Chapter III: Front Matter (3)

GEORGE THE SYNCELLUS [GEORGIOS SYNKELLOS], of Constantinople, Byzantine chronicler and ecclesiastic, lived at the end of the 8th and the beginning of the 9th century A.D. He was the _syncellus_ (cell-mate, the confidential companion assigned to the patriarchs, sometimes little more than a spy; see SYNCELLUS) or private secretary of Tara(u)sius, patriarch of Constantinople (784-806), after whose death he retired to a convent, and wrote his _Chronicle_ of events from Adam to Diocletian (285). At his earnest request, the work, which he doubtless intended to bring down to his own times, was continued after his death by his friend Theophanes Confessor. The _Chronicle_, which, as its title implies, is rather a chronological table (with notes) than a history, is written with special reference to pre-Christian times and the introduction of Christianity, and exhibits the author as a staunch upholder of orthodoxy. But in spite of its religious bias and dry and uninteresting character, the fragments of ancient writers and apocryphal books preserved in it render it specially valuable. For instance, considerable portions of the original text of the _Chronicle_ of Eusebius have been restored by the aid of Syncellus. His chief authorities were Annianus of Alexandria (5th century) and Panodorus, an Egyptian monk, who wrote about the year 400 and drew largely from Eusebius, Dexippus and Julius Africanus.

Editio princeps, by J. Goar (1652); in Bonn _Corpus scriptorum hist.
Byz._, by W. Dindorf (1829). See also H. Gelzer, _Sextus Julius
Africanus_, ii. 1 (1885); C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der
byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897).

GEORGE, HENRY (1839-1897), American author and political economist, was born in Philadelphia, Penn., on the 2nd of September 1839. He settled in California in 1858; removed to New York, 1880; was first a printer, then an editor, but finally devoted all his life to economic and social questions. In 1871 he published _Our Land Policy_, which, as further developed in 1879 under the title of _Progress and Poverty_, speedily attracted the widest attention both in America and in Europe. In 1886 he published _Protection or Free Trade_. Henry George had no political ambition, but in 1886 he received an independent nomination as mayor of New York City, and became so popular that it required a coalition of the two strongest political parties to prevent his election. He received 68,000 votes, against 90,000 for the coalition candidate. His death on the 29th of October 1897 was followed by one of the greatest demonstrations of popular feeling and general respect that ever attended the funeral of any strictly private citizen in American history. The fundamental doctrine of Henry George, the equal right of all men to the use of the earth, did not originate with him; but his clear statement of a method by which it could be enforced, without increasing state machinery, and indeed with a great simplification of government, gave it a new form. This method he named the _Single Tax_. His doctrine may be condensed as follows: The land of every country belongs of right to all the people of that country. This right cannot be alienated by one generation, so as to affect the title of the next, any more than men can sell their yet unborn children for slaves. Private ownership of land has no more foundation in morality or reason than private ownership of air or sunlight. But the private occupancy and use of land are right and indispensable. Any attempt to divide land into equal shares is impossible and undesirable. Land should be, and practically is now, divided for private use in parcels among those who will pay the highest price for the use of each parcel. This price is now paid to some persons annually, and it is called _rent_. By applying the rent of land, exclusive of all improvements, to the equal benefit of the whole community, absolute justice would be done to all. As rent is always more than sufficient to defray all necessary expenses of government, those expenses should be met by a tax upon rent alone, to be brought about by the gradual abolition of all other taxes. Landlords should be left in undisturbed possession and nominal ownership of the land, with a sufficient margin over the tax to induce them to collect their rents and pay the tax. They would thus be transformed into mere land agents. Obviously this would involve absolute free trade, since all taxes on imports, manufactures, successions, documents, personal property, buildings or improvements would disappear. Nothing made by man would be taxed at all. The right of private property in all things made by man would thus be absolute, for the owner of such things could not be divested of his property, without full compensation, even under the pretence of taxation. The idea of concentrating all taxes upon ground-rent has found followers in Great Britain, North America, Australia and New Zealand. In practical politics this doctrine is confined to the "Single Tax, Limited," which proposes to defray only the needful public expenses from ground-rent, leaving the surplus, whatever it may be, in the undisturbed possession of landowners.

The principal books by Henry George are: _Progress and Poverty_
(1879), _The Irish Land Question_ (1881), _Social Problems_ (1884),
_Protection or Free Trade_ (1886), _The Condition of Labor_ (1891), _A
Perplexed Philosopher_ (1892), _Political Economy_ (1898). His son,
Henry George (b. 1862), has written a _Life_ (1900). For the Single
Tax theory see Shearman's _Natural Taxation_ (1899). (T. G. S.)

GEORGE PISIDA [GEORGIOS PISIDES], Byzantine poet, born in Pisidia, flourished during the 7th century A.D. Nothing is known of him except that he was a deacon and chartophylax (keeper of the records) of the church of St Sophia. His earliest work, in three cantos ([Greek: akroaseis]), on the campaign of the emperor Heraclius against the Persians, seems to be the work of an eyewitness. This was followed by the _Avarica_, an account of a futile attack on Constantinople by the Avars (626), said to have been repulsed by the aid of the Virgin Mary; and by the _Heraclias_, a general survey of the exploits of Heraclius both at home and abroad down to the final overthrow of Chosroes in 627. George Pisida was also the author of a didactic poem, _Hexaemeron_ or _Cosmourgia_, upon the creation of the world; a treatise on the vanity of life, after the manner of _Ecclesiastes_; a controversial composition against Severus, bishop of Antioch; two short poems upon the resurrection of Christ and on the recovery of the sacred crucifix stolen by the Persians. The metre chiefly used is the iambic. As a versifier Pisida is correct and even elegant; as a chronicler of contemporary events he is exceedingly useful; and later Byzantine writers enthusiastically compared him with, and even preferred him to Euripides. Recent criticism, however, characterizes his compositions as artificial and almost uniformly dull.

