Chapter VI: German Literature Since Goethe (1832-1906) (5)

+-----------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| | No. of | No. of |
| States of the Empire. |Members in|Members in|
| |Bundesrat.|Reichstag.|
+-----------------------------------------+----------+----------+
|Kingdom of Prussia | 17 | 236 |
| " Bavaria | 6 | 48 |
| " Saxony | 4 | 23 |
| " Wurttemberg | 4 | 17 |
|Grand duchy of Baden | 3 | 14 |
| " Hesse | 3 | 9 |
| " Mecklenburg-Schwerin | 2 | 6 |
| " Saxe-Weimar | 1 | 3 |
| " Mecklenburg-Strelitz | 1 | 1 |
| " Oldenburg | 1 | 3 |
|Duchy of Brunswick | 2 | 3 |
| " Saxe-Meiningen | 1 | 2 |
| " Saxe-Altenburg | 1 | 1 |
| " Saxe-Coburg-Gotha | 1 | 2 |
| " Anhalt | 1 | 2 |
|Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen| 1 | 1 |
| " Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt | 1 | 1 |
| " Waldeck | 1 | 1 |
| " Reuss-Greiz | 1 | 1 |
| " Reuss-Schleiz | 1 | 1 |
| " Schaumburg-Lippe | 1 | 1 |
| " Lippe | 1 | 1 |
|Free town of Lubeck | 1 | 1 |
| " Bremen | 1 | 1 |
| " Hamburg | 1 | 3 |
|Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine | .. | 15 |
| +----------+----------+
| Total | 58 | 397 |
+-----------------------------------------+----------+----------+

The Reichstag must meet at least once in each year. Since November
1906 its members have been paid (see PAYMENT OF MEMBERS).

The following table shows its composition after the elections of 1903
and 1907:--

+--------------------------------------------+-----+-----+
| Parties. |1903.|1907.|
+--------------------------------------------+-----+-----+
| Centre | 100 | 108 |
| Social Democrats | 81 | 43 |
| Conservatives | 51 | 60 |
| National Liberals | 49 | 57 |
| Freisinnige Volkspartei | 27 | 33 |
| Reichspartei | 19 | 22 |
| Alsatians, Guelphs and Danes | 18 | 5 |
| Poles | 16 | 20 |
| Wirtschaftliche Vereinigung (Reform Partei)| 12 | 21 |
| Freisinnige Vereinigung | 9 | 16 |
| Wilde (no party) | 9 | 5 |
| Bund der Landwirte | 3 | 6 |
| Bauernbund | 3 | 1 |
+--------------------------------------------+-----+-----+

All the German states have separate representative assemblies, except Alsace-Lorraine and the two grand-duchies of Mecklenburg. The six larger states have adopted the two-chamber system, but in the composition of the houses great differences are found. The lesser states also have chambers of representatives numbering from 12 members (in Reuss-Greiz) to 48 members (in Brunswick), and in most states the different classes, as well as the cities and the rural districts, are separately represented. The free towns have legislative assemblies, numbering from 120 to 200 members.

Imperial measures, after passing the Bundesrat and the Reichstag, must obtain the sanction of the emperor in order to become law, and must be countersigned, when promulgated, by the chancellor of the empire (_Reichskanzler_). All members of the federal council are entitled to be present at the deliberations of the Reichstag. The Bundesrat, acting under the direction of the chancellor of the empire, is also a supreme administrative and consultative board, and as such it has nine standing committees, viz.: for army and fortresses; for naval purposes; for tariffs, excise and taxes; for trade and commerce; for railways, posts and telegraphs; for civil and criminal law; for financial accounts; for foreign affairs; and for Alsace-Lorraine. Each committee includes representatives of at least four states of the empire.

For the several branches of administration a considerable number of imperial offices have been gradually created. All of them, however, either are under the immediate authority of the chancellor of the empire, or are separately managed under his responsibility. The most important are the chancery office, the foreign office and the general post and telegraph office. But the heads of these do not form a cabinet.

_The Chancellor of the Empire (Reichskanzler)._--The Prussian
plenipotentiary to the Bundesrat is the president of that assembly; he
is appointed by the emperor, and bears the title Reichskanzler. This
head official can be represented by any other member of the Bundesrat
named in a document of substitution. The Reichskanzler is the sole
responsible official, and conducts all the affairs of the empire, with
the exception of such as are of a purely military character, and is
the intermediary between the emperor, the Bundesrat and the Reichstag.
All imperial rescripts require the counter-signature of the chancellor
before attaining validity. All measures passed by the Reichstag
require the sanction of the majority of the Bundesrat, and only become
binding on being proclaimed on behalf of the empire by the chancellor,
which publication takes place through the _Reichsgesetzblatt_ (the
official organ of the chancellor).

_Government Offices._--The following imperial offices are directly
responsible to the chancellor and stand under his control:--

1. The foreign office, which is divided into three departments: (i.)
the political and diplomatic; (ii.) the political and commercial;
(iii.) the legal. The chief of the foreign office is a secretary of
state, taking his instructions immediately from the chancellor.

2. The colonial office (under the direction of a secretary of state)
is divided into (i.) a civil department; (ii.) a military department;
(iii.) a disciplinary court.

3. The ministry of the interior or home office (under the conduct of a
secretary of state). This office is divided into four departments,
dealing with (i.) the business of the Bundesrat, the Reichstag, the
elections, citizenship, passports, the press, and military and naval
matters, so far as the last concern the civil authorities; (ii.)
purely social matters, such as old age pensions, accident insurance,
migration, settlement, poor law administration, &c.; (iii.) sanitary
matters, patents, canals, steamship lines, weights and measures; and
(iv.) commercial and economic relations--such as agriculture,
industry, commercial treaties and statistics.

4. The imperial admiralty (_Reichsmarineamt_), which is the chief
board for the administration of the imperial navy, its maintenance and
development.

5. The imperial ministry of justice (_Reichsjustizamt_), presided over
by a secretary of state. This office, not to be confused with the
_Reichsgericht_ (supreme legal tribunal of the empire) in Leipzig,
deals principally with the drafting of legal measures to be submitted
to the Reichstag.

6. The imperial treasury (_Reichsschatzamt_), or exchequer, is the
head financial office of the empire. Presided over by a secretary of
state, its functions are principally those appertaining to the control
of the national debt and its administration, together with such as in
the United Kingdom are delegated to the board of inland revenue.

7. The imperial railway board (_Reichseisenbahnamt_), the chief
official of which has the title of "president," deals exclusively with
the management of the railways throughout the empire, in so far as
they fall under the control of the imperial authorities in respect of
laws passed for their harmonious interworking, their tariffs and the
safety of passengers conveyed.

