Chapter VI: German Literature Since Goethe (1832-1906) (4)

+------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------+
| | Coal. | Lignite. |
| Year.+-----------+----------+---------+-----------+----------+--------+
| |Quantities.| Value. | Hands. |Quantities.| Value. | Hands. |
+------+-----------+----------+---------+-----------+----------+--------+
| |Mill. Tons.|Mill. Mks.| |Mill. Tons.|Mill. Mks.| |
| 1871 | 29.4 | 218.4 | .. | 8.5 | 26.2 | |
| 1881 | 48.7 | 252.3 | 180,000 | 12.8 | 38.1 | 25,600 |
| 1891 | 73.7 | 589.5 | 283,000 | 20.5 | 54.2 | 35,700 |
| 1899 | 101.6 | 789.6 | 379,000 | 34.2 | 78.4 | 44,700 |
| 1900 | 109.3 | 966.1 | 414,000 | 40.5 | 98.5 | 50,900 |
| 1905 | 121.2 | 1049.9 | 490,000 | 52.5 | 122.2 | 52,800 |
+------+-----------+----------+---------+-----------+----------+--------+

This production permits a considerable export of coal to the west and
south of the empire, but the distance from the coal-fields to the
German coast is such that the import of British coal cannot yet be
dispensed with (1905, over 7,000,000 tons). Besides this, from
7,000,000 to 8,000,000 tons of lignite come annually from Bohemia. In
north Germany peat is also of importance as a fuel; the area of the
peat moors in Prussia is estimated at 8000 sq. m., of which 2000 are
in the north of Hanover.

The iron-fields of Germany fall into three main groups: those of the
lower Rhine and Westphalia, of which Dortmund and Dusseldorf are the
centres; those of Lorraine and the Saar; and those of upper Silesia.
The output of the ore has enormously increased of recent years, and
the production of pig iron, as given for 1905, amounted to 10,875,000
tons of a value of L28,900,000.

Germany possesses abundant salt deposits. The actual production not
only covers the home consumption, but also allows a yearly increasing
exportation, especially to Russia, Austria and Scandinavia. The
provinces of Saxony and Hanover, with Thuringia and Anhalt, produce
half the whole amount. A large salt-work is found at Strzalkowo
(Posen), and smaller ones near Dortmund, Lippstadt and Minden
(Westphalia). In south Germany salt abounds most in Wurttemberg (Hall,
Heilbronn, Rottweil); the principal Bavarian works are at the foot of
the Alps near Freilassing and Rosenheim. Hesse and Baden, Lorraine and
the upper Palatinate have also salt-works. The total yield of mined
salt amounted in 1905 to 6,209,000 tons, including 1,165,000 tons of
rock salt. The production has made great advance, having in 1850 been
only 5 million cwts.

_Manufactures._--In no other country of the world has the manufacturing industry made such rapid strides within recent years as in Germany. This extraordinary development of industrial energy embraces practically all classes of manufactured articles. In a general way the chief manufactures may be geographically distributed as follows. Prussia, Alsace-Lorraine, Bavaria and Saxony are the chief seats of the iron manufacture. Steel is produced in Rhenish Prussia. Saxony is predominant in the production of textiles, though Silesia and Westphalia manufacture linen. Cotton goods are largely produced in Baden, Bavaria, Alsace-Lorraine and Wurttemberg, woollens and worsteds in Saxony and the Rhine province, silk in Rhenish Prussia (Elberfeld), Alsace and Baden. Glass and porcelain are largely produced in Bavaria; lace in Saxony; tobacco in Bremen and Hamburg; chemicals in the Prussian province of Saxony; watches in Saxony (Glashutte) and Nuremberg; toys in Bavaria; gold and silver filagree in Berlin and Aschaffenburg; and beer in Bavaria and Prussia.

Iron industry.

It is perhaps more in respect of its iron industry than of its other
manufactures that Germany has attained a leading position in the
markets of the world. Its chief centres are in Westphalia and the
Rhine province (_auf roter Erde_), in upper Silesia, in
Alsace-Lorraine and in Saxony. Of the total production of pig iron in
1905 amounting to over 10,000,000 tons, more than the half was
produced in the Rhineland and Westphalia. Huge blast furnaces are in
constant activity, and the output of rolled iron and steel is
constantly increasing. In the latter the greatest advance has been
made. The greater part of it is produced at or around Essen, where are
the famous Krupp works, and Bochum. Many states have been for a
considerable time supplied by Krupp with steel guns and battleship
plates. The export of steel (railway) rails and bridges from this part
is steadily on the increase.

Hardware also, the production of which is centred in Solingen,
Heilbronn, Esslingen, &c., is largely exported. Germany stands second
to Great Britain in the manufacture of machines and engines. There are
in many large cities of north Germany extensive establishments for
this purpose, but the industry is not limited to the large cities. In
agricultural machinery Germany is a serious competitor with England.
The locomotives and wagons for the German railways are almost
exclusively built in Germany; and Russia, as well as Austria, receives
large supplies of railway plant from German works. In shipbuilding,
likewise, Germany is practically independent, yards having been
established for the construction of the largest vessels.

Cotton and textiles.

Before 1871 the production of cotton fabrics in France exceeded that
in Germany, but as the cotton manufacture is pursued largely in
Alsace, the balance is now against the former country. In 1905 there
were about 9,000,000 spindles in Germany. The export of the goods
manufactured amounted in this year to an estimated value of
L19,600,000. Cotton spinning and weaving are not confined to one
district, but are prosecuted in upper Alsace (Mulhausen, Gebweiler,
Colmar), in Saxony (Zwickau, Chemnitz, Annaberg), in Silesia (Breslau,
Liegnitz), in the Rhine province (Dusseldorf, Munster, Cologne), in
Erfurt and Hanover, in Wurttemberg (Reutlingen, Cannstatt), in Baden,
Bavaria (Augsburg, Bamberg, Bayreuth) and in the Palatinate.

Although Germany produces wool, flax and hemp, the home production of
these materials is not sufficient to meet the demand of manufactures,
and large quantities of them have to be imported. In 1895 almost a
million persons (half of them women) were employed in this branch of
industry, and in 1897 the value of the cloth, buckskin and flannel
manufacture was estimated at L18,000,000. The chief seats of this
manufacture are the Rhenish districts of Aix-la-Chapelle, Duren, Eupen
and Lennep, Brandenburg, Saxony, Silesia and lower Lusatia, the chief
centres in this group being Berlin, Cottbus, Spremberg, Sagan and
Sommerfeld.