Complete works in J.P. Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, xcii.; see also _De
Georgii Pisidae apud Theophanem aliosque historicos reliquiis_.
(1900), by S.L. Sternbach, who has edited several new poems for the
first time from a Paris MS. in _Wiener Studien_, xiii., xiv.
(1891-1892); C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_
(1897); C.F. Bahr in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopadie_.

GEORGE, LAKE, a lake in the E. part of New York, U.S.A., among the S.E. foothills of the Adirondack Mountains. It extends from N.N.E. to S.S.W. about 34 m., and varies in width from 2 to 4 m. It has a maximum depth of about 400 ft., and is 323 ft. above the sea and 227 ft. above Lake Champlain, into which it has an outlet to the northward through a narrow channel and over falls and rapids. The lake is fed chiefly by mountain brooks and submerged springs; its bed is for the most part covered with a clean sand; its clear water is coloured with beautiful tints of blue and green; and its surface is studded with about 220 islands and islets, all except nineteen of which belong to the state and constitute a part of its forest reserve. Near the head of the lake is Prospect Mountain, rising 1736 ft. above the sea, while several miles farther down the shores is Black Mountain, 2661 ft. in height. Lake George has become a favourite summer resort. Lake steamers ply between the village of Lake George (formerly Caldwell) at the southern end of the lake and Baldwin, whence there is rail connexion with Lake Champlain steamers.

Lake George was formed during the Glacial period by glacial drift which clogged a pre-existing valley. According to Prof. J.F. Kemp the valley occupied by Lake George was a low pass before the Glacial period; a dam of glacial drift at the southern end and of lacustrine clays at the northern end formed the lake which has submerged the pass, leaving higher parts as islands. Before the advent of the white man the lake was a part of the war-path over which the Iroquois Indians frequently made their way northward to attack the Algonquins and the Hurons, and during the struggle between the English and the French for supremacy in America, waterways being still the chief means of communication, it was of great strategic importance (see CHAMPLAIN, _Lake_). Father Isaac Jogues, Rene Goupil and Guillaume Couture seem to have been the first white men to see the lake (on the 9th of August 1642) as they were being taken by their Iroquois captors from the St Lawrence to the towns of the Mohawks, and in 1646 Father Jogues, having undertaken a half-religious, half-political mission to the Mohawks, was again at the lake, to which, in allusion to his having reached it on the eve of Corpus Christi, he gave the name Lac Saint Sacrement. This name it bore until the summer of 1755, when General William Johnson renamed it Lake George in honour of King George II.

General Johnson was at this time in command of a force of colonists and Indians sent against the French at Crown Point on Lake Champlain. The expedition, however, had proceeded no farther than to the head of Lake George when Johnson was informed that a force of French and Indians under Baron Ludwig August Dieskau was pushing on from Crown Point to Fort Lyman (later Fort Edward), 14 m. to the S. of their encampment. Accordingly, on the morning of the 8th of September a detachment of 1000 colonials under Colonel Ephraim Williams (1715-1755) and 200 Indians under Hendrick, a Mohawk chief, was sent to aid Fort Lyman, but when about 3 m. S. of the lake this detachment fell into an ambuscade prepared for it by Dieskau and both Williams and Hendrick were killed. The survivors were pursued to their camp, and then followed on the same day the main battle of Lake George, in which 1000 colonials fighting at first behind a hastily prepared barricade defeated about 1400 French and Indians. Both commanders were wounded; Dieskau was captured; the French lost about 300; and the colonials nearly the same (including those who fell earlier in the day). Johnson now built on the lake shore, near the battlefield, a fort of gravel and logs and called it Fort William Henry (the site was occupied by the Fort William Henry Hotel till it was burned in 1909). In the meantime the French entrenched themselves at Ticonderoga at the foot of the lake. In March 1757 Fort William Henry successfully withstood an attack of 1600 men sent out by the marquis de Vaudreuil, governor of Canada, but on the 9th of August of the same year its garrison, after being reduced to desperate straits, surrendered to the marquis de Montcalm. By the terms of surrender the garrison was to be allowed to march out with the honours of war and was to be escorted to Fort Edward, but the guard provided by Montcalm was inadequate to protect them from his Indian allies and on the day following the surrender many were massacred or taken prisoners. The fort was razed to the ground. In 1758 General James Abercrombie proceeded by way of Lake George against Fort Ticonderoga, and in 1759 Baron Jeffrey Amherst, while on his way to co-operate with General James Wolfe against Quebec, built near the site of Fort William Henry one bastion of a fort since known as Fort George, the ruins of which still remain.

A monument commemorative of the battle of Lake George was unveiled on the 8th of September 1903, on the site of the battle, and within the state reservation of 35 acres known as Fort George Battle Park. Horicon is a name that was given to the lake by James Fenimore Cooper. The Indian name of the lake was Andia-ta-roc-te.

See Francis Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_ (Boston, 1884); and E.E.
Seelye, _Lake George in History_ (Lake George, 1897).

GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC, an American industrial institution, situated near the small village of Freeville, in Tompkins county, New York, U.S.A., 9 m. E.N.E. of Ithaca, at the junction of the Sayre-Auburn and the Elmira-Cortland branches of the Lehigh Valley railway. The George Junior Republic forms a miniature state whose economic, civic and social conditions, as nearly as possible, reproduce those of the United States, and whose citizenship is vested in young people, especially those who are neglected or wayward, who are thus taught self-reliance, self-control and morality. The founder, William Reuben George (b. 1866), was a native of West Dryden, a village near Freeville, who as a business man in New York City became interested in the Fresh Air Fund charity supervised by the New York _Tribune_, took charge of summer outings for city children (1890-1894), and, becoming convinced that such charities tended to promote pauperism and crime among the older of their proteges, devised first (1894) the plan of requiring payment by the children in labour for all they received during these summer jaunts, then (1895) self-government for a summer colony near Freeville, and finally a permanent colony, in which the children stay for several years. The Republic was founded on the 10th of July 1895; the only check on the powers of executive, representative and judicial branches of the government lies in the veto of the superintendent. "Nothing without labour" is the motto of the community, so strictly carried out that a girl or boy in the Republic who has not money[1] to pay for a night's lodging must sleep in jail and work the next day for the use of the cell. The legislative body, originally a House of Representatives and a Senate, in 1899 became more like the New England town meeting. The respect for the law that follows its enactment by the citizens themselves is remarkable in a class so largely of criminal tendencies; and it is particularly noticeable that positions on the police force are eagerly coveted. Fifteen is the age of majority; suffrage is universal, children under fifteen must be in charge of a citizen guardian. The average age of citizens was seventeen in 1908. The proportion of girls to boys was originally small, but gradually increased; in 1908 there were about 70 girls and 90 boys. The tendency is to admit only those aged at least sixteen and physically well equipped. In the Republic's earlier years the citizens lived in boarding-houses of different grades, but later in family groups in cottages (there were in 1910 twelve cottages) under the care of "house-mothers." The labour of the place is divided into sewing, laundry work, cooking and domestic service for the girls, and furniture making, carpentry, farm work, baking bread and wafers (the business of an Auburn biscuit factory was bought in 1903), plumbing and printing for the boys. Masonry and shoe and harness making were tried for a few years. There is an efficient preparatory and high school, from which students enter directly leading colleges. The religious influence is strong, wholesome and unsectarian; students in Auburn Theological Seminary have assisted in the religious work; Roman Catholic and Hebrew services are also held; and attendance at church services is compulsory only on convicts and prisoners.

There are "Woman's Aid" societies in New York City, Ithaca, Syracuse, Buffalo, Boston and elsewhere, to promote the work of the Republic. A "republic" for younger boys, begun at Freeville, was established in Litchfield, Connecticut; and a National Junior Republic near Annapolis Junction, Maryland, and a Carter Junior Republic at Readington, near Easton, Pennsylvania, are modelled on the George Junior Republic. In 1908-1910 new "states" were established at Chino, California, Grove City, Pennsylvania, and Flemington Junction, New Jersey. In February 1908 the National Association of Junior Republics was formed with Mr George (its founder) as its director, its aims being to establish at least one "republic" in each state of the Union, and in other countries similar institutions for youth and miniature governments modelled on that of the country in which each "state" is established, and to establish colonies for younger children, to be sent at the age of fifteen to the Junior Republic. At the time of its formation the National Association included the "states" at Freeville, N.Y., Litchfield, Conn., and Annapolis Junction, Md.; others joined the federation later.

See William R. George, _The Junior Republic: its History and Ideals_
(New York, 1910); _The Junior Republic Citizen_ (Freeville, 1895
sqq.), written and printed by "citizens"; _Nothing Without Labor,
George Junior Republic_ (7th ed., Freeville, 1909), a manual; J.R.
Commons, "The Junior Republic," in _The American Journal of Sociology_
(1898); D.F. Lincoln, "The George Junior Republic," in _The Coming
Age_ (1900); and Lyman Abbott, "A Republic within a Republic," in the
_Outlook_ for February 15, 1908.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The "government" issued its own currency in tin and later in
aluminium, and "American" money could not be passed within the 48
acres of the Republic until 1906, when depreciation forced the
Republic's coinage out of use and "American" coin was made legal
tender.

GEORGETOWN, the capital of British Guiana (see GUIANA), and the seat of the colonial government, situated on the left bank of the Demerara river at its mouth, in 6 deg. 29' 24" N. and 58 deg. 11' 30" W. It was known during the Dutch occupation as Stabroek, and was established as the seat of government of the combined colonies of Essequibo and Demerara (now with Berbice forming the three counties of British Guiana) in 1784, its name being changed to Georgetown in 1812. It is one of the finest towns in this part of the world, the streets being wide and straight, intersecting each other at right angles, several having double roadways with lily-covered canals in the centre, the grass banks on either side carrying rows of handsome shade trees. In Main Street, the finest street in Georgetown, the canal has been filled in to form a broad walk, an obvious precedent for the treatment of the other canals, which (however beautiful) are useless and merely act as breeding grounds for mosquitoes. The principal residences, standing in their own gardens surrounded by foliage and flowers, are scattered over the town, as are also the slums, almost the worst of which abut on the best residential quarters. Water Street, the business centre, runs parallel to the river for about 2-1/2 m. and contains the stores of the wholesale and retail merchants, their wharves running out into the river to allow steamers to come alongside. Most of the houses and public buildings are constructed of wood, the former generally raised on brick pillars some 4 ft. to 10 ft. from the ground, the bright colouring of the wooden walls, jalousies and roofs adding to the beauty of the best streets. The large structure known as the Public Buildings in the centre of the city, containing the offices of the executive government and the hall of the court of policy, was erected between 1829 and 1834. It is a handsome, E-shaped, brick-plastered building of considerable size, with deep porticos and marble-paved galleries carried on cast-iron columns. The law courts, built in the 'eighties, have a ground floor of concrete and iron, the upper storey being of hardwood. Among other public buildings are the town hall, the Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, several handsome churches, the local banks and insurance offices, and the almshouse. The public hospital consists of several large blocks. The Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society has a large reading-room and lending library. The assembly rooms, above and owned by the Georgetown club, has a good stage and is admirably adapted to dramatic and musical entertainments. A museum (free), belonging to the Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society, is chiefly devoted to the fauna of British Guiana, but also contains an instructive collection of local economic, mineralogical and botanical exhibits, a miscellaneous collection of foreign birds and mammals, and an interesting series of views of the colony. The botanical gardens to the east of the city are of considerable extent and admirably laid out. The nurseries cover a large area and are devoted chiefly to the raising of plants of economic importance which can be purchased at nominal rates. The collections of ferns and orchids are very fine. In the gardens are also located the fields of the board of agriculture, where experimental work in the growth of sugar-cane, rice, cotton and all tropical plants of economic importance is carried on. Other popular resorts are the sea wall and the promenade gardens in the centre of the city.