8. The imperial post office (_Reichspostamt_), under a secretary of
state, controls the post and telegraph administration of the empire
(with the exception of Bavaria and Wurttemberg), as also those in the
colonies and dependencies.

9. The imperial office for the administration of the imperial railways
in Alsace-Lorraine, the chief of which is the Prussian minister of
public works.

10. The office of the accountant-general of the empire
(_Rechnungshof_), which controls and supervises the expenditure of the
sums voted by the legislative bodies, and revises the accounts of the
imperial bank (_Reichsbank_).

11. The administration of the imperial invalid fund, i.e. of the fund
set apart in 1871 for the benefit of soldiers invalided in the war of
1870-71; and

12. The imperial bank (_Reichsbank_), supervised by a committee of
four under the presidency of the imperial chancellor, who is a fifth
and permanent member of such committee.

The heads of the various departments of state do not form, as in
England, the nucleus of a cabinet. In so far as they are secretaries
of state, they are directly responsible to the chancellor, who
represents all the offices in his person, and, as has been said, is
the medium of communication between the emperor and the Bundesrat and
Reichstag.

_Colonies._--The following table gives some particulars of the
dependencies of the empire:--

+------------------------------------+------------+-----------+------------+
| | | Area | |
| Name. | Date of |(estimated)| Pop. |
| |Acquisition.| sq. m. |(estimated).|
+------------------------------------+------------+-----------+------------+
|In Africa-- | | | |
| Togoland | 1884 | 33,700 | 1,000,000 |
| Cameroon | 1884 | 190,000 | 3,500,000 |
| S.W. Africa | 1884 | 322,450 | 200,000 |
| East Africa | 1885 | 364,000 | 7,000,000 |
| +------------+-----------+------------+
| Total in Africa | | 910,150 | 11,700,000 |
|In the Pacific-- | | | |
| German New Guinea | 1884 | 70,000 | 110,000(?)|
| Bismarck Archipelago | 1884 | 20,000 | 188,000 |
| Caroline, Pelew and Mariana Islands| 1899 | 800 | 41,600 |
| Solomon Islands | 1886 | 4,200 | 45,000 |
| Marshall Islands | 1885 | 160 | 15,000 |
| Samoan Islands | 1899 | 985 | 33,000 |
| | +-----------+------------+
| Total in Pacific | | 96,145 | 432,600 |
|In Asia-- | | | |
| Kiao-chow | 1897 | 117 | 60,000 |
| | +-----------+------------+
| Total dependencies | 1884-1899 |1,006,412 | 12,192,600 |
+------------------------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

Except Kiao-chow, which is controlled by the admiralty, the
dependencies of the empire are under the direction of the colonial
office. This office, created in 1907, replaced the colonial department
of the foreign office which previously had had charge of colonial
affairs. The value of the trade of the colonies with Germany in 1906
was: imports into Germany, L1,028,000; exports from Germany,
L2,236,000. For 1907 the total revenue from the colonies was L849,000;
the expenditure of the empire on the colonies in the same year being
L4,362,000. (See the articles on the various colonies.)

_Local Government._--In the details of its organization local self-government differs considerably in the various states of the German empire. The general principle on which it is based, however, is that which has received its most complete expression in the Prussian system: government by experts, checked by lay criticism and the power of the purse, and effective control by the central authorities. In Prussia at least the medieval system of local self-government had succumbed completely to the centralizing policy of the monarchy, and when it was revived it was at the will and for the purposes of the central authorities, as subsidiary to the bureaucratic system. This fact determined its general characteristics. In England the powers of the local authorities are defined by act of parliament, and within the limits of these powers they have a free hand. In Germany general powers are granted by law, subject to the approval of the central authorities, with the result that it is the government departments that determine what the local elected authorities may do, and that the latter regard themselves as commissioned to carry out, not so much the will of the locality by which they are elected, as that of the central government. This attitude is, indeed, inevitable from the double relation in which they stand. A _Burgermeister_, once elected, becomes a member of the bureaucracy and is responsible to the central administration; even the headman of a village commune is, within the narrow limits of his functions, a government official. Moreover, under the careful classification of affairs into local and central, many things which in England are regarded as local (e.g. education, sanitary administration, police) are regarded as falling under the sphere of the central government, which either administers them directly or by means of territorial delegations consisting either of individuals or of groups of individuals. These may be purely official (e.g. the Prussian _Regierung_), a mixture of officials and of elected non-official members approved by the government (e.g. the _Bezirksausschuss_), or may consist wholly of authorities elected for another purpose, but made to act as the agents of the central departments (e.g. the _Kreisausschuss_). That this system works without friction is due to the German habit of discipline; that it is, on the whole, singularly effective is a result of the peculiarly enlightened and progressive views of the German bureaucracy.[3]

The unit of the German system of local government is the commune (_Gemeinde_, or more strictly _Ortsgemeinde_). These are divided into rural communes (_Landgemeinden_) and urban communes (_Stadtgemeinden_), the powers and functions of which, though differing widely, are based upon the same general principle of representative local self-government. The higher organs of local government, so far as these are representative, are based on the principle of a group or union of communes (_Gemeindeverband_). Thus, in Prussia, the representative assembly of the Circle (_Kreistag_) is composed of delegates of the rural communes, as well as of the large landowners and the towns, while the members of the provincial diet (_Provinziallandtag_) are chosen by the _Kreistage_ and by such towns as form separate _Kreise_.

In Prussia the classes of administrative areas are as follows: (1) the province, (2) the government district (_Regierungsbezirk_), (3) the rural circle (_Landkreis_) and urban circle (_Stadtkreis_), (4) the official district (_Amtsbezirk_), (5) the town commune (_Stadtgemeinde_) and rural commune (_Landgemeinde_). Of these areas the provinces, circles and communes are for the purposes both of the central administration and of local self-government, and the bodies by which they are governed are corporations. The _Regierungsbezirke_ and _Amtsbezirke_, on the other hand, are for the purposes of the central administration only and are not incorporated. The Prussian system is explained in greater detail in the article PRUSSIA (q.v.). Here it must suffice to indicate briefly the general features of local government in the other German states, as compared with that in Prussia. The province, which usually covers the area of a formerly independent state (e.g. Hanover) is peculiar to Prussia. The _Regierungsbezirk_, however, is common to the larger states under various names, _Regierungsbezirk_ in Bavaria, _Kreishauptmannschaft_ in Saxony, _Kreis_ in Wurttemberg. Common to all is the president (_Regierungsprasident_, _Kreishauptmann_ in Saxony), an official who, with a committee of advisers, is responsible for the oversight of the administration of the circles and communes within his jurisdiction. Whereas in Prussia, however, the _Regierung_ is purely official, with no representative element, the _Regierungsbezirk_ in Bavaria has a representative body, the _Landrat_, consisting of delegates of the district assemblies, the towns, large landowners, clergy and--in certain cases--the universities; the president is assisted by a committee (_Landratsausschuss_) of six members elected by the _Landrat_. In Saxony the _Kreishauptmann_ is assisted by a committee (_Kreisausschuss_).