The manufacture of woollen and half-woollen dress materials centres
mainly in Saxony, Silesia, the Rhine province and in Alsace. Furniture
covers, table covers and plush are made in Elberfeld and Chemnitz, in
Westphalia and the Rhine province (notably in Elberfeld and Barmen);
shawls in Berlin and the Bavarian Vogtland; carpets in Berlin, Barmen
and Silesia. In the town of Schmiedeberg in the last district, as also
in Cottbus (Lusatia), oriental patterns are successfully imitated. The
chief seats of the stocking manufacture are Chemnitz and Zwickau in
Saxony, and Apolda in Thuringia. The export of woollen goods from
Germany in 1905 amounted to a value of L13,000,000.

Although linen was formerly one of her most important articles of
manufacture, Germany is now left far behind in this industry by Great
Britain, France and Austria-Hungary. This branch of textile
manufacture has its principal centres in Silesia, Westphalia, Saxony
and Wurttemberg, while Hirschberg in Silesia, Bielefeld in Westphalia
and Zittau in Saxony are noted for the excellence of their
productions. The goods manufactured, now no longer, as formerly,
coarse in texture, vie with the finer and more delicate fabrics of
Belfast. In the textile industry for flax and hemp there were, in
1905, 276,000 fine spindles, 22,300 hand-looms and 17,600 power-looms
in operation, and, in 1905, linen and jute materials were exported of
an estimated value of over L2,000,000. The jute manufacture, the
principal centres of which are Berlin, Bonn, Brunswick and Hamburg,
has of late attained considerable dimensions.

Raw silk can scarcely be reckoned among the products of the empire,
and the annual demand has thus to be provided for by importation. The
main centre of the silk industry is Crefeld and its neighbourhood;
then come Elberfeld and Barmen, Aix-la-Chapelle, as well as Berlin,
Bielefeld, Chemnitz, Stuttgart and the district around Mulhausen in
Alsace.

Paper.

The manufacture of paper is prosecuted almost everywhere in the
empire. There were 1020 mills in operation in 1895, and the exports in
1905 amounted to more than L3,700,000 sterling, as against imports of
a value of over L700,000. The manufacture is carried on to the largest
extent in the Rhine province, in Saxony and in Silesia. Wall papers
are produced chiefly in Rhenish Prussia, Berlin and Hamburg; the finer
sorts of letter-paper in Berlin, Leipzig and Nuremberg; and
printing-paper (especially for books) in Leipzig, Berlin and
Frankfort-on-Main.

Leather.

The chief seat of the leather industry is Hesse-Darmstadt, in which
Mainz and Worms produce excellent material. In Prussia large factories
are in operation in the Rhine province, in Westphalia and Silesia
(Brieg). Boot and shoe manufactures are carried on everywhere; but the
best goods are produced by Mainz and Pirmasens. Gloves for export are
extensively made in Wurttemberg, and Offenbach and Aschaffenburg are
renowned for fancy leather wares, such as purses, satchels and the
like.

Berlin and Mainz are celebrated for the manufacture of furniture;
Bavaria for toys; the Black Forest for clocks; Nuremberg for pencils;
Berlin and Frankfort-on-Main for various perfumes; and Cologne for the
famous eau-de-Cologne.

Sugar.

The beetroot sugar manufacture is very considerable. It centres mainly
in the Prussian province of Saxony, where Magdeburg is the chief
market for the whole of Germany, in Anhalt, Brunswick and Silesia. The
number of factories was, in 1905, 376, and the amount of raw sugar and
molasses produced amounted to 2,643,531 metric tons, and of refined
sugar 1,711,063 tons.

Beer.

Beer is produced throughout the whole of Germany. The production is
relatively greatest in Bavaria. The _Brausteuergebiet_ (beer excise
district) embraces all the states forming the Zollverein, with the
exception of Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden and Alsace-Lorraine, in which
countries the excise duties are separately collected. The total number
of breweries in the beer excise district was, in 1905-1906, 5995,
which produced 1017 million gallons; in Bavaria nearly 6000 breweries
with 392 million gallons; in Baden over 700 breweries with 68 million
gallons; in Wurttemberg over 5000 breweries with 87 million gallons;
and in Alsace-Lorraine 95 breweries with about 29 million gallons. The
amount brewed per head of the population amounted, in 1905, roughly to
160 imperial pints in the excise district; to 450 in Bavaria; 280 in
Wurttemberg; 260 in Baden; and 122 in Alsace-Lorraine. It may be
remarked that the beer brewed in Bavaria is generally of darker colour
than that produced in other states, and extra strong brews are
exported largely into the beer excise district and abroad.

_Commerce._--The rapid development of German trade dates from the _Zollverein_ (customs union), under the special rules and regulations of which it is administered. The Zollverein emanates from a convention originally entered into, in 1828, between Prussia and Hesse, which, subsequently joined by the Bavarian customs-league, by the kingdom of Saxony and the Thuringian states, came into operation, as regards the countries concerned, on the 1st of January 1834. With progressive territorial extensions during the ensuing fifty years, and embracing the grand-duchy of Luxemburg, it had in 1871, when the German empire was founded, an area of about 209,281 sq. m., with a population of 40,678,000. The last important addition was in October 1888, when Hamburg and Bremen were incorporated. Included within it, besides the grand-duchy of Luxemburg, are the Austrian communes of Jungholz and Mittelberg; while, outside, lie the little free-port territories of Hamburg, Cuxhaven, Bremerhaven and Geestemunde, Heligoland, and small portions of the districts of Constance and Waldshut, lying on the Baden Swiss frontier. Down to 1879 Germany was, in general, a free-trade country. In this year, however, a rigid protective system was introduced by the _Zolltarifgesetz_, since modified by the commercial treaties between Germany and Austria-Hungary, Italy, Switzerland and Belgium, of the 1st of February 1892, and by a customs tariff law of the 25th of December 1902. The foreign commercial relations of Germany were again altered by the general and conventional customs tariff, which came into force on the 1st of March 1906. The Zolltarifgesetz of the 15th of July 1879, while restricting the former free import, imposed considerable duties. Exempt from duty were now only refuse, raw products, scientific instruments, ships and literary and artistic objects; forty-four articles--notably beer, vinegar, sugar, herrings, cocoa, salt, fish oils, ether, alum and soda--were unaffected by the change, while duties were henceforth levied upon a large number of articles which had previously been admitted duty free, such as pig iron, machines and locomotives, grain, building timber, tallow, horses, cattle and sheep; and, again, the tariff law further increased the duties leviable upon numerous other articles. Export duties were abolished in 1865 and transit dues in 1861. The law under which Great Britain enjoyed the "most favoured nation treatment" expired on the 31st of December 1905, but its provisions were continued by the _Bundesrat_ until further notice. The average value of each article is fixed annually in Germany under the direction of the Imperial Statistical Office, by a commission of experts, who receive information from chambers of commerce and other sources. There are separate valuations for imports and exports. The price fixed is that of the goods at the moment of crossing the frontier. For imports the price does not include customs duties, cost of transport, insurance, warehousing, &c., incurred after the frontier is passed. For exports, the price includes all charges within the territory, but drawbacks and bounties are not taken into account. The quantities are determined according to obligatory declarations, and, for imports, the fiscal authorities may actually weigh the goods. For packages an official tax is deducted. The countries whence goods are imported and the ultimate destination of exports are registered. The import dues amounted in the year 1906, the first year of the revised tariff, to about L31,639,000, or about 10s. 5d. per head of population.