The local government of Georgetown is vested in a mayor and town council elected under a very restricted franchise. The city is divided into fourteen wards each with one representative. A councillor must possess, either personally or through his wife, premises within the city of the appraised value of at least $1500. A voter must either own house property of the appraised value of $250 or occupy premises of an annual rental of $240. There are indeed only 297 municipal voters in a population of nearly 50,000. The revenue, just over L50,000 annually, is mainly derived from a direct rate on house property. The colonial government pays rates on its property and also gives a grant-in-aid towards the upkeep of the streets. The expenditure is principally on sanitation, fire brigade, streets, water-supply, street lighting and drainage. Street lighting is carried out under contract by the Demerara Electric Company, which has a monopoly of private lighting and works an excellent tram service. Water for public and domestic purposes is taken from the conservancy of the east coast and is delivered by pumping throughout the city, but drinking-water is collected in tanks attached to the dwellings from the rain falling on the roofs. The fire brigade is a branch of the police force, half the cost being borne by the rates and half by the general revenue. There is an excellent service of telephones, a branch of the post office, and halfpenny postage within the city boundaries. There are in Georgetown two well-equipped foundries, a dry dock, and factories for the manufacture of rice, cigars, soap, boots, chocolate, candles, aerated waters and ice. Georgetown is connected by rail and ferry with New Amsterdam, by ferry and rail with the west coast of Demerara, and by steamer with all the country districts along the coast and up the navigable reaches of the principal rivers. (A. G. B.*)

GEORGETOWN, formerly a city of the District of Columbia, U.S.A., and now part (sometimes called West Washington) of the city of Washington, U.S.A., at the confluence of the Potomac river and Rock Creek, and on the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, about 2-1/2 m. W.N.W. of the National Capitol. Pop. (1890) 14,046; (1900) 14,549. The streets are old-fashioned, narrow and well shaded. On the "Heights" are many fine residences with beautiful gardens; the Monastery and Academy (for girls) of Visitation, founded in 1799 by Leonard Neale, second archbishop of Baltimore; and the college and the astronomical observatory (1842) of Georgetown University. The university was founded as a Roman Catholic Academy in 1789, was opened in 1791, transferred to the Society of Jesus in 1805, authorized in 1815 by Congress to confer college or university degrees, and by the Holy See in 1833 to confer degrees in philosophy and theology, incorporated as Georgetown College by Act of Congress in 1844, and began graduate work about 1856. The college library includes the historical collection of James Gilmary Shea. A school of medicine was opened in 1851, a dental school in 1901 and a school of law in 1870. In 1909-1910 the university had an enrolment of 859 students. Rising in terraces from Rock Creek is Oak Hill Cemetery, a beautiful burying-ground containing the graves of John Howard Payne, the author of "Home, Sweet Home," Edwin McMasters Stanton and Joseph Henry. On the bank of the Potomac is a brick house which was for several years the home of Francis Scott Key, author of "The Star-Spangled Banner"; on Analostan Island in the river was a home of James Murray Mason; Georgetown Heights was the home of the popular novelist, Mrs Emma Dorothy Eliza Nevitte Southworth (1819-1899). Before the advent of railways Georgetown had an important commerce by way of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, by which considerable coal as well as some grain is still brought hither, and of which Georgetown is now a terminus; the canal formerly crossed the Potomac at this point on an aqueduct bridge (1446 ft. long), but in 1887 the crossing was abandoned and the old bridge was purchased by the United States government, which in 1889 constructed a new steel bridge upon the old masonry piers. Chief among the manufactories are several large flour mills--Georgetown flour was long noted for its excellence. There is a very large fish-market here. Georgetown was settled late in the 17th century, was laid out as a town in 1751, chartered as a city in 1789, merged in the District of Columbia in 1871, and annexed to the city of Washington in 1878. In the early days of Washington it was a social centre of some importance, where many members of Congress as well as some cabinet officers and representatives of foreign countries lived and the President gave state dinners; and here were the studio, for two years, of Gilbert Stuart, and "Kalorama," the residence of Joel Barlow.

GEORGETOWN, a city and the county-seat of Scott county, Kentucky, U.S.A., about 11 miles N. of Lexington. Pop. (1900) 3823 (1677 negroes); (1910) 4533. Georgetown is served by the Cincinnati Southern (Queen & Crescent Route), the Frankfort & Cincinnati, and the Southern railways, and is connected with Lexington by an electric line. It is the seat of Georgetown College (Baptist, co-educational), chartered in 1829 as the successor of Rittenhouse Academy, which was founded in 1798. Georgetown is situated in the Blue Grass region of Kentucky, and the surrounding country is devoted to agriculture and stock-raising. One of the largest independent oil refineries in the country (that of the Indian Refining Co.) is in Georgetown, and among manufactures are bricks, flour, ice, bagging and hemp. The remarkable "Royal Spring," which rises near the centre of the city, furnishes about 200,000 gallons of water an hour for the city's water supply, and for power for the street railway and for various industries. The first settlement was made in 1775, and was named McClellan's, that name being changed to Lebanon a few years afterwards. In 1790 the place was incorporated as a town under its present name (adopted in honour of George Washington), and Georgetown was chartered as a city of the fourth class in 1894. Bacon College, which developed into Kentucky (now Transylvania) University (see Lexington, Ky.), was established here by the Disciples of Christ in 1836, but in 1839 was removed to Harrodsburg.