Below the _Regierungsbezirk_ is the _Kreis_, or Circle, in Prussia, Baden and Hesse, which corresponds to the _Distrikt_ in Bavaria, the _Oberamt_ in Wurttemberg[4] and the _Amtshauptmannschaft_ in Saxony. The representative assembly of the Circle (_Kreistag_, _Distriktsrat_ in Bavaria, _Amtsversammlung_ in Wurttemberg, _Bezirksversammlung_ in Saxony) is elected by the communes, and is presided over by an official, either elected or, as in the case of the Prussian _Landrat_, nominated from a list submitted by the assembly. So far as their administrative and legislative functions are concerned the German _Kreistage_ have been compared to the English county councils or the Hungarian _comitatus_. Their decisions, however, are subject to the approval of their official chiefs. To assist the executive a small committee (_Kreisausschuss_, _Distriktsausschuss_, &c.) is elected subject to official approval. The official district (_Amtsbezirk_), a subdivision of the circle for certain administrative purposes (notably police), is peculiar to Prussia.

_Rural Communes._--As stated above, the lowest administrative area is
the commune, whether urban or rural. The laws as to the constitution
and powers of the rural communes vary much in the different states. In
general the commune is a body corporate, its assembly consisting
either (in small villages) of the whole body of the qualified
inhabitants (_Gemeindeversammlung_), or of a representative assembly
(_Gemeindevertretung_) elected by them (in communes where there are
more than forty qualified inhabitants). At its head is an elected
headman (_Schulze_, _Dorfvorsteher_, &c.), with a small body of
assistants (_Schoffen_, &c.). He is a government official responsible,
_inter alia_, for the policing of the commune. Where there are large
estates these sometimes constitute communes of themselves. For common
purposes several communes may combine, such combinations being termed
in Wurttemberg _Burgermeistereien_, in the Rhine province
_Amtsverbande_. In general the communes are of slight importance.
Where the land is held by small peasant proprietors, they display a
certain activity; where there are large ground landlords, these
usually control them absolutely.

_Towns._--The constitution of the towns (_Stadteverfassung_) varies
more greatly in the several states than that of the rural communes.
According to the so-called _Stein'sche Stadteverfassung_ (the system
introduced in Prussia by Stein in 1808), which, to differentiate
between it and other systems, is called the _Magistratsverfassung_ (or
magisterial constitution), the municipal communes enjoy a greater
degree of self-government than do the rural. In the magisterial
constitution of larger towns and cities, the members of the
_Magistrat_, i.e. the executive council (also called _Stadtrat_,
_Gemeinderat_), are elected by the representative assembly of the
citizens (_Stadtverordnetenversammlung_) out of their own body.

In those parts of Germany which come under the influence of French
legislation, the constitution of the towns and that of the rural
communes (the so-called _Burgermeistereiverfassung_) is identical, in
that the members of the communal executive body are, in the same way
as those of the communal assembly, elected to office immediately by
the whole body of municipal electors.

The government of the towns is regulated in the main by municipal
codes (_Stadteordnungen_), largely based upon Stein's reform of 1808.
This, superseding the autonomy severally enjoyed by the towns and
cities since the middle ages (see COMMUNE), aimed at welding the
citizens, who had hitherto been divided into classes and gilds, into
one corporate whole, and giving them all an active share in the
administration of public affairs, while reserving to the central
authorities the power of effective control.

The system which obtains in all the old Prussian provinces (with the
exception of Rugen and Vorpommern or Hither Pomerania) and in
Westphalia is that of Stein, modified by subsequent laws--notably
those of 1853 and 1856--which gave the state a greater influence,
while extending the powers of the _Magistrat_. In Vorpommern and
Rugen, and thus in the towns of Greifswald, Stralsund and Bergen,
among others, the old civic constitutions remain unchanged. In the new
Prussian provinces, Frankfort-on-Main received a special municipal
constitution in 1867 and the towns of Schleswig-Holstein in 1869. The
province of Hanover retains its system as emended in 1858, and
Hesse-Nassau, with the exception of Frankfort-on-Main, received a
special corporate system in 1897. The municipal systems of Bavaria,
Wurttemberg and Saxony are more or less based on that of Stein, but
with a wider sphere of self-government. In Mecklenburg there is no
uniform system. In Saxe-Coburg, the towns of Coburg and Neustadt have
separate and peculiar municipal constitutions. In almost all the other
states the system is uniform. The free cities of Lubeck, Hamburg and
Bremen, as sovereign states, form a separate class. Their
constitutions are described in the articles on them.

Where the "magisterial" constitution prevails, the members of the
_Magistrat_, i.e. the executive council (also called variously
_Stadtrat_, _Gemeindevorstand_, &c.), are as a rule elected by the
representative assembly of the burgesses
(_Stadtverordnetenversammlung_; also _Gemeinderat_, _stadtischer
Ausschuss_, _Kollegium der Burgervorsteher_, _Stadtaltesten_, &c.).
The _Magistrat_ consists of the chief burgomaster (_Erster
Burgermeister_ or _Stadtschultheiss_, and in the large cities
Oberburgermeister), a second burgomaster or assessor, and in large
towns of a number of paid and unpaid town councillors (_Ratsherren_,
_Senatoren_, _Schoffen_, _Ratsmanner_, _Magistratsrate_), together
with certain salaried members selected for specific purposes (e.g.
_Baurat_, for building). Over this executive body the
_Stadtverordneten_, who are elected by the whole body of citizens and
unpaid, exercise a general control, their assent being necessary to
any measures of importance, especially those involving any
considerable outlay. They are elected for from three to six years; the
members of the _Magistrat_ are chosen for six, nine or twelve years,
sometimes even for life. In the large towns the burgomasters must be
jurists, and are paid. The police are under the control of the
_Magistrat_, except in certain large cities, where they are under a
separate state department.