Statistics relating to the foreign trade of the Empire are necessarily
confined to comparatively recent times. The quantities of such
imported articles as are liable to duty have, indeed, been known for
many years; and in 1872 official tables were compiled showing the
value both of imports and of exports. But when the results of these
tables proved the importation to be very much greater than the
exportation, the conviction arose that the valuation of the exports
was erroneous and below the reality. In 1872 the value of the imports
was placed at L173,400,000 and that of the exports at L124,700,000. In
1905 the figures were--imports, L371,000,000, and exports,
L292,000,000, including precious metals.

Table A following shows the classification of goods adopted before the tariff revision of 1906. From 1907 a new classification has been adopted, and the change thus introduced is so great that it is impossible to make any comparisons between the statistics of years subsequent to and preceding the year 1906. Table B shows imports and exports for 1907 and 1908 according to the new classification adopted.

TABLE A.--_Classes of Imports and Exports, 1905._

+-------------------------------------+-------------+-------------+
| | Import. | Export. |
+-------------------------------------+-------------+-------------+
| Refuse. | L6,866,250 | L1,170,200 |
| Cotton and cottons. | 23,488,750 | 22,949,600 |
| Lead and by-products. | 996,300 | 979,400 |
| Brush and sieve makers' goods. | 102,400 | 515,450 |
| Drugs, chemists' and oilmen's | | |
| colours. | 15,896,900 | 23,196,250 |
| Iron and iron goods. | 3,156,500 | 33,126,400 |
| Ores, precious metals, asbestos, &c.| 28,834,050 | 9,899,450 |
| Flax and other vegetable spinning | | |
| materials except cotton. | 6,794,100 | 1,235,700 |
| Grain and agricultural produce. | 59,136,200 | 7,496,500 |
| Glass. | 538,050 | 2,743,900 |
| Hair, feathers, bristles. | 3,218,600 | 1,848,150 |
| Skins. | 18,965,500 | 9,548,450 |
| Wood and wooden wares. | 16,940,850 | 6,056,150 |
| Hops. | 913,150 | 2,135,600 |
| Instruments, machines, &c. | 4,351,500 | 17,898,250 |
| Calendars. | 34,300 | 74,700 |
| Caoutchouc, &c. | 7,379,600 | 4,616,400 |
| Clothes, body linen, millinery. | 739,900 | 7,321,050 |
| Copper and copper goods. | 8,273,400 | 10,307,050 |
| Hardware, &c. | 2,042,400 | 12,610,550 |
| Leather and leather goods. | 3,567,950 | 9,665,300 |
| Linens. | 1,750,100 | 1,904,950 |
| Candles. | 11,150 | 42,350 |
| Literary and works of art. | 3,066,050 | 9,025,500 |
| Groceries and confectionery. | 41,446,400 | 17,585,000 |
| Fats and oils. | 12,510,600 | 2,631,600 |
| Paper goods. | 1,086,800 | 7,158,800 |
| Furs. | 265,700 | 720,200 |
| Petroleum. | 5,036,600 | 132,300 |
| Silks and silk goods. | 9,523,300 | 8,889,000 |
| Soap and perfumes. | 151,600 | 768,200 |
| Playing cards. | 400 | 18,950 |
| Stone goods. | 2,822,000 | 2,110,550 |
| Coal, lignite, coke and peat. | 10,136,800 | 15,096,450 |
| Straw and hemp goods. | 561,650 | 262,100 |
| Tar, pitch, resin. | 2,504,400 | 834,100 |
| Animals, and animal products. | 9,926,200 | 590,700 |
| Earthenware goods. | 391,650 | 5,076,350 |
| Cattle. | 11,366,200 | 725,100 |
| Oilcloth. | 43,150 | 177,300 |
| Wools and woollen textiles. | 25,290,200 | 21,562,900 |
| Zinc and zinc goods. | 682,250 | 2,413,600 |
| Tin and japanned goods. | 1,770,550 | 744,100 |
| Goods insufficiently declared. | . . | 806,300 |
| +-------------+-------------+
| Total. |L352,317,250 |L284,626,900 |
+-------------------------------------+-------------+-------------+

