germany and Saxony, in Westphalia, on the lower Rhine, in
Lorraine and Hesse. Central Germany (especially Gotha and Brunswick)
exports sausages and hams largely, as well as Westphalia, but here
again considerable importation takes place from other countries. Goats
are found everywhere, but especially in the hilly districts. Poultry
farming is a considerable industry, the geese of Pomerania and the
fowls of Thuringia and Lorraine being in especial favour. Bee-keeping
is of considerable importance, particularly in north Germany and
Silesia.

On the whole, despite the prosperous condition of the German
live-stock farming, the consumption of meat exceeds the amount
rendered available by home production, and prices can only be kept
down by a steady increase in the imports from abroad.

_Fisheries._--The German fisheries, long of little importance, have
been carefully fostered within recent years. The deep-sea fishing in
the North Sea, thanks to the exertions of the German fishing league
(_Deutscher Fischereiverein_) and to government support, is extremely
active. Trawlers are extensively employed, and steamers bring the
catches directly to the large fish markets at Geestemunde and Altona,
whence facilities are afforded by the railways for the rapid transport
of fish to Berlin and other centres. The fish mostly caught are cod,
haddock and herrings, while Heligoland yields lobsters, and the
islands of Fohr, Amrum and Sylt oysters of good quality. The German
North Sea fishing fleet numbered in 1905 618 boats, with an aggregate
crew of 5441 hands. Equally well developed are the Baltic fisheries,
the chief ports engaged in which are Danzig, Eckernforde, Kolberg and
Travemunde. The principal catch is haddock and herrings. The catch of
the North Sea and Baltic fisheries in 1906 was valued at over
L700,000, exclusive of herrings for salting. The fisheries do not,
however, supply the demand for fish, and fresh, salt and dried fish is
imported largely in excess of the home yield.

_Mines and Minerals._--Germany abounds in minerals, and the
extraordinary industrial development of the country since 1870 is
largely due to its mineral wealth. Having left France much behind in
this respect, it now rivals Great Britain and the United States.

Germany produces more silver than any other European state, and the
quantity is annually increasing. It is extracted from the ores in the
mines of Freiburg (Saxony), the Harz Mountains, upper Silesia,
Merseburg, Aix-la-Chapelle, Wiesbaden and Arnsberg. Gold is found in
the sand of the rivers Isar, Inn and Rhine, and also, to a limited
extent, on the Harz. The quantity yielded in 1905 was, of silver,
about 400 tons of a value of L1,600,000, and gold, about 4 tons,
valued at about L548,000.

Lead is produced in considerable quantities in upper Silesia, the Harz
Mountains, in the Prussian province of Nassau, in the Saxon Erzgebirge
and in the Sauerland. The yield in 1905 amounted to about 153,000
tons; of which 20,000 tons were exported.

Copper is found principally in the Mansfeld district of the Prussian
province of Saxony and near Arnsberg in the Sauerland, the ore
yielding 31,713 tons in 1905, of which 5000 tons were exported.

About 90% of the zinc produced in Europe is yielded by Belgium and
Germany. It is mostly found in upper Silesia, around Beuthen, and in
the districts of Wiesbaden and Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1905 no less than
198,000 tons of block zinc were produced, of which 16,500 tons were
exported.

Of other minerals (with the exceptions of coal, iron and salt treated
below) nickel and antimony are found in the upper Harz; cobalt in the
hilly districts of Hesse and the Saxon Erzgebirge; arsenic in the
Riesengebirge; quicksilver in the Sauerland and in the spurs of the
Saarbrucken coal hills; graphite in Bavaria; porcelain clay in Saxony
and Silesia; amber along the whole Baltic coast; and lime and gypsum
in almost all parts.

Coal.

Coal-mining appears to have been first practised in the 14th century
at Zwickau (Saxony) and on the Ruhr. There are six large coal-fields,
occupying an area of about 3600 sq. m., of which the most important
occupies the basin of the Ruhr, its extent being estimated at 2800 sq.
m. Here there are more than 60 beds, of a total thickness of 150 to
200 ft. of coal; and the amount in the pits has been estimated at
45,000 millions of tons. Smaller fields are found near Osnabruck,
Ibbenburen and Minden, and a larger one near Aix-la-Chapelle. The Saar
coal-field, within the area enclosed by the rivers Saar, Nahe and
Blies (460 sq. m.), is of great importance. The thickness of 80 beds
amounts to 250 ft., and the total mass of coal is estimated at 45,400
million tons. The greater part of the basin belongs to Prussia, the
rest to Lorraine. A still larger field exists in the upper Silesian
basin, on the borderland between Austria and Poland, containing about
50,000 million tons. Beuthen is the chief centre. The Silesian
coal-fields have a second centre in Waldenburg, east of the
Riesengebirge. The Saxon coal-fields stretch eastwards for some miles
from Zwickau. Deposits of less consequence are found in upper Bavaria,
upper Franconia, Baden, the Harz and elsewhere.

The following table shows the rapidly increasing development of the
coal production. That of lignite is added, the provinces of Saxony and
Brandenburg being rich in this product:--

_Production of Coal and Lignite._