The second system mentioned above (_Burgermeistereiverfassung_)
prevails in the Rhine province, the Bavarian Palatinate, Hesse,
Saxe-Weimar, Anhalt, Waldeck and the principalities of Reuss and
Schwarzburg. In Wurttemberg, Baden and Hesse-Nassau the system is a
compromise between the two; both the town and rural communes have a
mayor (_Burgermeister_ or _Schultheiss_, as the case may be) and a
_Gemeinderat_ for administrative purposes, the citizens exercising
control through a representative _Gemeindeausschuss_ (communal
committee).

_Justice._--By the Judicature Act--_Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz_--of 1879, the so-called "regular litigious" jurisdiction of the courts of law was rendered uniform throughout the empire, and the courts are now everywhere alike in character and composition; and with the exception of the _Reichsgericht_ (supreme court of the empire), immediately subject to the government of the state in which they exercise jurisdiction, and not to the imperial government. The courts, from the lowest to the highest, are _Amtsgericht_, _Landgericht_, _Oberlandesgericht_ and _Reichsgericht_. There are, further, _Verwaltungsgerichte_ (administrative courts) for the adjustment of disputes between the various organs of local government, and other special courts, such as military, consular and arbitration courts (_Schiedsgericht_). In addition to litigious business the courts also deal with non-litigious matters, such as the registration of titles to land, guardianship and the drawing up and custody of testamentary dispositions, all which are almost entirely within the province of the _Amtsgerichte_. There are uniform codes of criminal law (_Strafgesetzbuch_), commercial law and civil law (_Burgerliches Gesetzbuch_), the last of which came into force on the 1st of January 1900. The criminal code, based on that of Prussia anterior to 1870, was gradually adopted by all the other states and was generally in force by 1872. It has, however, been frequently emended and supplemented.

The lowest courts of first instance are the _Amtsgerichte_, each
presided over by a single judge, and with jurisdiction in petty
criminal and civil cases, up to 300 marks (L15). They are also
competent to deal with all disputes as to wages, and letting and
hiring, without regard to the value of the object in dispute. Petty
criminal cases are heard by the judge (_Amtsrichter_) sitting with two
_Schoffen_--assessors--selected by lot from the jury lists, who are
competent to try prisoners for offences punishable with a fine, not
exceeding 600 marks (L30) or corresponding confinement, or with
imprisonment not exceeding three months. The _Landgerichte_ revise the
decisions of the _Amtsgerichte_, and have also an original
jurisdiction in criminal and civil cases and in divorce proceedings.
The criminal chamber of the _Landgericht_ is composed of five judges,
and a majority of four is required for a conviction. These courts are
competent to try cases of felony punishable with a term of
imprisonment not exceeding five years. The preliminary examination is
conducted by a judge, who does not sit on the bench at the trial. Jury
courts (_Schwurgerichte_) are not permanent institutions, but are
periodically held. They are formed of three judges of the
_Landgericht_ and a jury of twelve; and a two-thirds majority is
necessary to convict. There are 173 _Landgerichte_ in the empire,
being one court for every 325,822 inhabitants. The first court of
second instance is the _Oberlandesgericht_, which has an original
jurisdiction in grave offences and is composed of seven judges. There
are twenty-eight such courts in the empire. Bavaria alone has an
_Oberstes Landesgericht_, which exercises a revising jurisdiction over
the _Oberlandesgerichte_ in the state. The supreme court of the German
empire is the _Reichsgericht_, having its seat at Leipzig. The judges,
numbering ninety-two, are appointed by the emperor on the advice of
the federal council (_Bundesrat_). This court exercises an appellate
jurisdiction in civil cases remitted, for the decision of questions of
law, by the inferior courts and also in all criminal cases referred to
it. It sits in four criminal and six civil senates, each consisting of
seven judges, one of whom is the president. The judges are styled
_Reichsgerichtsrate_ (counsellors of the imperial court).

In the _Amtsgericht_ a private litigant may conduct his own case; but
where the object of the litigation exceeds 300 marks (L15), and in
appeals from the _Amtsgericht_ to the _Landgericht_, the plaintiff
(and also the defendant) must be represented by an
advocate--_Rechtsanwalt_.

A _Rechtsanwalt_, having studied law at a university for four years
and having passed two state examinations, if desiring to practise must
be admitted as "defending counsel" by the _Amtsgericht_ or
_Landgericht_, or by both. These advocates are not state officials,
but are sworn to the due execution of their duties. In case a client
has suffered damage owing to the negligence of the advocate, the
latter can be made responsible. In every district of the
_Oberlandesgericht_, the _Rechtsanwalte_ are formed into an
_Anwaltkammer_ (chamber of advocates), and the council of each
chamber, sitting as a court of honour, deals with and determines
matters affecting the honour of the profession. An appeal lies from
this to a second court of honour, consisting of the president, three
judges of the _Reichsgericht_ and of three lawyers admitted to
practice before that court.

Criminal prosecutions are conducted in the name of the crown by the
_Staatsanwalte_ (state attorneys), who form a separate branch of the
judicial system, and initiate public prosecutions or reject evidence
as being insufficient to procure conviction. The proceedings in the
courts are, as a rule, public. Only in exceptional circumstances are
cases heard _in camera_.

Military offences come before the military court and serious offences
before the _Kriegsgericht_. The court-martial is, in every case,
composed of the commander of the district as president, and four
officers, assisted by a judge-advocate (_Kriegsgerichtsrat_), who
conducts the case and swears the judges and witnesses. In the most
serious class of cases, three officers and two judge-advocates are the
judges. The prisoner is defended by an officer, whom he may himself
appoint, and can be acquitted by a simple majority, but only be
condemned by a two-thirds majority. There are also _Kaufmanns-_ and
_Gewerbegerichte_ (commercial and industrial courts), composed of
persons belonging to the classes of employers and employees, under the
presidency of a judge of the court. Their aim is the effecting of a
reconciliation between the parties. From the decision of these courts
an appeal lies to the _Landgericht_ where the amount of the object in
dispute exceeds 100 marks (L5).

The following table shows the number of criminal cases tried before
the courts of first instance, with the number and sex of convicted
persons, and the number of the latter per 10,000 of the civil
population over twelve years of age:--

+------+-------------------------+-------------------+---------+------------+
| | Cases tried. | Persons convicted.| |Convictions |
| Year.|-------------------------+-------------------| Total. | per 10,000 |
| |Amtsgericht.|Landgericht.| Males. |Females. | |Inhabitants.|
+------+------------+------------+---------+---------+---------+------------+
| 1900 | 1,143,687 | 94,241 | 396,975 | 72,844 | 469,819 | 119.5 |
| 1901 | 1,205,558 | 101,471 | 419,592 | 77,718 | 497,310 | 125.6 |
| 1902 | 1,221,080 | 104,434 | 431,257 | 81,072 | 512,329 | 127.3 |
| 1903 | 1,251,662 | 105,241 | 424,813 | 80,540 | 505,353 | 123.4 |
| 1904 | 1,287,686 | 105,457 | 435,191 | 81,785 | 516,976 | 124.2 |
+------+------------+------------+---------+---------+---------+------------+

Of those convicted in 1904, 225,326 had been previously convicted.