TABLE B.--_Classes of Imports and Exports, 1907 and 1908._

+-----------------------------+-----------------+-----------------+
| | Imports. | Exports. |
| +-----------------+-----------------+
| Groups of Articles. | Value in L1000. | Value in L1000. |
| +--------+--------+--------+--------+
| | 1907. | 1908.* | 1907. | 1908.* |
+-----------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
|Agricultural and forest | | | | |
| produce** |215,532 |205,512 | 45,796 | 50,324 |
| Agricultural produce*** | 93,253 |102,954 | 10,369 | 15,168 |
| Colonial produce and | | | | |
| substitutes for the same | 12,151 | 12,328 | 84 | 108 |
| Southern fruit and fruit | | | | |
| peel | 3,214 | 3,262 | 20 | 23 |
| Forest produce | 28,166 | 26,299 | 4,066 | 3,967 |
| Resins | 8,216 | 8,209 | 2,500 | 2,325 |
| Animals and animal | | | | |
| products** | 63,283 | 61,794 | 9,607 | 9,676 |
| Hides and skins | 16,920 | 17,699 | 5,383 | 5,453 |
| Meat, oil, sugar, beverages| 21,523 | 20,404 | 20,284 | 20,048 |
|Mineral and fossil raw | | | | |
| materials, mineral oils | 47,575 | 45,540 | 26,166 | 26,208 |
| Earths and stones | 6,541 | 7,542 | 3,250 | 3,006 |
| Ores, slag, cinders | 16,465 | 15,451 | 1,407 | 1,206 |
| Mineral fuel | 16,895 | 14,910 | 19,445 | 20,020 |
| Mineral oils and other | | | | |
| fossil raw materials | 7,168 | 7,209 | 558 | 491 |
| Coal-tar, coal-tar oils | 506 | 428 | 1,506 | 1,485 |
|Chemical and pharmaceutical | | | | |
| products, colours | 14,784 | 14,850 | 28,116 | 26,845 |
| Chemical primary materials,| | | | |
| acids, salts | 9,226 | 9,550 | 9,661 | 9,832 |
| Colours and dyeing | | | | |
| materials | 951 | 879 | 11,630 | 10,518 |
| Varnish, lacquer | 189 | 158 | 206 | 221 |
| Ether, alcohol not included| | | | |
| elsewhere, essential | | | | |
| oils, perfumery and | | | | |
| cosmetics | 1,979 | 1,918 | 1,118 | 1,004 |
| Artificial manures | 992 | 1,001 | 1,303 | 1,236 |
| Explosives of all kinds | 86 | 74 | 1,612 | 1,269 |
| Other chemical and | | | | |
| pharmaceutical products | 1,361 | 1,270 | 2,586 | 2,765 |
|Animal and vegetable textile | | | | |
| materials and wares | | | | |
| thereof | 98,540 | 92,105 | 78,086 | 70,343 |
| Silk and silk goods | 13,533 | 13,704 | 13,324 | 11,364 |
| Wool | 33,260 | 31,195 | 27,114 | 24,918 |
| Unworked wool | 19,975 | 19,309 | 2,647 | 2,561 |
| Worked wool | 4,625 | 4,961 | 3,799 | 3,393 |
| Wares of spun wool | 8,660 | 6,925 | 20,668 | 18,964 |
| Cotton | 38,543 | 34,456 | 29,004 | 26,201 |
| Unworked cotton | 27,705 | 26,167 | 3,264 | 2,987 |
| Worked cotton | 980 | 950 | 912 | 891 |
| Cotton wares | 9,858 | 7,338 | 24,828 | 22,324 |
| Other vegetable textile | | | | |
| materials | 10,783 | 10,411 | 3,777 | 3,471 |
| Unworked | 7,923 | 7,819 | 1,125 | 1,211 |
| Worked | 166 | 168 | 122 | 137 |
| Wares thereof | 2,685 | 2,423 | 2,531 | 2,124 |
|Leather and leather wares, | | | | |
| furriers' wares | 6,695 | 6,657 | 16,778 | 17,835 |
| Leather | 2,658 | 2,804 | 7,503 | 8,328 |
| Leather wares | 1,332 | 1,176 | 4,016 | 3,867 |
| Furriers' wares | 2,698 | 2,672 | 5,237 | 5,616 |
|Caoutchouc wares | 694 | 754 | 2,328 | 2,325 |
| Wares of soft caoutchouc | 670 | 735 | 1,694 | 1,723 |
| Hardened caoutchouc and | | | | |
| wares thereof | 24 | 19 | 634 | 602 |
|Wares of animal or vegetable | | | | |
| material for carving or | | | | |
| moulding | 2,448 | 2,068 | 4,260 | 4,131 |
|Wooden wares | 859 | 769 | 1,707 | 1,666 |
|Paper, cardboard and wares | | | | |
| thereof | 1,349 | 1,205 | 9,342 | 9,111 |
|Books, pictures, paintings | 1,992 | 2,036 | 4,667 | 4,765 |
|Earthenware | 467 | 377 | 5,224 | 4,612 |
|Glass and glassware | 747 | 728 | 5,671 | 5,149 |
|Precious metals and wares | | | | |
| thereof | 13,281 | 21,243 | 18,629 | 6,858 |
| Gold | 11,616 | 19,295 | 15,898 | 6,151 |
| Gold | 11,184 | 18,873 | 11,071 | 2,897 |
| Gold wares | 432 | 422 | 4,827 | 3,254 |
| Silver | 1,665 | 1,948 | 2,731 | 2,707 |
| Silver | 1,434 | 1,716 | 1,206 | 1,418 |
| Silver wares | 231 | 232 | 1,525 | 1,289 |
|Base metals and wares | | | | |
| thereof | 26,035 | 26,398 | 57,146 | 58,895 |
| Iron and iron wares | 5,903 | 4,472 | 38,899 | 40,162 |
| Pig iron (including | | | | |
| non-malleable alloys) | 1,601 | 912 | 966 | 905 |
| Iron wares | 4,302 | 3,560 | 37,933 | 39,257 |
| Aluminium and aluminium | | | | |
| wares | 546 | 453 | 368 | 273 |
| Raw aluminium | 529 | 433 | 152 | 77 |
| Aluminium wares | 17 | 20 | 216 | 196 |
| Lead and lead wares | 1,438 | 1,484 | 945 | 985 |
| Raw lead (including | | | | |
| waste) | 1,427 | 1,470 | 525 | 568 |
| Lead wares | 11 | 14 | 420 | 417 |
| Zinc and zinc wares | 727 | 847 | 2,433 | 2,489 |
| Raw zinc (including | | | | |
| waste) | 706 | 825 | 1,631 | 1,784 |
| Zinc wares | 21 | 22 | 802 | 705 |
| Tin and tin wares | 2,405 | 2,629 | 1,380 | 1,236 |
| Raw tin (including | | | | |
| waste) | 2,357 | 2,581 | 787 | 688 |
| Tin wares | 48 | 48 | 593 | 548 |
| Nickel and nickel wares | 400 | 540 | 246 | 298 |
| Raw nickel | 375 | 527 | 160 | 233 |
| Nickel wares | 25 | 13 | 86 | 65 |
| Copper and copper wares | 13,803 | 15,088 | 7,998 | 8,470 |
| Raw copper (including | | | | |
| copper coin, brass, | | | | |
| tombac, &c.) | 12,995 | 14,192 | 2,204 | 2,014 |
| Copper wares | 808 | 896 | 5,794 | 6,456 |
| Instruments of precision | 813 | 885 | 4,877 | 4,982 |
|Machinery, vehicles | 7,093 | 5,489 | 33,117 | 34,653 |
| Machinery | 4,090 | 3,451 | 19,041 | 20,684 |
| Electro-technical products | 411 | 451 | 8,227 | 9,107 |
| Vehicles and vessels | 2,562 | 1,587 | 5,849 | 4,862 |
|Firearms, clocks, musical | | | | |
| instruments, toys | 1,732 | 1,424 | 8,704 | 7,505 |
| Clocks and watches | 1,382 | 1,134 | 1,296 | 1,210 |
| Musical instruments | 223 | 170 | 3,176 | 2,780 |
| Toys | 39 | 35 | 3,949 | 3,273 |
| +--------+--------+--------+--------+
| Total |442,663 |429,636 |349,114 |336,347 |
+-----------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

* Provisional figures only.
** Excluding vegetable and animal textile materials.
*** Excluding vegetable textile materials.