GEORGETOWN, a city, a port of entry and the county-seat of Georgetown county, South Carolina, U.S.A., at the head of Winyah Bay, and at the mouth of the Pedee river, about 15 m. from the Atlantic Ocean, and about 55 m. N.E. of Charleston. Pop. (1890) 2895; (1900) 4138 (2718 negroes); (1910) 5530. Georgetown is served by the Georgetown & Western railway, has steamship communication with Charleston, Wilmington, New York City and other Atlantic ports, and, by the Pedee river and its tributaries (about 1000 m. of navigable streams), has trade connexions with a large area of South Carolina and part of North Carolina. The principal public buildings are the post office and custom house. Among the city's manufactures are lumber, foundry and machine-shop products, naval stores and oars; and there are shad and sturgeon fisheries. The growing of cotton and truck-gardening are important industries in the neighbouring region, and there is considerable trade in such products. The first settlement here was made about 1700; and the town was laid out a short time before 1734. The Winyah Indigo Society grew out of a social club organized about 1740, and was founded in 1757 by a group of planters interested in raising indigo; It long conducted a school (discontinued during the Civil War) which eventually became part of the city's public school system. In 1780 Georgetown was occupied by a body of Loyalist troops, with whom the American troops had several skirmishes, but on the 10th of August 1781 General Francis Marion forced the evacuation of the town and took possession of it. A few days later, an American named Manson, who had joined the British forces, attacked the town from an armed vessel, and burned about forty houses, the small body of militia being unable to make an effective resistance. General Lafayette first landed on American soil at Georgetown on the 24th of April 1777. Georgetown was incorporated as a town in 1805, and was chartered as a city in 1895.

GEORGETOWN, a city and the county-seat of Williamson county, Texas, U.S.A., on the San Gabriel river, about 25 m. N. by E. of Austin. Pop. (1890) 2447; (1900) 2790 (608 negroes); (1910) 3096. The city is served by the International & Great Northern, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways. Georgetown is the seat of the Southwestern University (Methodist Episcopal, South, co-educational), formed in 1873 (chartered 1875) by the combination of Ruterville College (Methodist Episcopal, at Ruterville, Texas, chartered in 1840, and closed in 1850), McKenzie College (at Clarksville, Texas, founded in 1841 and closed in 1872), Wesleyan College at San Augustine (chartered in 1844, burned a few years later, and not rebuilt), and Soule University at Chapel Hill (chartered in 1856, but closed in 1870). The university includes a fitting school at Georgetown, and a medical department at Dallas, Texas; in 1909 it had an enrolment of 1037 students. The principal manufactures of Georgetown are cotton and cotton-seed oil, and planing-mill products. In Page Park are mineral springs, whose waters have medicinal qualities similar to the famous Karlsbad waters. The first settlement was made here in 1848; and Georgetown was incorporated as a town in 1866, and was chartered as a city in 1890.

GEORGIA, a southern state of the United States of America, one of the thirteen original states, situated between 30 deg. 31' 39" and 35 deg. N., and between 81 deg. and 85 deg. 53' 38" W. It is bounded N. by Tennessee and North Carolina, E. by South Carolina and the Atlantic Ocean, S. by Florida, and W. by Alabama. The total area of the state is 59,265 sq. m., of which 540 sq. m. are water surface.

The surface of Georgia is divided into five physiographic zones. From
the sea coast, which is skirted by fertile, semi-tropical islands, a
plain of 35,000 sq. m., known as South Georgia, extends northward to
the "fall-line" passing from Augusta, through Milledgeville and Macon,
to Columbus. This is a part of the great Atlantic Coastal Plain. For
20 m. from the coast its elevation is 10 ft., then it rises abruptly
70 ft. higher, and 20 m. farther N. another elevation begins, which
reaches 575 ft. at Milledgeville, the average elevation of the entire
region being 250 ft. North of the line mentioned, and collectively
known as North Georgia, are the four other regions, each with
well-defined characteristics. The largest and southernmost, a broad
belt extending from the "fall-line" to a line passing through
Clarkesville, Habersham county, Cartersville, Bartow county and
Buchanan, Haralson county (approximately), is known as the Piedmont
Belt or Plateau, being a region of faint relief eroded on highly
complicated crystalline rocks. The Blue Ridge escarpment, a striking
topographic feature in Virginia and the Carolinas, extends into
Georgia along the north-eastern border of this belt, but is less
strongly developed here than elsewhere, dying out entirely towards the
south-west. North of the Piedmont Belt lie the Appalachian Mountains
Region and the Great Valley Region, the former to the east, the latter
to the west of a dividing line from Cartersville northward. The former
region consists of detached mountain masses of crystalline rocks, not
yet eroded down to the level of the Piedmont Belt. In Towns county, in
the Appalachian Region, is the highest point in the state, Brasstown
Bald, also called Enota Mountain (4768 ft.). The Great Valley Region
consists of folded sedimentary rocks, extensive erosion having removed
the soft layers to form valleys, leaving the hard layers as ridges,
both layers running in a N.E.-S.W. direction. In the extreme
north-west corner of the state is a small part of the Cumberland
Plateau, represented by Lookout and Sand Mts.