_Poor Law._--A law passed by the North German Confederation of the 6th of June 1870, and subsequently amended by an imperial law of the 12th of March 1894, laid down rules for the relief of the destitute in all the states composing the empire, with the exception of Bavaria and Alsace-Lorraine. According to the system adopted, the public relief of the poor is committed to the care of local unions (_Ortsarmenverbande_) and provincial unions (_Landarmenverbande_), the former corresponding, generally, to the commune, and the latter to a far wider area, a circle or a province. Any person of eighteen years, who has continuously resided with a local union for the space of two years, there acquires his domicile. But any destitute German subject must be relieved by the local union in which he happens to be at the time, the cost of the relief being defrayed by the local or provincial union in which he has his domicile. The wife and children have also their domicile in the place where the husband or father has his.[5]

Relief of the poor is one of the chief duties of the organs of local
self-government. The moneys for the purpose are mainly derived from
general taxation (poor rates per se being but rarely directly levied),
special funds and voluntary contributions. In some German states and
communes certain dues (such as the dog tax in Saxony), death duties
and particularly dues payable in respect of public entertainments and
police court fines, are assigned to the poor-relief chest. In some
large towns the Elberfeld system of unpaid district visitors and the
interworking of public and private charity is in force. The imperial
laws which introduced the compulsory insurance of all the humbler
workers within the empire, and gave them, when incapacitated by
sickness, accident and old age, an absolute right to pecuniary
assistance, have greatly reduced pauperism and crime.

_Workmen's Insurance._--On June 15, 1883, the Reichstag, as the result of the policy announced by the emperor William I. in his speech from the throne in 1881, passed an act making insurance against sickness, accident, and incapacity compulsory on all workers in industrial pursuits. By further laws, in 1885 and 1892, this obligation was extended to certain other classes of workers, and the system was further modified by acts passed in 1900 and 1903. Under this system every person insured has a right to assistance in case of sickness, accident, or incapacity, while in case of death his widow and children receive an annuity.

1. Insurance against sickness is provided for under these laws partly
by the machinery already existing, i.e. the sick benefit societies,
partly by new machinery devised to meet the new obligation imposed.
The sick-funds (_Krankenkassen_) are thus of seven kinds: (1) free
assistance funds (_Freie Hilfskassen_), either registered under the
law of 1876, as modified in 1884 (_Eingeschriebene Hilfskassen_), or
established under the law of the separate states (_landesrechtliche
Hilfskassen_); (2) _Betriebs-_ or _Fabrikkrankenkassen_, funds
established by individual factory-owners; (3) _Baukrankenkasse_, a
fund established for workmen engaged on the construction (_Bau_) of
particular engineering works (canal-digging, &c.), by individual
contractors; (4) gild sick funds (_Innungskrankenkassen_), established
by the gilds for the workmen and apprentices of their members; (5)
miners' sick fund (_Knappschaftskasse_); (6) local sick fund
(_Ortskrankenkasse_), established by the commune for particular crafts
or classes of workmen; (7) _Gemeindekrankenversicherung_, i.e.
insurance of members of the commune as such, in the event of their not
subscribing to any of the other funds. Of these, 2, 3, 6 and 7 were
created under the above-mentioned laws.

The number of such funds amounted in 1903 to 23,271, and included
10,224,297 workmen. The _Ortskrankenkassen_, with 4,975,322 members,
had the greatest, and the _Baukrankenkassen_, with 16,459, the
smallest number of members. The _Ortskrankenkassen_, which endeavour
to include workmen of a like trade, have to a great extent, especially
in Saxony, fallen under the control of the Social Democrats. The
appointment of permanent doctors (_Kassenarzte_) at a fixed salary has
given rise to much difference between the medical profession and this
local sick fund; and the insistence on "freedom of choice" in doctors,
which has been made by the members and threatens to militate against
the interest of the profession, has been met on the part of the
medical body by the appointment of a commission to investigate cases
of undue influence in the selection.

According to the statistics furnished in the _Vierteljahreshefte zur
Statistik des deutschen Reiches_ for 1905, the receipts amounted to
upwards of L10,000,000 for 1903, and the expenditure to somewhat less
than this sum. Administrative changes were credited with nearly
L600,000, and the invested funds totalled L9,000,000. The workmen
contribute at the rate of two-thirds and the employers at the rate of
one-third; the sum payable in respect of each worker varying from
1(1/2)-3% of the earnings in the "communal sick fund" to at most
l(1/2)-4% in the others.

2. Insurance against old age and invalidity comprehends all persons
who have entered upon their 17th year, and who belong to one of the
following classes of wage-earners: artisans, apprentices, domestic
servants, dressmakers, charwomen, laundresses, seamstresses,
housekeepers, foremen, engineers, journeymen, clerks and apprentices
in shops (excepting assistants and apprentices in chemists' shops),
schoolmasters, schoolmistresses, teachers and governesses, provided
the earnings do not exceed L100 per annum. The insured are arranged in
five classes, according to the amount of their yearly earnings: viz.
L17, 10s.; L27, 10s.; L47, 10s.; L57, 10s.; and L100. The
contributions, affixed to a "pension book" in stamps, are payable each
week, and amount, in English money, to 1.45d., 2.34d., 2.82d., 3.30d.
and 4.23d. Of the contribution one half is paid by the employer and
the other by the employee, whose duty it is to see that the amount has
been properly entered in the pension book. The pensions, in case of
invalidity, amount (including a state subsidy of L2, 10s. for each)
respectively to L8, 8s.; L11, 5s.; L13, 10s.; L15, 15s.; and L18. The
old-age pensions (beginning at 70 years) amount to L5, 10s.; L7; L8,
10s.; L10; and L11, 10s. The old-age and invalid insurance is carried
out by thirty-one large territorial offices, to which must be added
nine special unions. The income of the forty establishments was, in
1903, L8,500,000 (including L1,700,000 imperial subsidy). The capital
collected was upwards of L50,000,000.