The following table shows the commercial intercourse in imports and
exports, exclusive of bullion and coin, between Germany and the chief
countries of the world in 1905, 1906 and 1907.

_Imports._

+---------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
| | 1905. | 1906. | 1907. |
| +--------+----------+--------+----------+--------+----------+
| Country. | Value | of | Value | of | Value | of |
| | in | Germany's| in | Germany's| in | Germany's|
| | L1000. | Total | L1000. | Total | L1000. | Total |
| | | Imports.| | Imports.| | Imports.|
+---------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------+--------+----------+
| Belgium | 13,439 | 3.8 | 14,315 | 3.6 | 14,586 | 3.4 |
| Denmark | 5,986 | 1.7 | 6,302 | 1.6 | 6,050 | 1.4 |
| France | 19,772 | 5.6 | 21,306 | 5.4 | 22,302 | 5.2 |
| United Kingdom | 35,320 | 10.1 | 40,531 | 10.3 | 48,014 | 11.2 |
| Italy | 10,350 | 3 | 11,851 | 3 | 14,030 | 3.3 |
| Netherlands | 12,077 | 3 | 11,864 | 3 | 11,187 | 2.6 |
| Austria-Hungary | 36,974 | 10.6 | 39,814 | 10.1 | 39,939 | 9.3 |
| Rumania | 4,568 | 1.3 | 5,774 | 1.5 | 7,365 | 1.7 |
| Russia | 47,816 | 13.6 | 52,528 | 13.4 | 54,447 | 12.7 |
| Sweden | 5,887 | 1.7 | 7,359 | 1.9 | 8,457 | 2 |
| Switzerland | 8,980 | 2.6 | 10,659 | 2.9 | 10,366 | 2.4 |
| Spain | 5,742 | 1.6 | 7,410 | 1.9 | 6,878 | 1.6 |
| British South Africa| 1,769 | 0.5 | 1,766 | 0.4 | 2,258 | 0.5 |
| Dominion of Canada | 481 | 0.1 | 463 | 0.1 | 483 | 0.1 |
| New Zealand | 75 | .. | 87 | .. | 94 | .. |
| British West Africa | 2,562 | 0.7 | 2,731 | 0.7 | 3,601 | 0.8 |
| British India | 13,657 | 3.9 | 15,842 | 4 | 20,016 | 4.7 |
| Dutch Indies | 5,848 | 1.7 | 7,002 | 1.8 | 9,199 | 2.1 |
| Argentine Republic | 18,150 | 5.2 | 18,302 | 4.7 | 21,756 | 5.1 |
| Brazil | 8,454 | 2.4 | 9,246 | 2.4 | 9,636 | 2.2 |
| Chile | 6,536 | 1.9 | 7,131 | 1.8 | 7,074 | 1.6 |
| United States | 48,770 | 13.9 | 60,787 | 15.4 | 64,864 | 15.1 |
| Commonwealth of | | | | | | |
| Australia | 7,690 | 2.2 | 8,619 | 2.2 | 11,209 | 2.6 |
+---------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------+--------+----------+

_Exports._

+---------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
| | 1905. | 1906. | 1907. |
| +--------+----------+--------+----------+--------=----------+
| Country. | Value | of | Value | of | Value | of |
| | in | Germany's| in | Germany's| in | Germany's|
| | L1000. | Total | L1000. | Total | L1000. | Total |
| | | Exports.| | Exports.| | Exports.|
+---------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------+--------+----------+
| Belgium | 15,364 | 5.5 | 17,509 | 5.6 | 16,861 | 5 |
| Denmark | 8,668 | 3.1 | 9,699 | 3.1 | 10,182 | 3 |
| France | 14,420 | 5.1 | 18,815 | 6 | 22,080 | 6.6 |
| United Kingdom | 51,253 | 18.2 | 52,473 | 16.8 | 52,135 | 15.5 |
| Italy | 8,045 | 2.9 | 11,354 | 3.6 | 14,893 | 4.4 |
| Netherlands | 21,295 | 7.6 | 21,799 | 7 | 22,232 | 6.6 |
| Norway | 3,447 | 1.2 | 3,573 | 1.2 | 4,211 | 1.3 |
| Austria-Hungary | 28,526 | 10.1 | 31,926 | 10.2 | 35,231 | 10.5 |
| Rumania | 2,144 | 0.8 | 3,140 | 1 | 3,372 | 1 |
| Russia | 17,027 | 6 | 19,962 | 6.4 | 21,531 | 6.4 |
| Sweden | 7,653 | 2.7 | 8,675 | 2.8 | 9,177 | 2.7 |
| Switzerland | 17,649 | 6.3 | 18,367 | 5.9 | 21,948 | 6.5 |
| Spain | 2,609 | 0.9 | 2,838 | 0.9 | 3,228 | 1 |
| British South Africa| 1,687 | 0.6 | 1,607 | 0.5 | 1,422 | 0.4 |
| Dominion of Canada | 1,071 | 0.4 | 1,203 | 0.4 | 1,456 | 0.4 |
| New Zealand | 227 | 0.1 | 244 | 0.1 | 263 | 0.1 |
| Turkey | 3,484 | 1.3 | 3,357 | 1.1 | 4,011 | 1.2 |
| British India | 4,226 | 1.5 | 5,011 | 1.6 | 4,868 | 1.4 |
| China | 3,727 | 1.3 | 3,331 | 1.1 | 3,105 | 0.9 |
| Japan | 4,158 | 1.5 | 4,328 | 1.4 | 5,036 | 1.5 |
| Argentine Republic | 6,463 | 2.3 | 8,367 | 2.7 | 8,810 | 2.6 |
| Brazil | 3,525 | 1.3 | 4,364 | 1.4 | 5,118 | 1.5 |
| United States | 26,660 | 9.5 | 31,281 | 10 | 32,070 | 9.5 |
| Commonwealth of | | | | | | |
| Australia | 2,264 | 0.8 | 2,863 | 0.9 | 3,004 | 0.9 |
+---------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------+--------+----------+

The commerce of Germany shows an upward tendency, which progresses
_pari passu_ with its greatly increased production. The export of
ships from the United Kingdom to the empire decreased during two
years, 1903 (L305,682) and 1904 (L365,062), almost to a vanishing
point, German yards being able to cope with the demands made upon them
for the supply of vessels of all classes, including mercantile vessels
and ships of war. In 1905 and subsequent years, however, the degree of
employment in German yards increased to such an extent, principally
owing to the placing of the Admiralty contracts with private builders,
that the more urgent orders for mercantile vessels were placed abroad.