On the Blue Ridge escarpment near the N.E. corner of the state is a
water-parting separating the waters which find their way respectively
N.W. to the Tennessee river, S.W. to the Gulf of Mexico and S.E. to
the Atlantic Ocean; indeed, according to B.M. and M.R. Hall (_Water
Resources of Georgia_, p. 2), "there are three springs in north-east
Georgia within a stone's throw of each other that send out their
waters to Savannah, Ga., to Apalachicola, Fla., and to New Orleans,
La." The water-parting between the waters flowing into the Atlantic
and those flowing into the Gulf extends from this point first S.E. for
a few miles, then turns S.W. to Atlanta, and from there extends S.S.E.
to the Florida line. West of where the escarpment dies out, the Great
Valley Region and a considerable portion of the Appalachian Mountains
Region are drained by the Coosa, the Tallapoosa and their tributaries,
into Mobile Bay, but the Cumberland Plateau, like that part of the
Appalachian Mountains Region which lies directly N. of the Blue Ridge
escarpment, constitutes a part of the Tennessee Basin. The principal
rivers of the state are the Chattahoochee and the Flint, which unite
in the S.W. corner to form the Apalachicola; the Ocmulgee (whose
western tributary, the Towaliga, falls 96 ft. in less than a quarter
of a mile), and the Oconee, which unite in the S.E. to form the
Altamaha; and the Savannah, which forms the boundary between Georgia
and South Carolina. All of these rise in the upper part of the
Piedmont Plateau, through which they pursue a rapid course over rocky
beds, and are navigable only south of the "fall-line," at which and
north of which they furnish an abundance of water-power. The upper
Savannah river first flows S.W., then turns abruptly S.E., while the
Chattahoochee river rises near this point and continues S.W. This is
because the upper Savannah[1] was formerly part of the Chattahoochee,
but was captured and turned S.E. by headward growth of the Savannah.
As a result of the capture there is a deep gorge along the upper
Savannah, especially along the branch called the Tallulah river; and
the upper Tallulah, in a series of cascades, 2-2/3 m. long, falls 525
ft. from the former higher level down to the main bed of the upper
Savannah, at Tallulah Falls, a summer resort.

The fauna and flora have no distinctive features. (See UNITED STATES.)

_Climate and Soils._--The climate of Georgia, though temperate, differs considerably in different parts of the state. All the nine climate belts in the United States, except that of southern Florida, are represented within its borders. The lowest mean annual temperature, 40 deg. F. and below, is that of some of the mountain tops of northern Georgia; from the mountain-sides to the Piedmont Plateau this mean temperature varies from 45 deg. to 60 deg.; on the Piedmont Plateau from 60 deg. to 65 deg.; and on the Coastal Plain from 60 deg. to 70 deg. The July isotherm of 80 deg. crosses the state a little N. of Augusta and Macon, touching the W. boundary at West Point, Troup county. The mean July temperature for the whole state is 81.8 deg.; for the part S. of the 80 deg. isotherm the average temperature for July is between 80 deg. and 85 deg. The average rainfall for the state is 49.3 in.; the maximum is 71.7 in., at Rabun Gap in the extreme N.E. part of the state; the minimum is 39.4 at Swainsboro, Emanuel county, a little S.E. of the centre of the state.

Georgia is also notable for the variety of its soils. In the Cumberland Plateau and Great Valley Regions are a red or brown loam, rich in decomposed limestone and calcareous shales, and sandy or gravelly loams. In the Piedmont Plateau and Appalachian Mountains Regions the surface soil is generally sandy, but in considerable areas the subsoil is a red clay derived largely from the decomposition of hornblende. By far the greatest variety of soils is found in the Coastal Plain Region. Here the Central Cotton Belt, extending from the "fall-line" as far S. as a line bisecting Early county in the W. and passing through Baker, Worth, Dooly, Dodge, Laurens, Johnson, Jefferson and Burke counties, has three distinct kinds of soil; a sand, forming what is known as the sand-hill region; red clay derived from silicious rock in the red hills; and grey, sandy soils with a subsoil of yellow loam. South of the Cotton Belt is the Lime Sink Region, which includes Miller, Baker, Mitchell, Colquitt and Worth counties, the northern portions of Decatur, Grady, Thomas, Brooks and Lowndes, the eastern parts of Dooly and Lee, and the eastern portions of Berrien, Irwin, Wilcox, Dodge, and some parts of Burke, Screven and Bulloch. The soft limestone underlying this region is covered, in the uplands, with grey, sandy soils, which have a subsoil of loam; in the lowlands the surface soils are loams, the subsoils clays. Adjoining this region are the pine barrens, which extend S. to a line passing through the northern portions of Pierce, Wayne, Liberty, Bryan and Effingham counties. Here the prevailing soils are grey and sandy with a subsoil of loam, but they are less fertile than those of the Lime Sink or Cotton Belts. The coast counties of the S.E. and generally those on the Florida frontier are not suitable for cultivation, on account of the numerous marshes and swamps, Okefinokee Swamp being 45 m. long and approximately 30 m. wide; but the southern portions of Decatur, Grady, Thomas and Brooks counties are sufficiently elevated for agriculture, and the islands off the coast are exceedingly productive.