It may be added that employees in mercantile and trading houses, who
have not exceeded the age of 40 years and whose income is below L150,
are allowed voluntarily to share in the benefits of this insurance.

3. _Accident Insurance (Unfallversicherung)._--The insurance of
workmen and the lesser officials against the risks of accident is
effected not through the state or the commune, but through
associations formed _ad hoc_. These associations are composed of
members following the same or allied occupations (e.g. foresters,
seamen, smiths, &c.), and hence are called "professional associations"
(_Berufsgenossenschaften_). They are empowered, subject to the limits
set by the law, to regulate their own business by means of a general
meeting and of elected committees. The greater number of these
associations cover a very wide field, generally the whole empire; in
such cases they are empowered to divide their spheres into sections,
and to establish agents in different centres to inquire into cases of
accident, and to see to the carrying out of the rules prescribed by
the association for the avoidance of accidents. Those associations, of
which the area of operations extends beyond any single state, are
subordinate to the control of the imperial insurance bureau
(_Reichsversicherungsamt_) at Berlin; those that are confined to a
single state (as generally in the case of foresters and husbandmen)
are under the control of the state insurance bureau
(_Landesversicherungsamt_).

So far as their earnings do not exceed L150 per annum, the following
classes are under the legal obligation to insure: labourers in mines,
quarries, dockyards, wharves, manufactories and breweries;
bricklayers and navvies; post-office, railway, and naval and military
servants and officials; carters, raftsmen and canal hands; cellarmen,
warehousemen; stevedores; and agricultural labourers. Each of these
groups forms an association, which within a certain district embraces
all the industries with which it is connected. The funds for covering
the compensation payable in respect of accidents are raised by
payments based, in agriculture, on the taxable capital, and in other
trades and industries on the earnings of the insured. Compensation in
respect of injury or death is not paid if the accident was brought
about through the culpable negligence or other delict of the insured.
In case of injury, involving incapacity for more than thirteen weeks
(for the earlier period the _Krankenkassen_ provide), the weekly sum
payable during complete or permanent incapacity is fixed at the ratio
of two-thirds of the earnings during the year preceding the accident,
and in case of partial disablement, at such a proportion of the
earnings as corresponds to the loss through disablement. In certain
circumstances (e.g. need for paid nursing) the sum may be increased to
the full rate of the previous earnings. In case of death, as a
consequence of injury, the following payments are made: (1) a sum of
at least L2, 10s. to defray the expenses of interment; (2) a monthly
allowance of one-fifth of the annual earnings as above to the widow
and each child up to the age of 15.

_Life Insurance._--There were forty-six companies in 1900 for the
insurance of life. The number of persons insured was 1,446,249 at the
end of that year, the insurances amounting to roughly L320,000,000.
Besides these are sixty-one companies--of which forty-six are
comprised in the above life insurance companies--paying subsidies in
case of death or of military service, endowments, &c. Some of these
companies are industrial. The transactions of all these companies
included in 1900 over 4,179,000 persons, and the amount of insurances
effected was L80,000,000.

_Religion._--So far as the empire as a whole is concerned there is no state religion, each state being left free to maintain its own establishment. Thus while the emperor, as king of Prussia, is _summus episcopus_ of the Prussian Evangelical Church, as emperor he enjoys no such ecclesiastical headship. In the several states the relations of church and state differ fundamentally according as these states are Protestant or Catholic. In the latter these relations are regulated either by concordats between the governments and the Holy See, or by bulls of circumscription issued by the pope after negotiation. The effects of concordats and bulls alike are tempered by the exercise by the civil power of certain traditional reserved rights, e.g. the _placetum regium_, _recursus ab abusu_, _nominatio regia_, and that of vetoing the nomination of _personae minus gratae_. In the Protestant states the ecclesiastical authority remains purely territorial, and the sovereign remains effective head of the established church. During the 19th century, however, a large measure of ecclesiastical self-government (by means of general synods, &c.) was introduced, _pari passu_ with the growth of constitutional government in the state; and in effect, though the theoretical supremacy of the sovereign survives in the church as in the state, he cannot exercise it save through the general synod, which is the state parliament for ecclesiastical purposes. Where a sovereign rules over a state containing a large proportion of both Catholics and Protestants, which is usually the case, both systems coexist. Thus in Prussia the relations of the Roman Catholic community to the Protestant state are regulated by arrangement between the Prussian government and Rome; while in Bavaria the king, though a Catholic, is legally _summus episcopus_ of the Evangelical Church.

According to the religious census of 1900 there were in the German
empire 35,231,104 Evangelical Protestants, 20,327,913 Roman Catholics,
6472 Greek Orthodox, 203,678 Christians belonging to other
confessions, 586,948 Jews, 11,597 members of other sects and 5938
unclassified. The Christians belonging to other confessions include
Moravian Brethren, Mennonites, Baptists, Methodists and Quakers,
German Catholics, Old Catholics, &c. The table on following page shows
the distribution of the population according to religious beliefs as
furnished by the census of 1900.

Almost two-thirds of the population belong to the Evangelical Church,
and rather more than a third to the Church of Rome; the actual figures
(based on the census of 1900) being (%) Evangelical Protestants, 62.5;
Roman Catholics, 36.1; Dissenters and others, .043, and Jews, 1.0. The
Protestants have not increased proportionately in number since 1890,
while the Roman Catholics show a small relative increase. Three states
in Germany have a decidedly predominant Roman Catholic population,
viz. Alsace-Lorraine, Bavaria and Baden; and in four states the
Protestant element prevails, but with from 24 to 34% of Roman
Catholics; viz. Prussia, Wurttemberg, Hesse and Oldenburg. In Saxony
and the eighteen minor states the number of Roman Catholics is only
from 0.3 to 3.3% of the population.