The following tables give the value of trade between the United
Kingdom and Germany in 1900 and 1905:--

+--------------------------------+-----------+-----------+
| Staple Imports into the United | | |
| Kingdom from Germany. | 1900. | 1905. |
+--------------------------------+-----------+-----------+
| | L | L |
| Sugar | 9,164,573 |10,488,085 |
| Glass and manufactures | 1,078,648 | 1,108,117 |
| Eggs | 1,017,119 | 764,966 |
| Cottons and yarn | 992,244 | 1,476,385 |
| Woollens and yarn | 1,312,671 | 1,984,475 |
| Iron and steel and manufactures| 1,012,376 | 379,479 |
| Machinery | 411,178 | 735,536 |
| Paper | 523,544 | 528,946 |
| Musical instruments | 660,777 | 676,391 |
| Toys | 644,690 | 714,628 |
| Zinc and manufactures | 461,023 | 673,602 |
| Wood and manufactures | 1,470,839 | 1,109,584 |
| Chemicals | 513,200 | 735,830 |
+--------------------------------+-----------+-----------+

+--------------------------------+-----------+-----------+
| Principal Articles exported by | | |
| Great Britain to Germany. | 1900. | 1905. |
+--------------------------------+-----------+-----------+
| | L | L |
| Cottons and yarn | 3,843,917 | 4,941,917 |
| Woollens and yarn | 3,743,842 | 3,795,591 |
| Alpaca, &c., yarn | 1,022,259 | 1,325,519 |
| Wool | 742,632 | 1,691,035 |
| Ironwork | 2,937,055 | 1,500,414 |
| Herrings | 1,651,441 | 2,042,483 |
| Machinery | 2,040,797 | 2,102,835 |
| Coals, cinders | 4,267,172 | 3,406,535 |
| New ships | 1,592,865 | 1,377,081 |
+--------------------------------+-----------+-----------+

_Navigation._--The seamen of Frisia are among the best in the world, and the shipping of Bremen and Hamburg had won a respected name long before a German mercantile marine, properly so called, was heard of. Many Hamburg vessels sailed under charter of English and other houses in foreign, especially Chinese, waters. Since 1868 all German ships have carried a common flag--black, white, red; but formerly Oldenburg, Hanover, Bremen, Hamburg, Lubeck, Mecklenburg and Prussia had each its own flag, and Schleswig-Holstein vessels sailed under the Danish flag. The German mercantile fleet occupies, in respect of the number of vessels, the fourth place--after Great Britain, the United States of America and Norway; but in respect of tonnage it stands third--after Great Britain and the United States only.

The following table shows its distribution on the 1st of January of the two years 1905 and 1908:--

+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+------------------+
| | Baltic Ports. | North Sea Ports. | Total Shipping. |
| +-------+---------+-------+----------+-------+----------+
| |Number.| Tonnage.|Number.| Tonnage. |Number.| Tonnage. |
|-----------------+-------+---------+-------+----------+-------+----------+
|1905-- | | | | | | |
| Sailing vessels| 386 | 19,067 | 2181 | 559,436 | 2567 | 578,503 |
| Steamers | 486 | 236,509 | 1171 |1,537,563 | 1657 |1,774,072 |
|-----------------+-------+---------+-------+----------+-------+----------+
| Totals | 872 | 255,576 | 3352 |2,096,999 | 4224 |2,352,575 |
| +-------+---------+-------+----------+-------+----------+
|1908-- | | | | | | |
| Sailing vessels| 394 | 17,472 | 2255 | 516,180 | 2649 | 533,652 |
| Steamers | 521 | 274,952 | 140l |1,981,831 | 1922 |2,256,783 |
| +-------+---------+-------+----------+-------+----------+
| Totals | 915 | 292,424 | 3656 |2,498,011 | 4571 |2,790,435 |
+-----------------+-------+---------+-------+----------+-------+----------+

In 1905, 2136 vessels of 283,171 tons, and in 1908, 2218 vessels of 284,081 tons, belonged to Prussian ports, and the number of sailors of the mercantile marine was 60,616 in 1905 and 71,853 in 1908.

The chief ports are Hamburg, Stettin, Bremen, Kiel, Lubeck, Flensburg, Bremerhaven, Danzig (Neufahrwasser), Geestemunde and Emden; and the number and tonnage of vessels of foreign nationality entering and clearing the ports of the empire, as compared with national shipping, were in 1906:--

+---------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+
| | Number | | Number | |
| Foreign Ships.| entered | Tonnage. | cleared | Tonnage. |
| |in Cargo.| |in Cargo.| |
+---------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+
| Danish | 5917 |1,589,346 | 5059 |1,219,388 |
| British | 5327 |5,129,017 | 3211 |2,552,268 |
| Swedish | 4891 |1,164,431 | 3317 | 747,656 |
| Dutch | 2181 | 458,401 | 1973 | 316,562 |
| Norwegian | 1565 | 817,483 | 720 | 347,811 |
| Russian | 720 | 250,564 | 439 | 143,983 |
+---------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+

The ports of Hamburg and Bremen, which are the chief outlets for emigration to the United States of America, carry on a vast commercial trade with all the chief countries of the world, and are the main gates of maritime intercourse between the United Kingdom and Germany.

The inland navigation is served by nearly 25,000 river, canal and coasting vessels, of a tonnage of about 4,000,000.

_Railways._--The period of railway construction was inaugurated in Germany by the opening of the line (4 m. in length) from Nuremberg to Furth in 1835, followed by the main line (71 m.) between Leipzig and Dresden, opened throughout in 1839. The development of the railway system was slow and was not conceived on any uniform plan. The want of a central government operated injuriously, for it often happened that intricate negotiations and solemn treaties between several sovereign states were required before a line could be constructed; and, moreover, the course it was to take was often determined less by the general exigencies of commerce than by many trifling interests or desires of neighbouring states. The state which was most self-seeking in its railway politics was Hanover, which separated the eastern and western parts of the kingdom of Prussia. The difficulties arising to Prussia from this source were experienced in a still greater degree by the seaports of Bremen and Hamburg, which were severely hampered by the particularism displayed by Hanover.

The making of railways was from the outset regarded by some German states as exclusively a function of the government. The South German states, for example, have only possessed state railways. In Prussia numerous private companies, in the first instance, constructed their systems, and the state contented itself for the most part with laying lines in such districts only as were not likely to attract private capital.