_Minerals._--The mineral resources of Georgia are as varied as its
climate and soils, a total of thirty-nine different mineral products
being found within its borders. The most important is stone: in 1905
the value of the granite quarried in the state was $971,207 (Georgia
ranking fifth in the United States), of the marble $774,550 (Georgia
ranking third in the United States, Vermont and New York being first
and second); in 1908 the granite was valued at $970,832 (Georgia
ranking fifth in the United States), and the marble at $916,281
(Georgia ranking second in the United States, Vermont being first).
Generally more than one-fourth of the granite is used for paving;
curb, building and monument stone are next in importance in the order
named. Stone Mountain (1686 ft.) in De Kalb county near Atlanta is a
remarkable mass of light-coloured muscovite granite, having a
circumference at its base of 7 m. Stone Mountain granite was first
quarried about 1850; it is extensively used as building material in
Georgia and other southern states. A laminated granite, otherwise like
the Stone Mountain granite, is found in De Kalb, Rockdale and Gwinnett
counties, and is used for curbing and building. Biotite granites,
which take a good polish and are used for monuments and for
decoration, are quarried in Oglethorpe and Elbert counties. Georgia
marble was first quarried on a large scale in Pickens county in 1884;
the pure white marble of this county had been worked for tombstones
near Tate, the centre of the marble belt, in 1840; after its
commercial exploitation it was used in the capitol buildings of
Georgia, Rhode Island, Mississippi and Minnesota, in the Corcoran Art
Gallery, Washington, D.C., and in St Luke's Hospital, New York City.
It is sometimes used for the entire building, and sometimes only for
decoration. Other colours than the snowy white are found in the main
marble belt of the state, which runs from Canton, Cherokee county, 60
m. generally N. to the northern boundary of the state. Other deposits,
less well known, are the dark brown and light grey marbles of
Whitfield county, which resemble the stone quarried in eastern
Tennessee. Limestone and slate are quarried at Rock Mart, Polk county,
and there are cement quarries at Cement, near Kingston, Bartow county.
Iron deposits occur in Bartow, Polk and Floyd counties, where are the
more important brown ores, and (red ores) in Walker and Chattooga
counties. The quantity of iron ore mined in Georgia declined from 1890
to 1900; it was 200,842 long tons in 1905 and 321,060 long tons in
1908, when 319,812 tons were brown haematite and 1248 tons were red
haematite. Before the discovery of gold in California the Georgia
"placers" were very profitable, the earliest mining being in 1829 by
placer miners from the fields of Burke county, North Carolina, who
began work in what is now White county, and went thence to Habersham
and Lumpkin counties. Dahlonega and Auraria, the latter named by John
C. Calhoun, who owned a mine there, were the centres of this early
gold mining. Work was summarily stopped by Federal troops enforcing
the governor's proclamation in 1831, because of the disorder in the
mining region; but it was soon renewed and a mint was established at
Dahlonega in 1838. After the discovery of gold in California, mining
in Georgia was not renewed on anything but the smallest scale until
the early 'eighties. In 1908 the gold product was valued at $56,207
(it was $96,910 in 1905) and the silver product at $106. Up to 1909
the gold product of Georgia (see State Geol. Survey _Bulletin 19_) was
about $17,500,000. Extensive clay deposits occur in all parts of the
state, and are remarkable for their comparative freedom from
impurities and for their high fusion point; the most valuable are
sedimentary, and form a belt several miles wide across the middle of
the state from Augusta to Columbus. In 1908 the clay products of the
state were valued at $1,928,611. More asbestos has been found in
Georgia than in any other state of the Union; it occurs in the
amphibole form throughout the N. part of the state, and most of the
country's domestic supply comes from the Sall Mountain mine in White
county. Manganese ores, found in Bartow, Polk and Floyd counties, were
formerly important; in 1896 4096 long tons were mined, in 1905 only
150 tons, and in 1908 none. Bauxite was found in Georgia first of the
United States, near Rome, in 1887; the output, principally from Floyd,
Bartow and Polk counties, was the entire product of the United States
until 1891, and in 1902 was more than half the country's product, but
in 1908, even when combined with the Alabama output, was less than the
amount mined in Arkansas. Coal is not extensively found, but the mine
on Sand Mountain, in Walker county, was one of the first opened S. of
the Ohio river; in 1908 the value of the coal mined in the state was
$364,279 (264,822 short tons), the value of coke at the ovens was
$137,524 (39,422 short tons), and the value of ammonium sulphate, coal
tar, illuminating gas and gas coke was more than $800,000. Copper was
mined in Fannin and Cherokee counties before the Civil War. In 1906
the copper mined was valued at $5057. Corundum was discovered on
Laurel Creek in Rabun county in 1871, and was worked there and at
Trackrock, Union county, especially between 1880 and 1893, but in
later years low prices closed most of the mines. The limestone
formations furnished most of the lime for domestic use. Sandstone,
ochre, slate, soapstone, graphite are also mined, and lead, zinc,
barytes, gypsum and even diamonds have been discovered but not
exploited.

_Agriculture._--The principal occupation in Georgia is agriculture, which in 1900 engaged seven-tenths of the land surface of the state and the labour of three-fifths of the population, ten years old and over, who are employed in profitable occupations. The products are so diversified that, with the exception of some tropical fruits of California and Florida, almost everything cultivated in the United States can be produced. The chief staple is cotton, of which a valuable hybrid called the Floradora, a cross of long and short staple, has been singularly successful. Cotton is raised in all counties of the state except Rabun, Towns and Fannin in the extreme north, and about one-third of the total cultivated land of the state was devoted to it in 1900-1907. In 1899-1904 the crop exceeded that of the other cotton-producing states except Texas, and in 1899, 1900 and 1903 Mississippi, averaging 1,467,121 commercial bales per annum; the crop in 1904 was 1,991,719 bales, and in 1907-1908 the crop was 1,815,834 bales, second only to the crop of Texas. The cause of this extensive cultivation of cotton is not a high average yield per acre, but the fact that before 1860 "Cotton was King," and that the market value of the staple when the Civil War closed was so high that farmers began to cultivate it to the exclusion of the cereals, whose production, Indian corn excepted, showed a decline during each decade from 1879 to 1899. But in the 'nineties the price of the cotton fell below the cost of production, owing to the enormous supply, and this was accompanied by economic depression. These conditions have caused some diversification of crops, and successful experiments in cattle-raising, movements encouraged by the Department of Agriculture and the leading newspapers.