+--------------------------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------+
| States. |Evangelicals.| Catholics.| Other | Jews. |
| | | |Christians.| |
+--------------------------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------+
| Prussia | 21,817,577 |12,113,670 | 139,127 |392,322 |
| Bavaria | 1,749,206 | 4,363,178 | 7,607 | 54,928 |
| Saxony | 3,972,063 | 198,265 | 19,103 | 12,416 |
| Wurttemberg | 1,497,299 | 650,392 | 9,426 | 11,916 |
| Baden | 704,058 | 1,131,639 | 5,563 | 26,132 |
| Hesse | 746,201 | 341,570 | 7,368 | 24,486 |
| Mecklenburg-Schwerin | 597,268 | 8,182 | 487 | 1,763 |
| Saxe-Weimar | 347,144 | 14,158 | 361 | 1,188 |
| Mecklenburg-Strelitz | 100,568 | 1,612 | 62 | 331 |
| Oldenburg | 309,510 | 86,920 | 1,334 | 1,359 |
| Brunswick | 436,976 | 24,175 | 1,271 | 1,824 |
| Saxe-Meiningen | 244,810 | 4,170 | 395 | 1,351 |
| Saxe-Altenburg | 189,885 | 4,723 | 206 | 99 |
| Saxe-Coburg-Gotha | 225,074 | 3,330 | 515 | 608 |
| Anhalt | 301,953 | 11,699 | 794 | 1,605 |
| Schwarzburg-Sondershausen| 79,593 | 1,110 | 27 | 166 |
| Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt | 92,298 | 676 | 37 | 48 |
| Waldeck | 55,285 | 1,831 | 164 | 637 |
| Reuss-Greiz | 66,860 | 1,043 | 444 | 48 |
| Reuss-Schleiz | 135,958 | 2,579 | 466 | 178 |
| Schaumburg-Lippe | 41,908 | 785 | 177 | 257 |
| Lippe | 132,708 | 5,157 | 205 | 879 |
| Lubeck | 93,671 | 2,190 | 213 | 670 |
| Bremen | 208,815 | 13,506 | 876 | 1,409 |
| Hamburg | 712,338 | 30,903 | 3,149 | 17,949 |
| Alsace-Lorraine | 372,078 | 1,310,450 | 4,301 | 32,379 |
+--------------------------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------+
| Total | 35,231,104 |20,327,913 | 203,678 |586,948 |
+--------------------------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------+

From the above table little can be inferred as to the geographical
distribution of the two chief confessions. On this point it must be
borne in mind that the population of the larger towns, on account of
the greater mobility of the population since the introduction of
railways and the abolition of restrictions upon free settlement, has
become more mixed--Berlin, Leipzig, Hamburg, &c., showing
proportionally more Roman Catholics, and Cologne, Frankfort-on-Main,
Munich more Protestants than formerly. Otherwise the geographical
limits of the confessions have been but little altered since the
Thirty Years' War. In the mixed territories those places which
formerly belonged to Roman Catholic princes are Roman Catholic still,
and _vice versa_. Hence a religious map of South Germany looks like an
historical map of the 17th century. The number of localities where the
two confessions exist side by side is small. Generally speaking, South
Germany is predominantly Roman Catholic. Some districts along the
Danube (province of Bavaria, Upper Palatinate, Swabia), southern
Wurttemberg and Baden, and in Alsace-Lorraine are entirely so. These
territories are bordered by a broad stretch of country on the north,
where Protestantism has maintained its hold since the time of the
Reformation, including Bayreuth or eastern upper Franconia, middle
Franconia, the northern half of Wurttemberg and Baden, with Hesse and
the Palatinate. Here the average proportion of Protestants to Roman
Catholics is two to one. The basin of the Main is again Roman Catholic
from Bamberg to Aschaffenburg (western upper Franconia and lower
Franconia). In Prussia the western and south-eastern provinces are
mostly Roman Catholic, especially the Rhine province, together with
the government districts of Munster and Arnsberg. The territories of
the former principality of Cleves and of the countship of Mark
(comprising very nearly the basin of the Ruhr), which went to
Brandenburg in 1609, must, however, be excepted. North of Munster,
Roman Catholicism is still prevalent in the territory of the former
bishopric of Osnabruck. In the east, East Prussia (Ermeland excepted)
is purely Protestant. Roman Catholicism was predominant a hundred
years ago in all the frontier provinces acquired by Prussia in the
days of Frederick the Great, but since then the German immigrants have
widely propagated the Protestant faith in these districts. A
prevailingly Roman Catholic population is still found in the district
of Oppeln and the countship of Glatz, in the province of Posen, in the
Polish-speaking _Kreise_ of West Prussia, and in Ermeland (East
Prussia). In all the remaining territory the Roman Catholic creed is
professed only in the Eichsfeld on the southern border of the province
of Hanover and around Hildesheim.

Protestant Church.

The adherents of Protestantism are divided by their confessions into
Reformed and Lutheran. To unite these the "church union" has been
introduced in several Protestant states, as for example in Prussia and
Nassau in 1817, in the Palatinate in 1818 and in Baden in 1822. Since
1817 the distinction has accordingly been ignored in Prussia, and
Christians are there enumerated only as Evangelical or Roman Catholic.
The union, however, has not remained wholly unopposed--a section of
the more rigid Lutherans who separated themselves from the state
church being now known as Old Lutherans. In 1866 Prussia annexed
Hanover and Schleswig-Holstein, where the Protestants were Lutherans,
and Hesse, where the Reformed Church had the preponderance. The
inhabitants of these countries opposed the introduction of the union,
but could not prevent their being subordinated to the Prussian
_Oberkirchenrat_ (high church-council), the supreme court of the state
church. A synodal constitution for the Evangelical State Church was
introduced in Prussia in 1875. The _Oberkirchenrat_ retains the right
of supreme management. The ecclesiastical affairs of the separate
provinces are directed by consistorial boards. The parishes
(_Pfarreien_) are grouped into dioceses (_Sprengel_), presided over by
superintendents, who are subordinate to the superintendent-general of
the province. Prussia has sixteen superintendents-general. The
ecclesiastical administration is similarly regulated in the other
countries of the Protestant creed. Regarding the number of churches
and chapels Germany has no exact statistics.

Roman Catholic Church.

There are five archbishoprics within the German empire: Gnesen-Posen,
Cologne, Freiburg (Baden), Munich-Freising and Bamberg. The twenty
bishoprics are: Breslau (where the bishop has the title of
"prince-bishop"), Ermeland (seat at Frauenburg, East Prussia), Kulm
(seat at Pelplin, West Prussia), Fulda, Hildesheim, Osnabruck,
Paderborn, Munster, Limburg, Trier, Metz, Strassburg, Spires,
Wurzburg, Regensburg, Passau, Eichstatt, Augsburg, Rottenburg
(Wurttemberg) and Mainz. Apostolic vicariates exist in Dresden (for
Saxony), and others for Anhalt and the northern missions.

The Old Catholics (q.v.), who seceded from the Roman Church in
consequence of the definition of the dogma of papal infallibility,
number roughly 50,000, with 54 clergy.

Jews.