The development of the German railway system falls conveniently into four periods. The first, down in 1840, embraces the beginnings of railway enterprise. The next, down to 1848, shows the linking-up of various existing lines and the establishment of inter-connexion between the chief towns. The third, down to 1881, shows the gradual establishment of state control in Prussia, and the formation of direct trunk lines. The fourth begins from 1881 with the purchase of practically all the railways in Prussia by the government, and the introduction of a uniform system of interworking between the various state systems. The purchase of the railways by the Prussian government was on the whole equably carried out, but there were several hard cases in the expropriation of some of the smaller private lines.

The majority of the German railways are now owned by the state governments. Out of 34,470 m. of railway completed and open for traffic in 1906, only 2579 m. were the property of private undertakings, and of these about 150 were worked by the state. The bulk of the railways are of the normal 4 ft. 8-1/2 in. gauge. Narrow-gauge (2-1/2 ft.) lines--or light railways--extended over 1218 m. in 1903, and of these 537 m. were worked by the state.

The board responsible for the imperial control over the whole railway system in Germany is the _Reichseisenbahnamt_ in Berlin, the administration of the various state systems residing, in Prussia, in the ministry of public works; in Bavaria in the ministry of the royal house and of the exterior; in Wurttemberg in the ministry of the exterior; in Saxony in the ministry of the interior; in Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt in commissions of the ministry of finance; and in Alsace-Lorraine in the imperial ministry of railways.

The management of the Prussian railway system is committed to the
charge of twenty "directions," into which the whole network of lines
is divided, being those of Altona, Berlin, Breslau, Bromberg, Danzig,
Elberfeld, Erfurt, Essen a.d. Ruhr, Frankfort-on-Main, Halle a.d.
Saale, Hanover, Cassel, Kattowitz, Cologne, Konigsberg, Magdeburg,
Munster, Posen, Saarbrucken and Stettin. The entire length of the
system was in 1906 20,835 m., giving an average of about 950 m. to
each "direction." The smallest mileage controlled by a "direction" is
Berlin, with 380 m., and the greatest, Konigsberg, with 1200 m.

The Bavarian system embraces 4642 m., and is controlled and managed,
apart from the "general direction" in Munich, by ten traffic boards,
in Augsburg, Bamberg, Ingolstadt, Kempten, Munich, Nuremberg,
Regensburg, Rosenheim, Weiden and Wurzburg.

The system of the kingdom of Saxony has a length of 1616 m., and is
controlled by the general direction in Dresden.

The length of the Wurttemberg system is 1141 m., and is managed by a
general direction in Stuttgart.

Baden (state) controls 1233, Oldenburg (state) 382,
Mecklenburg-Schwerin 726 and Saxe-Weimar 257 m. respectively. Railways
lying within the other smaller states are mostly worked by Prussia.

Alsace-Lorraine has a separate system of 1085 m., which is worked by
the imperial general direction in Strassburg.

By the linking-up of the various state systems several grand trunk
line routes have been developed--notably the lines
Berlin-Vienna-Budapest; Berlin-Cologne-Brussels and Paris;
Berlin-Halle-Frankfort-on-Main-Basel; Hamburg-Cassel-Munich and
Verona; and Breslau-Dresden-Bamberg-Geneva. Until 1907 no uniform
system of passenger rates had been adopted, each state retaining its
own fares--a condition that led to much confusion. From the 1st of May
1907 the following tariff came into force. For ordinary trains the
rate for first class was fixed at 1-1/4d. a mile; for second class at
.7d.; for third class at 1/2d., and for fourth class at 1/4d. a mile.
For express trains an extra charge is made of 2s. for distances
exceeding 93 m. (150 kils.) in the two superior classes, and 1s. for a
lesser distance, and of 1s. and 6d. respectively in the case of third
class tickets. Fourth class passengers are not conveyed by express
trains. The above rates include government duty; but the privilege of
free luggage (as up to 56 lb.) has been withdrawn, and all luggage
other than hand baggage taken into the carriages is charged for. In
1903 371,084,000 metric tons of goods, including animals, were
conveyed by the German railways, yielding L68,085,000 sterling, and
the number of passengers carried was 957,684,000, yielding
L29,300,000.

The passenger ports of Germany affording oversea communications to
distant lands are mainly those of Bremen (Bremerhaven) and Hamburg
(Cuxhaven) both of which are situate on the North Sea. From them great
steamship lines, notably the North German Lloyd, the Hamburg-American,
the Hamburg South American and the German East African steamship
companies, maintain express mail and other services with North and
South America, Australia, the Cape of Good Hope and the Far East.
London and other English ports, French, Italian and Levant coast towns
are also served by passenger steamboat sailings from the two great
North Sea ports. The Baltic ports, such as Lubeck, Stettin, Danzig
(Neufahrwasser) and Konigsberg, principally provide communication with
the coast towns of the adjacent countries, Russia and Sweden.

_Waterways._--In Germany the waterways are almost solely in the possession of the state. Of ship canals the chief is the Kaiser Wilhelm canal (1887-1895), 61 m. long, connecting the North Sea and the Baltic; it was made with a breadth at bottom of 72 ft. and at the surface of 213 ft., and with a depth of 29 ft. 6 in., but in 1908 work was begun for doubling the bottom width and increasing the depth to 36 ft. In respect of internal navigation, the principal of the greater undertakings are the Dortmund-Ems and the Elbe-Trave canals. The former, constructed in 1892-1899, has a length of 150 m. and a mean depth of 8 ft. The latter, constructed 1895-1900, has a length of 43 m. and a mean depth of about 7-1/2 ft. A project was sanctioned in 1905 for a canal, adapted for vessels up to 600 tons, from the Rhine to the Weser at Hanover, utilizing a portion of the Dortmund-Ems canal; for a channel accommodating vessels of similar size between Berlin and Stettin; for improving the waterway between the Oder and the Vistula, so as to render it capable of accommodating vessels of 400 tons; and for the canalization of the upper Oder.

On the whole, Germany cannot be said to be rich in canals. In South
Germany the Ludwigs canal was, until the annexation of
Alsace-Lorraine, the only one of importance. It was constructed by
King Louis I. of Bavaria in order to unite the German Ocean and the
Black Sea, and extends from the Main at Bamberg to Kelheim on the
Danube. Alsace-Lorraine had canals for connecting the Rhine with the
Rhone and the Marne, a branch serving the collieries of the Saar
valley. The North German plain has, in the east, a canal by which
Russian grain is conveyed to Konigsberg, joining the Pregel to the
Memel, and the upper Silesian coalfield is in communication with the
Oder by means of the Klodnitz canal. The greatest number of canals is
found around Berlin; they serve to join the Spree to the Oder and
Elbe, and include the Teltow canal opened in 1906. The canals in
Germany (including ship canals through lakes) have a total length of
about 2600 m. Navigable and canalized rivers, to which belong the
great water-systems of the Rhine, Elbe and Oder, have a total length
of about 6000 m.