The principal cereals cultivated are Indian corn (product, 53,750,000 bushels in 1908) and wheat; the cultivation of the latter, formerly remunerative, declined on account of the competition of the Western States, but revived after 1899, largely owing to the efforts of the Georgia Wheat Growers' Association (organized in 1897), and in 1908 the yield was 2,208,000 bushels. The sugar-cane crop declined in value after 1890, and each year more of it was made into syrup. In 1908 the tobacco crop was 2,705,625 lb., and the average farm price was 35 cents, being nearly as high as that of the Florida crop; Sumatra leaf for wrappers is grown successfully. The acreage and product of tobacco and peanuts increased from 1890 to 1900 respectively 188% and 319.2%, and 92.6% and 129.9%, and in the production of sweet potatoes Georgia was in 1899 surpassed only by North Carolina. Alfalfa and grasses grow well. Truck farming and the cultivation of orchard and small fruits have long been remunerative occupations; the acreage devoted to peaches doubled between 1890 and 1900. Pecan nuts are an increasingly important crop.

Agriculture in Georgia was in a state of transition at the beginning
of the 20th century. Owing to the abundance of land and to negro
slavery, exploitative methods of cultivation were employed before the
Civil War, and such methods, by which lands after being worked to
exhaustion are deserted for new fields, had not yet been altogether
abandoned. One reason for this was that, according to the census of
1900, 36.9% of the farms were operated by negroes, of whom 86% were
tenants who desired to secure the greatest possible product without
regard to the care of the soil. Consequently there were large tracts
of untilled "waste" land; but these rapidly responded to fertilization
and rotation of crops, often yielding 800 to 1200 lb. of cotton per
acre, and Georgia in 1899 used more fertilizers than any other state
in the Union. Another feature of agriculture in Georgia was the great
increase in the number of farms, the average size of plantations
having declined from 440 acres in 1860 to 117.5 in 1900, or almost
75%, while the area in cultivation increased only 15.6% between 1850
and 1900. The tenantry system was also undergoing a change--the share
system which developed in the years succeeding the Civil War being
replaced by a system of cash rental.

_Manufactures._--Although excelled by Alabama in the manufacture of mineral products, and by North Carolina and South Carolina in the number and output of cotton mills, in 1900 and in 1905 Georgia surpassed each of those states in the total value of factory products, which was, however, less than the value of the factory products of Louisiana and Virginia among the southern states. The chief features of this industrial activity are its early beginning and steady, constant development. As far back as 1850 there were 1522 manufacturing establishments (35 of which were cotton mills) in the state, whose total product was valued at $7,082,075. Despite the Civil War, there was some advance during each succeeding decade, the most prosperous relatively being that from 1880 to 1890. In 1900 the number of establishments was 7504, an increase of 75.1% over the number in 1890; the capital invested was $89,789,656, an increase of 57.7%, and the value of products ($106,654,527) was 54.8% more than in 1890. Of the 7504 establishments in 1900, 3015 were conducted under the "factory system," and had a capital of $79,303,316 and products valued at $94,532,368. In 1905 there were 3219 factories, with a capital of $135,211,551 (an increase of 70.5% over 1900), and a gross product valued at $151,040,455 (59.8% greater than the value of the factory product in 1900).

The most important manufacturing industries are those that depend upon
cotton for raw material, with a gross product in 1900 valued at
$26,521,757. In that year[2] there were 67 mills engaged in the
manufacture of cotton goods, with a capital of $24,158,159, and they
yielded a gross product valued at $18,457,645; the increase between
1900 and 1905 was actually much larger (and proportionately very much
larger) than between 1890 and 1900; the number of factories in 1905
was 103 (an increase of 53.7% over 1900); their capital was
$42,349,618 (75.3% more than in 1900); and their gross product was
valued at $35,174,248 (an increase of 90.6% since 1900). The rank of
Georgia among the cotton manufacturing states was seventh in 1900 and
fourth in 1905. Cotton-seed oil and cake factories increased in number
from 17 to 43 from 1890 to 1900, and to 112 in 1905, and the value of
their product increased from $1,670,196 to $8,064,112, or 382.8% in
1890-1900, and to $13,539,899 in 1905, or an increase of 67.9% over
1900, and in 1900 and in 1905 the state ranked second (to Texas) in
this industry in the United States. This growth in cotton manufactures
is due to various causes, among them being the proximity of raw
material, convenient water-power, municipal exemption from taxation
and the cheapness of labour. The relation between employer and
employee is in the main far more personal and kindly than in the mills
of the Northern States.

The forests of Georgia, next to the fields, furnish the largest amount
of raw material for manufactures. The yellow pines of the southern
part of the state, which have a stand of approximately 13,778,000 ft.,
yielded in 1900 rosin and turpentine valued at $8,110,468 (more than
the product of any other state in the Union) and in 1905 valued at
$7,705,643 (second only to the product of Florida). From the same
source was derived most of the lumber product valued[3] in 1900 at
$13,341,160 (more than double what it was in 1890) and in 1905 at
$16,716,594. The other important woods are cypress, oak and poplar.

Fourth in value in 1905 (first, cotton goods; second, lumber and
timber; third, cotton-seed oil and cake) were fertilizers, the value
of which increased from $3,367,353 in 1900 to $9,461,415 in 1905, when
the state ranked first of the United States in this industry; in 1900
it had ranked sixth.

_Communications._--Means of transportation for these products are
furnished by the rivers, which are generally navigable as far north as
the "fall line" passing through Augusta, Milledgeville, Macon and
Columbus; by ocean steamship lines which have piers at St Mary's,
Brunswick, Darien and Savannah; and by railways whose mileage in
January 1909 was 6,871.8 m. The most important of the railways are the
Central of Georgia, the Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line, the
Seaboard Air Line, the Georgia and the Georgia Southern & Florida. In
1878 a state railway commission was established which has mandatory
power for the settlement of all traffic problems and makes annual
reports.