It is in the towns that the Jewish element is chiefly to be found.
They belong principally to the mercantile class, and are to a very
large extent dealers in money. Their wealth has grown to an
extraordinary degree. They are increasingly numerous in Hamburg,
Berlin, Frankfort-on-Main, Breslau, Konigsberg, Posen, Cologne,
Nuremberg and Furth. As a rule their numbers are proportionately
greater in Prussia than elsewhere within the empire. But, since 1871,
the Jewish population of Germany shows a far smaller increase than
that of the Christian confessions, and even in the parts of the
country where the Jewish population is densest it has shown a tendency
to diminish. It is relatively greatest in the province of Posen, where
the numbers have fallen from 61,982 (39.1 per thousand) in 1871 to
35,327 (18.7 per thousand) in 1900. The explanation is twofold--the
extraordinary increase (1) in their numbers in Berlin and the province
of Brandenburg, and (2) in the number of conversions to the Christian
faith. In this last regard it may be remarked that the impulse is less
from religious conviction than from a desire to associate on more
equal terms with their neighbours. Though still, in fact at least, if
not by law, excluded from many public offices, especially from
commands in the army, they nevertheless are very powerful in Germany,
the press being for the most part in their hands, and they furnish in
many cities fully one-half of the lawyers and the members of the
corporation. It should be mentioned, as a curious fact, that the
numbers of the Jewish persuasion in the kingdom of Saxony increased
from 3358 (1.3 per thousand) in 1871 to 12,416 (3 per thousand) in
1900.

_Education._--In point of educational culture Germany ranks high among all the civilized great nations of the world (see EDUCATION: _Germany_). Education is general and compulsory throughout the empire, and all the states composing it have, with minor modifications, adopted the Prussian system providing for the establishment of elementary schools--_Volksschulen_--in every town and village. The school age is from six to fourteen, and parents can be compelled to send their children to a _Volksschule_, unless, to the satisfaction of the authorities, they are receiving adequate instruction in some other recognized school or institution.

The total number of primary schools was 60,584 in 1906-1907; teachers,
166,597; pupils, 9,737,262--an average of about one _Volksschule_ to
every 900 inhabitants. The annual expenditure was over L26,000,000, of
which sum L7,500,000 was provided by state subvention. There were also
in Germany in the same year 643 private schools, giving instruction
similar to that of the elementary schools, with 41,000 pupils. A good
criterion of the progress of education is obtained from the
diminishing number of illiterate army recruits, as shown by the
following:

+-----------+---------+------------------------+
| | |Unable to Read or Write.|
| |Number of+--------+---------------+
| Years. |Recruits.| Total. | Per 1000 |
| | | | Recruits. |
+-----------+---------+--------+---------------+
| 1875-1876 | 139,855 | 3331 | 23.7 |
| 1880-1881 | 151,180 | 2406 | 15.9 |
| 1885-1886 | 152,933 | 1657 | 10.8 |
| 1890-1891 | 193,318 | 1035 | 5.4 |
| 1895-1896 | 250,287 | 374 | 1.5 |
| 1898-1899 | 252,382 | 173 | 0.7 |
| 1900-1901 | 253,000 | 131 | 0.45 |
+-----------+---------+--------+---------------+

Of the above 131 illiterates in 1900-1901, 114 were in East and West
Prussia, Posen and Silesia.

_Universities and Higher Technical Schools._--Germany owes its large number of universities, and its widely diffused higher education to its former subdivision into many separate states. Only a few of the universities date their existence from the 19th century; the majority of them are very much older. Each of the larger provinces, except Posen, has at least one university, the entire number being 21. All have four faculties except Munster, which has no faculty of medicine. As regards theology, Bonn, Breslau and Tubingen have both a Protestant and a Catholic faculty; Freiburg, Munich, Munster and Wurzburg are exclusively Catholic; and all the rest are Protestant.

The following table gives the names of the 21 universities, the dates
of their respective foundations, the number of their professors and
other teachers for the winter half-year 1908-1909, and of the students
attending their lectures during the winter half-year of 1907-1908:

+------------+-----------+----------+--------------------------------------+-------+
| | Date of |Professors| Students. | |
| |Foundation.| and +---------+------+---------+-----------+ Total.|
| | | Teachers.|Theology.| Law. |Medicine.|Philosophy.| |
+------------+-----------+----------+---------+------+---------+-----------+-------+
| Berlin | 1809 | 493 | 326 | 2747 | 1153 | 3934 | 8220 |
| Bonn | 1818 | 190 | 395 | 833 | 282 | 1699 | 3209 |
| Breslau | 1811 | 189 | 330 | 617 | 284 | 840 | 2071 |
| Erlangen | 1743 | 77 | 155 | 323 | 355 | 225 | 1058 |
| Freiburg | 1457 | 150 | 219 | 373 | 580 | 642 | 1814 |
| Giessen | 1607 | 100 | 63 | 204 | 331 | 546 | 1144 |
| Gottingen | 1737 | 161 | 102 | 441 | 188 | 1126 | 1857 |
| Greifswald | 1456 | 105 | 68 | 188 | 186 | 361 | 803 |
| Halle | 1694 | 174 | 331 | 450 | 217 | 1239 | 2237 |
| Heidelberg | 1385 | 177 | 55 | 357 | 385 | 879 | 1676 |
| Jena | 1558 | 116 | 48 | 267 | 265 | 795 | 1375 |
| Kiel | 1665 | 121 | 35 | 271 | 239 | 480 | 1025 |
| Konigsberg | 1544 | 152 | 68 | 317 | 218 | 502 | 1105 |
| Leipzig | 1409 | 234 | 303 | 1013 | 606 | 2419 | 4341 |
| Marburg | 1527 | 117 | 133 | 400 | 261 | 876 | 1670 |
| Munich | 1826 | 239 | 169 | 1892 | 1903 | 1979 | 5943 |
| Munster | 1902 | 95 | 278 | 458 | .. | 870 | 1606 |
| Rostock | 1418 | 65 | 48 | 67 | 211 | 322 | 648 |
| Strassburg | 1872 | 167 | 241 | 369 | 255 | 844 | 1709 |
| Tubingen | 1477 | 111 | 464 | 467 | 263 | 384 | 1578 |
| Wurzburg | 1582 | 102 | 106 | 331 | 625 | 320 | 1382 |
+------------+-----------+----------+---------+------+---------+-----------+-------+

Not included in the above list is the little academy--Lyceum
Hosianum--at Braunsberg in Prussia, having faculties of theology
(Roman Catholic) and philosophy, with 13 teachers and 150 students. In
all the universities the number of matriculated students in 1907-1908
was 46,471, including 320 women, 2 of whom studied theology, 14 law,
150 philosophy and 154 medicine. There were also, within the same
period, 5653 non-matriculated _Horer_ (hearers), including 2486 women.