_Roads._--The construction of good highways has been well attended to in Germany only since the Napoleonic wars. The separation of the empire into small states was favourable to road-making, inasmuch as it was principally the smaller governments that expended large sums for their network of roads. Hanover and Thuringia have long been distinguished for the excellence of their roads, but some districts suffer even still from the want of good highways. The introduction of railways for a time diverted attention from road-making, but this neglect has of late been to some extent remedied. In Prussia the districts (_Kreise_) have undertaken the charge of the construction of the roads; but they receive a subsidy from the public funds of the several provinces. Turnpikes were abolished in Prussia in 1874 and in Saxony in 1885. The total length of the public roads is estimated at 80,000 m.

_Posts and Telegraphs._--With the exception of Bavaria and Wurttemberg, which have administrations of their own, all the German states belong to the imperial postal district (_Reichspostgebiet_). Since 1874 the postal and telegraphic departments have been combined. Both branches of administration have undergone a surprising development, especially since the reduction of the postal rates. Germany, including Bavaria and Wurttemberg, constitutes with Austria-Hungary a special postal union (Deutsch-Osterreichischer Postverband), besides forming part of the international postal union. There are no statistics of posts and telegraphs before 1867, for it was only when the North German union was formed that the lesser states resigned their right of carrying mails in favour of the central authority. Formerly the prince of Thurn-and-Taxis was postmaster-general of Germany, but only some of the central states belonged to his postal territory. The seat of management was Frankfort-on-Main.

The following table shows the growth in the number of post offices for
the whole empire:--

+------+-------------+-------------+
| Year.|Post Offices.|Men employed.|
+------+-------------+-------------+
| 1872 | 7,518 | .. |
| 1880 | 9,460 | .. |
| 1890 | 24,952 | 128,687 |
| 1899 | 36,388 | 206,945 |
| 1904 | 38,658 | 261,985 |
| 1907 | 40,083 | 319,026 |
+------+-------------+-------------+

In 1872 there were 2359 telegraph offices; in 1880, 9980; in 1890,
17,200; and in 1907, 37,309. There were 188 places provided with
telephone service in 1888, and 13,175 in 1899. The postal receipts
amounted for the whole empire in 1907 to L33,789,460, and the
expenditure to L31,096,944, thus showing a surplus of L2,692,516.

_Constitution._--The constitution of the German empire is, in all essentials, that of the North German Confederation, which came into force on the 7th of June 1867. Under this the presidency (_Praesidium_) of the confederation was vested in the king of Prussia and his heirs. As a result of the Franco-German war of 1870 the South German states joined the confederation; on the 9th of December 1870 the diet of the confederation accepted the treaties and gave to the new confederation the name of German Empire (_Deutsche Reich_), and on the 18th of January 1871 the king of Prussia was proclaimed German emperor (_Deutscher Kaiser_) at Versailles. This was a change of style, not of functions and powers. The title is "German emperor," not "emperor of Germany," being intended to show that the Kaiser is but _primus inter pares_ in a confederation of territorial sovereigns; his authority as territorial sovereign (_Landesherr_) extends over Prussia, not over Germany.

The imperial dignity is hereditary in the line of Hohenzollern, and follows the law of primogeniture. The emperor exercises the imperial power in the name of the confederated states. In his office he is assisted by a federal council (_Bundesrat_), which represents the governments of the individual states of Germany. The members of this council, 58 in number, are appointed for each session by the governments of the individual states. The legislative functions of the empire are vested in the emperor, the Bundesrat, and the Reichstag or imperial Diet. The members of the latter, 397 in number, are elected for a space of five years by universal suffrage. Vote is by ballot, and one member is elected by (approximately) every 150,000 inhabitants.

As regards its legislative functions, the empire has supreme and independent control in matters relating to military affairs and the navy, to the imperial finances, to German commerce, to posts and telegraphs, and also to railways, in so far as these affect the common defence of the country. Bavaria and Wurttemberg, however, have preserved their own postal and telegraphic administration. The legislative power of the empire also takes precedence of that of the separate states in the regulation of matters affecting freedom of migration (_Freizugigkeit_), domicile, settlement and the rights of German subjects generally, as well as in all that relates to banking, patents, protection of intellectual property, navigation of rivers and canals, civil and criminal legislation, judicial procedure, sanitary police, and control of the press and of associations.

The executive power is in the emperor's hands. He represents the empire internationally, and can declare war if defensive, and make peace as well as enter into treaties with other nations; he also appoints and receives ambassadors. For declaring offensive war the consent of the federal council must be obtained. The separate states have the privilege of sending ambassadors to the other courts; but all consuls abroad are officials of the empire and are named by the emperor.

Both the Bundesrat and the Reichstag meet in annual sessions convoked by the emperor who has the right of proroguing and dissolving the Diet; but the prorogation must not exceed 60 days, and in case of dissolution new elections must be ordered within 60 days, and the new session opened within 90 days. All laws for the regulation of the empire must, in order to pass, receive the votes of an absolute majority of the federal council and the Reichstag.

Alsace-Lorraine is represented in the Bundesrat by four commissioners
(_Kommissare_), without votes, who are nominated by the Statthalter
(imperial lieutenant).

The fifty-eight members of the Bundesrat are nominated by the
governments of the individual states for each session; while the
members of the Reichstag are elected by universal suffrage and ballot
for the term of five years. Every German who has completed his
twenty-fifth year is prima facie entitled to the suffrage in the state
within which he has resided for one year. Soldiers and those in the
navy are not thus entitled, so long as they are serving under the
colours. Excluded, further, are persons under tutelage, bankrupts and
paupers, as also such persons who have been deprived of civil rights,
during the time of such deprivation. Every German citizen who has
completed his twenty-fifth year and has resided for a year in one of
the federal states is eligible for election in any part of the empire,
provided he has not been, as in the cases above, excluded from the
right of suffrage. The secrecy of the ballot is ensured by special
regulations passed on the 28th of April 1903. The voting-paper,
furnished with an official stamp, must be placed in an envelope by the
elector in a compartment set apart for the purpose in the polling
room, and, thus enclosed, be handed by him to the presiding officer.
An absolute majority of votes decides the election. If (as in the case
of several candidates) an absolute majority over all the others has
not been declared, a test election (_Stichwahl_) takes place between
the two candidates who have received the greatest number of votes. In
case of an equal number of votes being cast for both candidates, the
decision is by lot.

The subjoined table gives the names of the various states composing
the empire and the number of votes which the separate states have in
the federal council. Each state may appoint as many members to the
federal council as it has votes. The table also gives the number of
the deputies in the Reichstag.